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Deforestation of the Tropical Rain-forest and Its Impact on Climate Change Ogboi, Kingsley C . Department of Urban and Regional Planning University of Nigeria Enugu Campus Email: [email protected] ARTICLE INFORMATION Article history Received 11 February 2010 Revised 2 May 2010 Accepted 30 June 2010 Available online 28 January 2011 ___________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract Forests and their resources are among the most valuable natural resources and assets of the world, with high economic, social and environmental importance. They protect the soil and its fertility from environmental forces; form habitats for millions of people, animals and plant species; and provide large proportion of the global supply of timber, fuel and food. Forests regulate global climate and act as the major agents of carbon exchange in the atmosphere. The destruction of this natural environment and its associated threat to human lives are becoming serious global issues. In the tropical rainforest region, natural forests have reduced drastically and the impacts on climate change are increasing. Strategies for minimizing deforestation, building adaptability capacity and managing climate change in this region must be developed urgently. This paper examined the causes of deforestation and its impacts on climate change as well as recommended measures for minimizing this phenomenon.

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Introduction Climate change is one of the greatest threats facing the planet today. The temperature of the earth is rising so rapidly in recent time such that there is general fear that with the present trend the situation would be very difficult to cope with in the near future if urgent measures are not taken. From 1850, the first time there was consistent measurement of temperature, it has risen by 0.76%. Fourteen of the warmest years across the globe since 1850 were recorded between 1995 and 2000. The impacts of the rising temperature in these years include the melting ice in the Artic region and the Alps, unusual rain and snowfall patterns, drought and heat waves, and high intensity of tropical cyclones (European Commission, 2007). It has also had multiplier impacts on several sectors of human life including the natural ecology, agriculture and food security, human health, water resources, industrial production and urbanization. Due to these undesirable consequences climate change has become the most serious environmental challenge to the world. This situation has drawn a widespread global concern for urgent attention. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC (2001) warned that if action is not taken now global temperature may rise by as high as 1.8 – 40 C or further to 6.40C. But efforts must be made to prevent it from getting to the tipping point of 20C. The complex nature of the phenomenon requires that it has to be properly understood, most especially for adaptability and management. The developing countries within the rainforest region appear to be the most vulnerable due to the high rate of deforestation in the region. Forests in this region are destroyed through such human activities as farming, expansion of urban settlements, and exploitation of forest resources for timber and other industrial raw materials. In the rainforest region deforestation has risen to an alarming rate that urgent policy instruments are needed to salvage the forests and reduce its environmental impacts. The government of countries in the region have been factoring into their policies and programme measures for minimizing deforestation. But these efforts by governments and their agencies to protect the forests seem not to make significant impacts. This paper therefore, presents a critical analysis of the impacts of deforestation on climate change in the tropical rainforest region and suggests ways to minimise such impacts and build a sustainable framework for the protection and management of the forests The Global Forest Resources Forests and their resources are among the most valuable natural resources and assets of the world, with high economic, social and environmental importance. They protect the soil and its fertility from environmental forces; constitute habitats for millions of animals and plant species; and provide large proportion of the global supply of timber, fuel and food (Salau, 1992). The moist lowland forest is the richest habitat of variety of life in the world. It has the largest biodiversity measured at more than ten times as many biological species per hectares as in the temperate forest (Moran, 1993). Moreover, the fastest growth of global human population is occurring in the tropical rainforest region. Over 3 billion of the global population of 6 billion people live in the region and depend on the forests as source of food, household facilities and industrial raw materials (Okonji, 2003). Most importantly the forests regulate the global climate and act as the major agents in carbon exchange in the atmosphere. Deforestation in the Tropical Region: To What Extent? All over the world, natural forest vegetation has been subjected to high rate of degradation in the last few decades. The area coverage has reduced drastically and the forests have lost their most valuable biodiversities. Trees are felled, animal communities are destroyed and the forests are converted to cultivated land and other land uses. Around 1850, the global forest was estimated to be 6 billion acres of land. By 1950 it has reduced to about 2.5 billion acres (Balee, 1987). Between these periods the rate of reduction was estimated as fluctuating from 15 to 20 million acres annually. Rowe, Sharma and Browder (1992) estimated that about 29

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15 percent of the earth’s forest and woodland had disappeared between 1850 and 1980 due to human economic and physical development activities. Today, the remaining rainforest is estimated at less than 1.5 billion acres. The current rate of depletion is estimated at 40 – 50 million acres per year, which is almost three times the rate in some decades ago. The estimate shows that at this increasing rate of depletion, the forests will disappear within the next few decades. Presently the humid tropical region where the last big forests are located has the highest rate of deforestation (Peckering and Owen, 1994). Some decades ago the rainforest covered about 14 percent of the land surface where as today the forests cover only 7 percent. The studies by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and World Resource Institute estimated that about 7.3 million hectares of the world forests were cleared annually between 1976 and 1980 while the tropical moist forests were cleared on an average rate of 6.1 million hectares per year (WRI/IID/UNEP, 1988). According to the studies an estimate of less than 1 billion hectares of primary forests remain in the region at present. In Africa, some 3.68 million hectares of tropical forests and woodland were destroyed annually between 1976 and 1980. From 1981 to 1987, some 1.33 million hectares of the forest were cleared annually with approximately 1.2 million hectares being tropical moist forests and 2.34 million hectares being woodlands in the drier tropical regions (WRI/IID/UNEP, 1988). These evidences showed that apparently within the last three decades Africa has lost the greatest proportion of its original tropical moist forests, at the rate of about 52 percent. During the same period Asia lost 42 percent of its forest area and Latin America lost 37 percent (Lean, Hinrichsen and Markham, 1990). In Nigeria, natural forest occupied a total land area of 349,278 km or approximately 35 percent of the country’s total land mass of 997,936 km (Nweze, 2002). But about 60 percent of the country’s forests disappeared between 1850 and 1960 (Marakinyo, 1991). In the country, forest area has decreased from 14.9 million hectares in 1980 to 10.1 million hectares in 1990 and to 9.5 million hectares in 1996 (Federal Department of Forestry, 1997). On the average it decreased at the rate of 0.4 million ha per year but the rate of reforestation was put at 0.032 per year (Nweze, 2002). Table 1 shows the status of forest cover in Nigeria from 1976 to 1995. Presently forest reserves in the country cover less than 8.7048 km constituting 8.7 percent of the land area. In Cross River State alone 20 percent of the forest was lost between 1972 and 1992 (Bunn and Out, 1994). Table 1: Status of Forest Cover in Nigeria between 1976 and 1995 Vegetation Undisturbed forests Disturbed forests Riparian Montane

1976/78 km 29951 14573 7402 6762 54688 Source: FORMECL (1997)

% 29 1.6 0.8 0.7 6

1993/95 km 12114 18990 5254 6759 43117

% 13 21 0.6 0.7 4.7

Area of change -13837 +4417 -2146 -3 -11571

% change -1.6 +0.5 -0.2 -0.3

The Alternative-Use Argument Deforestation is a process whereby a forest land is changed to another use or its cover is removed thus altering the original ecological system of the area (Crump, 1991). Two divergent arguments have been raised on the economic costs and benefits of forest conservation relative to the alternative uses for forest land. On one hand, it is argued that there are more benefits that could arise from a piece of land when it is cleared of its forest cover and used for such purposes as agricultural, residential or industrial use. This line of argument considers the huge financial benefits that are derived from forest resources such as timber and raw materials that promote industrial development and foreign exchange earnings for countries. Moreover, when the forest resources have been gainfully used the land could be converted to other uses with high economic values. To the proponents of this argument reserving a forest is a waste of 30

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valuable land resources that could serve humanity for more beneficial purposes. Therefore, when access of people to such land is restricted, they are denied the right to their naturally endowed resources and means of improving their quality of life. This argument subscribes to the conversion of forest reserves in many parts of the world to uses with higher economic value. In this line of reasoning the benefits from such land uses outweigh the loss of biodiversity. Other scholars argue-against this economic way of thinking. Delvin and Grafton (1999) remark that this ‘alternative use’ argument ignores the wider dimension of nature and thus it is narrow in perspective as it does not consider comprehensively the environmental costs of exploitation of forest resources. They argue that the increasing rate of environmental problems such as global biodiversity loss, ecological systems imbalances, and depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and related greenhouse effect are related to deforestation. Dore and Guevara (2000) projected the extent forest conservation would have prevented the occurrences of these environmental problems whose management costs are not only increasing but becoming unbearable. They examine these issues also in terms of the non-market values of forests and their impacts on environmental sustainability. Case studies drawn from some European forest reserves and management programmes provide practical tests of the ways adequate values can be placed on forestry. According to Perings (2000) sustainomics, a multi-disciplinary instrument is the new paradigm for a reappraisal of the value of forests and proper accounting of their global environmental implications. Causes of Deforestation Deforestation in the tropical rainforest region is attributed to a number of factors. Bisong (1999) identified about thirty three factors responsible for deforestation in the tropical rainforest, including income generation, population growth, cultivation, demand for forest products, and wood collection for domestic fuel, logging and grazing. In the tropical region agriculture is identified as a major activity that causes deforestation. Presently, 14 - 16 million hectares of tropical forests are converted to agricultural use through farming. Estimate of deforestation caused by agriculture was put at 5.9 hectares in the 1970s, of which 4.5 hectare was converted to permanently cleared land (Myers, 1989). In the recent estimate subsistence farming in the developing countries account for over 60 percent of the clearing of the tropical forest annually. In West Africa and Semi-Arid Africa, shifting cultivation accounts for about 70 percent of the woodland converted in the regions (FAO, 1982). Farmers shift from locations to locations in search of fertile land, encroaching increasingly into virgin forests. As population increases more natural forests are destroyed. The rise in encroachment into the forests is also attributed to expansion in commercial farming of cash crops promoted by irrigation. For instance, in Nigeria the Green Revolution Programme in 1980s promoted commercial farming of cash crops such as cocoa, ground nut, coffee and oil palm. The total hectares of arable land in Africa are estimated at 220 million hectares. An estimated 117 million hectares of this land are cultivated, leaving only 48 percent in fallow (FAO, 1990). Surprisingly, while cultivated land is increasing, land productivity in the region is declining considerably due to decline in soil fertility. from 1981 to 1995, cultivated land grew by 17 percent but the per capital food production declined by 21%. The land use practices of small scale farmers affect the rate of deforestation and soil infertility (Caviglia, 1999). Despite the mass campaign on sustainable agriculture, most small scale farmers insist on their traditional methods and keep encroaching into the forests. Grazing is also a serious source of deforestation and desertification in the tropical region. Logging of tree branches by herdsmen to provide fodder reduces total biomass and energy production by tree through photosynthesis. Destruction of forests, bringing into existence exotic species that did not evolve with the natural environment, worsens the condition of tropical rainforests vegetation (Miller et al 1990). These species distort the growth of vegetation and accelerate the destruction of plants (Gillet, 1979). In Nigeria, through grazing grass species from Savannah region have invaded the rainforests. The increasing price of logs in the world market has led to intensification of logging of hardwoods in the tropical forests. Timber export from Tropical Africa was estimated at US $700m per year in 1994 31

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(Cleaver and Shreider, 1995). As the prices of tropical hardwoods increases, loggers cut down trees indiscriminately for illegal timber export and trafficking. Spurred by the huge income and foreign exchange earnings some nations encourage logging as against the Global Treaty on Forest and Biodiversity Protection. The world consumption of tropical hardwood is presently above 250 million cubic metres or 100 billion board feet per year (Balee 1993). As primary forests in Africa and Asia have been tremendously depleted, consuming countries turned to the Amazon Basin (Balee 1987, 1989). Other activities such as mining, sugar cane production, ranching and charcoal collection are carried out in the basin without government monitoring and control. The rate of extraction of wood fuel from forests is very high in the rainforest region (Bisong, 1999). Despite global campaign against wood fuel stopping it has been difficult. In some localities there are cultural attachments to the use of firewood. Moreover, due to high level of poverty most people cannot afford alternative fuels. Increase in the population of the poor means an increase in the demand for wood fuel. Most forests in the tropical region suffer from indiscriminate fire outbreak incidences. In Nigeria incidents bushes and forests are set on fire during the dry season through slash and burn farming and cigarette disposal. In July 1995, NASA Surveys on Brazil recorded 39889 fire incidences in that month. Similar situations existed in the neighbouring Bolivia. There are increasing cases of fire incidence threatening the remaining forests in these countries. Rapid urbanization contributes significantly to deforestation in the tropical region. Through construction of houses, public infrastructures, roads and industrial complexes in urban suburbs and rural areas, forests are destroyed (Akande, 1992). Expansion of urban centres into the surrounding vegetative areas leads to clearing of forests. For example in Nigeria, the state housing project in Enugu led to the destruction of some hectares of forest reserves including the City Zoological Garden. Similarly, the Delta State Housing Project destroyed over 120 hectares of forest area in Jeddo Town near Warri. Sometimes government policies fashioned directly to promote economic growth aggravate deforestation. In 1980s, Structural Adjustment Programme contributed highly to the depletion of forests in Sub-Saharan Africa by intensifying dependence on forest resources. It encouraged unsustainable exploitation and use of forest resources for fuel. In Nigeria, petroleum pricing policy through erratic increases in the price of petroleum products forced people to depend on wood and charcoal as domestic fuel (Jagannathan and Agunbiade, 1990). In some countries heavy taxes are placed on hardwood export, not actually to discourage lumbering, but to promote industrialization and increase revenue through export of finished products rather than raw materials (Rapetto and Grillis, 1988). But some local industries are highly inefficient and use as high as double, the number of log of the industrial standards to achieve a given output of product. Such waste increases the rate of deforestation. Moreover, lack of deliberate government policies to protect forest resources could be a problem. In some countries deforestation was indirectly allowed for years through non-existence of official policy for forest protection. The Consequences of Deforestation on Climate Change The destruction of forests creates a number of environmental problems in the tropical region. When a forest is destroyed, the vegetative cover of the soil is removed and the soil is exposed to environmental forces of wind and surface runoff; the topsoil will experience erosion and reduction of fertility and become less productive (Okonji 2001). Moreover, deforestation leads to accumulation of global carbon, emitted from burning of fossil fuels, in the atmosphere. The main consequences of this are global warming and climate change. Climate change can be defined as a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, that persists for an extended period of time typically for decades or longer (IPCC, 2003). The United Nations defined it as a change of climate attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time period (Article 1 UNFCCC, 1993). The change occurs 32

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in form of fluctuation of weather over time. Changes in climate for a short term period of some days to few years could be regarded as climate variability while the long term fluctuations characterised by gradual change in average is called climate change. It is observed as statistical variability of certain geographical variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. The intensification of carbon content in the air alters the carbon dioxide and oxygen balance in the atmosphere in favour of carbon dioxide thereby leading to a rise in global warming and sea level. Forests as giant air conditioners regulate the climatic condition of the earth by absorbing carbon contained in the atmosphere and converting it for plant photosynthesis. When carbon from industries and other facilities and activities that would have been absorbed by forest is stored in the atmosphere, on the long run it accelerates the depletion of the ozone layer leading to a rise in global temperature. This is called greenhouse effect. Due to deforestation the global release of carbon into the atmosphere has presently amounted to over 122 billion metric tons at the rate of about 1.6 billion metric tons per year (Mckane, et al 1995). The Process of Green-House Effect In recent years the effects of deforestation on climate change are glaring. The burning of fossil fuel such as oil, gas and coal for energy and power is the main source of green house gases. When fuel is burnt green house gases including carbon dioxide escape into the atmosphere and the forests absorb the gases. Over the years forests have acted as carbon sink for the atmosphere. But when the forests are destroyed, not only are they not in existence to absorb the gases, they give up their carbon thereby increasing the content in the atmosphere. The atmosphere contains a number of gases including carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide as well as man-made chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that promote radiation from the sun in shortwave length, but absorb the re-radiated radiation at lower temperature and longer wavelength. This natural process of accumulation of the green house gases (GHGs) in the greenhouse and the warming effect is the greenhouse effect. The atmosphere also contains aerosol, a type of gas that cools the atmospheric temperature including that arising from the green house effect. But presently the rate of the cooling from aerosol relative to the greenhouse gases on the atmospheric temperature is low and decreasing. This variation accounts for the rising level of global warming. It is projected that the mean annual global surface temperature will increase by 1–3.5C by the year 2100 (IPCC, 1996). The consequences of climate change include formation of cyclonic storms, changing pattern of precipitation and higher intensity of rainfall, prolonged droughts and associated desertification, hurricanes, landslides and wild fires. It is estimated that by the years 2100 the mean sea level will rise by 15 – 95 cm due to melting of ice (IPCC, 1996). Rise in sea levels places low lying areas at very high risk of being submerged by the sea. If measures are not taken urgently coastal areas and islands across the globe are liable to disappear into the sea. In the last few years due to deforestation some parts of Africa have experienced gradual change from thick forest vegetation to derived Savannah and finally to a vegetation characterised by features of desertification. Countries like Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia are facing threat of intensive desertification. Currently, the world deserts are growing at the rate of 27000 sq miles per year and more lands are prone to desert encroachment. In some areas there are incidences of intensive droughts separated by intensive period of wet years. This alteration in seasons is caused by loss of forests that regulate the seasons. Reduction in vegetative cover exposes soil to micro-climatic changes which make it more vulnerable to wind. In the process perennial plant species are reduced in density, with deflation no longer compensated for by sand deposition, and with wind erosion accelerating thereby leaving land surface covered with pebbles and fine sand. World Bank report shows a drastic decline in biological and economic productivity of vegetation and increase in temperature in Ethiopia due to loss of tree covers (Brown and Hal, 1994). Deforestation leads to disruption of the ecosystem, thereby introducing new bio-diversities that emit disease pathogens and ecological malfunctions (Perings, Willamson and Dalmazzone, 2000). This 33

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situation has become a source of serious health problem in the tropics. Across the globe there will be some local variations in the rate and pattern of changes including variation in the nature of the impacts. The IPCC studies showed that impacts on human and ecological systems that are essential to sustainable development will be high and in some areas the changes or impacts may be irreversible. Climate change is not only a problem on its own but also a stress to the environmental systems in terms of their ability to produce goods and services on a sustainable basis, for social and economic development. The economic implication of all these problems is that many countries will spend large parts of their resources to manage the problems and consequences associated with climate change. It will increase not only cost of survival in some countries but also cost of adaptability to the change particularly in the developing countries with high population growth rate, low technological advancement and high ecological degradation. As human activities are increasing, the concentration of the greenhouse gases that alter radiation balance and warm the atmosphere, the solution to climate change lies in adopting measures to reduce the rate of emission of the GHGs especially carbon dioxide. The GHGs emission can be minimized through addressing the problem of deforestation. Sustainable Remedies for Deforestation Countries in the tropical region should develop programmes for sustainable forest conservation and management. The plan should be designed in ways of involving the local communities who depend on forest for essential domestic and industrial resources. Their participation in forest conservation and reforestation programmes will help them to appreciate the need for the programme and minimising their activities on the forests (Bailey, 1996). This requires also reconciling the social and economic realities of these communities and how they affect the forests (Tisdell, 1999). The use of firewood as domestic fuel needs to be re-examined with strategic solutions in favour of the people. The slash-and-burn method and other practices in agriculture need to be reviewed also. The new paradigm should involve detailed understanding of the culture of the people in respect of their agricultural practices and integrate it into the forestry plan. The people should be actively involved in decision making, planning, implementation and management of the forests. Local communities will benefit more directly from forest resources and be more responsive when they are allowed more responsibilities on forest management. In River State, a community based organisation, called Ekuri Initiatives, is actively involved in forest management in the state. Their activities in such initiatives should be disseminated for awareness creation. Meanwhile, some countries, FAO, UNEP and World Bank are promoting innovations on forest practices designed to support forest friendly industries. In compliance with the global conventions on forest and biodiversity, countries should adopt policies and legislation to ban, restrict or control logging in forests. For example, Thailand banned logging in 1988 and Costa Rica has put some policy and technical frameworks for the protection of about 26 percent of its land area as forest reserves and national parks with support from the United Nations and IUCN (Budley 1993). These bodies should also pressurize countries still exporting or importing logs to stop and conserve the forests. As part of the National Plan on Forests, the government should embark on afforestation programmes to regain forests that were lost in the past. They should create forest reserves and encourage local communities to plant trees and maintain forests in their areas. In the Philippines the government adopted a policy of contract reforestation in 1988 in lieu of issuance of licences to cut down timber. Massive contract reforestation project was undertaken between 1989 and 1993, and it showed a significant improvement in survival rate (76 percent) in contrast to the 26 percent rate of government reforestation efforts. With this success, the government of Philippines in 1995 shifted further from the contract reforestation and government-managed forestry to complete community-led forest management. About 4.9 million hectares of forest lands have been under community management since 1998 compared to only 32 000 ha in 1982. This community-oriented forestry initiative allowed for longer tenure and 34

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provided an incentive towards conservation and sustainable management of the remaining forests. By 2004, government did not only increase forest lands under community management but recognized and issued certificates on ancestral domain claim areas. Therefore, tree planting programmes should be introduced with environmental NGOs involved to collaborate with local communities. The philosophy of tree planting should permeate all levels of society. Moreover, indiscriminate burning of forests and bushes should be controlled. Awareness campaign should be conducted to educate local communities on fire prevention and control by the fire service department. Legislation against forest burning should be promulgated in line with the Global Convention on Biodiversity. Government should encourage community and small-scale private forests. Forestry department should establish seedling nurseries to supply seedlings to individuals and communities. The department should be well funded and communities that develop forests should be compensated for allowing their land to remain for that use. Sensitive tax policy on forest use and timber industry should be strictly enforced. Conclusion Forests regulate global climate and act as major agents of carbon exchange in the atmosphere. The destruction of forests and its associated climate change is the greatest threat facing the planet today. In the tropical rainforest region where forests have reduced drastically strategies for minimizing deforestation, building adaptability capacity and managing climate change must be developed urgently. The complex nature of the phenomenon requires that it has to be properly understood, most especially for adaptability and management. The government of countries in the region have been factoring into their policies and programmes measures for minimizing deforestation. But these efforts by governments and their agencies to protect the forests seem not to make significant impacts. With the measures prescribed above, the rate of deforestation can be reduced and the rate of global warming and climate change will minimize References Akande J A (1992) “Environmental Problems Related to Forest Deforestation in Nigeria” Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria, Kano Bailey R C (1996) “Promoting Biodiversity and Empowering Local People in Central African Forests” in Sponsel L E, Headland T N and Bailey R C (eds) Tropical Deforestation New York Colombia University Press pp316-341. Balee W (1987) “Cultural Forest of the Amazon” Garden 11 (6) pp12-14 Balee W (1989) “The Culture of the Amazonian Forests” in Posey D A and Balee W (eds) Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Fulk Strategies’ Advances in Economic Botany, NewYork: New York Botanical Garden pp1-21 Balee W (1993) “Indigenous Transformation of Amazonian Forests: An Example from Maranhas “ Brazil L’Hommes 33 pp213-254. Bisong F E (1999) “Deforestation and Erosion of Biodiversity in Cross River State” Global Rain Forest vol 2 pp 19 -27 Brown L R and Hal K (1994) Full House: Reassessing the Earth’s Population Carrying Capacity, London Earthscan Publication Budley N (1993) Importing Deforestation: Should Britain Ban the Import of Hardwood, London Earthscan Publication Bunn R and Out D (1994) “Reconnaissance Inventory of High Forest and Swamp Forest Areas in Cross River State, Nigeria” Working paper for CRSEP(ODA Assisted)

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