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Creating a Fascinating World

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Associate Professorships - Sustainable Transport and Tourism - Visitor Management - Imagineering

Prologue NHTV Breda University of Professional Education trains students for management positions in the fields of tourism, leisure, hospitality and mobility. The institute aims to establish a clear identity as a centre of expertise and excellence in these disciplines. This is manifested in the ambition to fulfil an innovative and inspiring role in topical themes in the field of knowledge development. “Universities as knowledge portals” is a new and familiar concept at the same time. NHTV has long fostered an intricate network of professional partner relations, both on the national and the international level. The Associate Professorships, specifically aimed at knowledge development, constitute new elements in the institute’s relations with the professional field. NHTV has opted for Associate Professorships based on innovative themes, enabling a broad-based integration of knowledge within the institute: n Sustainable Transport and Tourism n Visitor Management n Imagineering

Content

The Associate Professorships consist of an Associate Professor and a multi-disciplinary team of professionals in which both internal and external experts are seated. By means of applied research, intensive cooperation with professor Nico Visser of the Chair for Sustainable Tourism Development and the professional field, the Associate Professorships will develop their themes into innovative knowledge domains, which appeal to both the domestic and international community.

Prologue

Their contribution is an impulse to expand NHTV’s guiding function.

Associate Professors

In this publication you will find the full texts of the official presentations, held on 16 April 2003 by the three Associate Professors:

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The Tourist, the Trip and the Earth

Paul Peeters

Paul Peeters

Frans Schouten Diane Nijs

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About the Quality of Life, and Nothing Less Frans Schouten Board of Directors

15

Imagineering: Engineering for Imagination in the Emotion Economy

Hans Uijterwijk, chairman

Diane Nijs

Jannie Keizer, member

©NHTV 2003

Paul Peeters | Sustainable Transport and Tourism

Paul Peeters Associate Professor Sustainable Transport and Tourism Although, in terms of policy framework and

His research experience, substantial bibliography

sector involvement, the term “sustainable

and the ensuing recognition within his discipline

tourism” is beginning to take shape slowly but

make up the foundation of his appointment.

surely, transport is a factor which hardly plays a role. Led by Paul Peeters, the Associate

“By means of modern technologies we would

Professorship will be aiming at both outbound

probably be able to produce the functions, now

and incoming and domestic tourism, constantly

delivered free by the world ecological system,

bearing in mind the importance and the effects

ourselves. To ‘market’ them, so to speak.

of transport. The position of Third World

Whether this possibility is open to the six billion

countries in sustainable tourism and sustainable

people plus all the plants and animals inhabiting

mobility is also an object of attention.

this planet, is actually not a question. It is impossible.”

Paul Peeters has years of experience as a researcher in the field of environmental aspects

Associate Professors

of traffic and transport. In addition, he has a

Presentation of the NHTV Associate Professorship Sustainable Transport and Tourism

broad knowledge of the aviation sector. Paul Peeters

Frans Schouten Associate Professor Visitor Management

t r av e l l i n g : a b r i e f h i s t o r y

During the ensuing Industrial Revolution

Although humans have populated the earth

still more people migrated to the cities.

The long queues of people for the roller coaster,

Being a consultant and trainer, Frans Schouten is

for six or seven million years, recreationally

The population explosion and the increase of

the traffic jam on the road to the beach and the

frequently involved in international projects. He

motivated travelling probably started just five

industrial activities put an ever greater pressure

visitor flows at a railway station. Under the

is also a regular key-note speaker at international

thousand years ago, following the invention of

on these cities in terms of pollution. And so

direction of Frans Schouten, the Associate

conferences about Visitor Management and

the wheel. The Greeks were most likely the first

a need for “getting away” materialised.

Professorship Visitor Management explores

cultural tourism. Frans Schouten’s appointment

to travel for pleasure purposes. Thus considered,

The emergence of power-driven modes of travel

the knowledge domain of visitor flows.

is based on this international recognition and the

tourism is a Greek invention. One of the

(trains, steam engineering) facilitated more

It concerns the monitoring, generating, leading

resulting range of publications.

conditions for tourism is the availability of

comfortable, affordable and faster travelling

sufficient time and money, a privilege enjoyed

and paved the way for a tourism revolution.

natural and the cultural environment, in

“Mason verbalises this in an expressive way,

by a part of the Greek population. The Romans

In the second half of the twentieth century

buildings, theme parks and at events.

he states that tourism is to: ’mystify the mundane,

also had a large middle class which was looking

the forty hour working week, holiday pays,

The Associate Professorship is not only

amplify the exotic, minimise the misery, rationalise

for sights, recreation and entertainment and,

and low-cost mass transportation like cars and

committed to generating new fields of

the disquietude and romanticise the strange’

additionally, pursued these ideals far away from

aircraft were the major contributory factors to

knowledge, but first and foremost to the

(Mason, 1994).”

and controlling of visitor flows, both in the

home.

the development of mass tourism. In the 1970s

application of existing knowledge within

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, tourism

this ‘shrinking world’ was an experience shared

new markets.

almost disappeared. During the Middle Ages the

by an increasing proportion of the population.

church discouraged tourism: man was supposed

The first report issued by the Club of Rome in

to devote his life to religion and not to worldly

1972 had a large impact on the awareness of

pleasures. The only opportunities for travelling

many people. Apparently there was a limit to

at that time were pilgrimages and crusades.

economic growth. However, recently acquired

However, due to the declining ecclesiastical

holidays abroad did not become not part of the

influence and the increasing importance of

debate. The influence of terrorist attacks, oil

cities during the Renaissance, travelling made

crises and economic recessions turned out to

a comeback.

be of a momentary nature. The drive to travel

Diane Nijs Associate Professor Imagineering “Value creation” in society evolves from

and speaker for many years within the broad

undifferentiated-material (agriculture, industry)

international field of theme parks, media and

to differentiated-immaterial and emotional

advertising agencies. Her extensive topical

In the seventeenth century this development

continues in an ever higher pace to this day.

(information, services, experience). Under

knowledge of and publications on this new

culminated in the epoch of the ’Grand Tour’.

It is only during the past decade that doubts

the supervision of Diane Nijs the Associate

discipline forms the cornerstone of her

Young aristocrats began their careers with a

arose about the rapid development of tourism.

Professorship Imagineering places the emotion

appointment.

European journey of several months, sometimes

’Sustainable tourism’ made its entrance on

even years. Popular destinations were, to the

national and international agendas.

economy in international perspective. It focuses

©NHTV 2003

The Tourist, the Trip and the Earth 1

appears strong and it’s the growth of mobility

on the specific set of business instruments of

“In the analogue era we invented machines, in

the “emotional enterprise”: imagineering.

the digital era we rediscover humanity. This calls

From the report of divers curious and

how often can one use the earth?

As manager of aTTract, a Belgian imagineering

for a different orientation of companies and

experienced persons I had been assured

Are there reasons to worry? Similar to all living

agency, Diane Nijs has acted as a consultant

organisations.”

that there was little more to be seen in the

creatures, people affect their environment.

rest of the civil world after Italy, France and

This is not a problem in itself, were it not for

the Low Countries, but plain and prodigious

the nature and extent of this influence that is

barbarism. (From Evelyn’s diary, written in

beginning to outpace that of all other (animal)

1645, cited on page 3 in “Touring in 1600" .)1

species. Vitousek et al., listed the effects in

English aristocracy at least, the Low Countries:

©NHTV 2003

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©NHTV 2003

Oklahoma, Kansas and Texas are largely

The distribution of rich and poor exhibits a

transport, the mother of tourism

Between one-third and one-half of the land

exhausted. The result is a decline of the local

clear correlation with the size of the ecological

Tourism and transport seem to develop more or

surface has been transformed by human

food production4. Specifically popular holiday

footprint: the richer, the bigger. It seems that

less linked together. But which came first?

action; the carbon dioxide concentration in

countries in Europe are also contending with

the western lifestyle can only be maintained

Did the transport sector just follow the demand

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the atmosphere has increased by nearly 30

the increasing shortage of clean water .

as long as billions of humans remain poor.

or did new transport technologies boost the

percent since the beginning of the Industrial

The invasion of tourists in the dry summer

Just suppose all the Chinese and Indians (more

demand for travelling and tourism?

Revolution; more atmospheric nitrogen

season magnifies this problem considerably.

than two billion people taken together) will use

An answer to this question is vital to understand

is fixed by humanity than by all natural

The biodiversity is under indirect pressure as

the same volume of oil as we do within a few

the complex of tourism and transport and

terrestrial sources combined; more than half

a result of the above, but is also threatened

years. There is no way for the oil industry to

eventually invent measures to direct it towards

of all accessible surface fresh water is put

directly by our travelling obsession.

comply with this demand physically. Similar

a sustainable development.

to use by humanity; and about one-quarter

Exotic countries have growing markets for

practical problems apply to the use of fresh

I believe the development of transport

of the bird species on Earth have been driven

souvenirs made of plants or animals threatened

water or to meat consumption. The fact is that

technology is one of the pillars of present-day

to extinction.2

with extinction. Additionally, living plants and

there is only one earth and it seems expanding

mass tourism. Without this technological

animals - voluntarily or otherwise - accompany

the ecological footprint of the poorest people

development, mass tourism is impossible.

To the above list we may add that humanity

the tourists back home in cars, ships and

of the world will only be possible if the rich

Transport technologies hardly ever seem to

consumes over half of all the biomass produced

airplanes. The number of examples of the

strongly reduce their footprint.

have been designed specifically for the purpose

by the world ecosystem annually. Millions of

displacement of indigenous species by exotics

The ecological footprint is a practicable

of developing tourism. The stage-coach was

other animal species have to share the

are numerous. We have come to the point where

instrument to visualise the sustainability of

developed for the transportation of mail.

remainder3. Moreover, the great ecological

about twenty percent of all the species on the

tourism and tourism products. As an example,

The idea that people could also use it to make

balances, for the basis of our current lifestyle,

continents are not indigenous; on the islands this

WWF-UK published the footprints of two

a Grand Tour developed later. The railway from

2

are under pressure. Humanity uses a substantial

percentage has increased to more than fifty .

average fourteen-day holidays including air

Amsterdam via Haarlem, Leiden and The Hague

and growing part of the cycles of carbon dioxide,

The problem with sustainability is that it involves

travel and hotel accommodation, one from

to Rotterdam launched by H.IJ.S.M. (Hollandse

water, nitrogen and biomass.

so many different kinds of effects. This makes

Great Britain to Majorca and one to Cyprus8.

IJzeren Spoorweg Maatschappij; Dutch Iron

Ecology is one of the most important assets

it difficult to determine which activity is

In both packages, the air journey accounts

Railway Company) was intended for trading, in

for tourism. Whether we talk about nature for

sustainable and which is not. For this purpose,

for approximately one half of the footprint.

other words, for the transportation of goods.

ecotourists, or sufficiently clean water for beach

there is a need for one single sustainability

The remainder consists of direct use of space,

But to everyone’s surprise H.IJ.S.M. tapped a

tourists and sun-worshippers on the subtropical

indicator. In most studies or for example

energy, waste matter, water and use of

market for the transportation of passengers with

coasts, they are products of the world

environmental annual reports, a wide range of

infrastructure at the destination. The total

an enormous ’hidden demand’ and in a few years’

ecosystem. After all, who wants to be troubled

variables serves as sustainability measure, like

footprint in the case of Majorca runs to nearly

time the number of passengers rose to almost

during their holidays by scarce supplies of

nitrogen oxide emissions, carbon dioxide

half a hectare and in the case of Cyprus the

one million annually, twice as many as the

clean drinking water, algae-infested seawater

emissions, number of people bothered by

figure almost adds up to an entire hectare.

combined population of the five cities situated

or landscapes destroyed by erosion or forest

noise nuisance, tons of toxic waste and litres

That is twenty-five and fifty percent of the

along the railway line9. The airplane evolved

fires, lacking any natural flora and fauna?

of sewage water. But how does one weigh

ecological footprint on average available for one

out of the long cherished dream of being able to

An unsustainable development will have

the sustainability of a product that primarily

human being respectively. An intercontinental

fly like a bird. Serious military and commercial

far-reaching implications for the tourism sector.

produces gaseous emissions against one that

journey of three weeks to the Far East or

interest only materialised later. The romantically

On the other hand, tourism and transport make

mainly produces waste?

Australia, for instance, represents an ecological

disposed Brazilian aviation pioneer Alberto

a substantial contribution to the causes of the

The ’ecological footprint’, developed by

footprint of two to four hectares, more than

Santos-Dumont for example did not foresee the

ecological crisis. Millions of tourists transformed

Wackernagel and Rees6 might offer a solution

the full average annual ration available.

military relevance of aircraft. After it became

the coastal landscapes of the Spanish Costas

to the measurement problem. The method

We can only use the earth once. Wackernagel’s6

clear citizens could be brutally killed by aerial

for ever. The multiplied ’population’ during the

is based on the conversion of all types of

calculations demonstrate how strong man’s

bombing raids, the bewildered Santos-Dumont

tourism season leads to an exhaustion of scarce

environmental strain to the surface area of

overconsumption actually is: in 1960 mankind

committed suicide in 1932. The technological

water supplies in many popular sun destinations.

the earth that is necessary to support this strain

used about 70% of the available earth’s surface;

breakthroughs in aviation (the invention of the

Other adverse local effects are additional

or to produce the required raw materials.

by 2000 this percentage had mounted to 120%.

stressed skin all-metal fuselage, the jet engine)

refuse heaps, depletion of finite fossile energy

In other words, the emission of carbon dioxide,

The main cause for this increase is the growing

have their origins in military programmes.

resources, disturbance of tranquillity and

for example, is numerically converted into the

consumption of fossile energy. The effect of

Modern commercial aviation is a spin-off of the

sometimes the disruption of the social

surface area of growing forest necessary to

this overuse of ecological space, is imbalance

DC-3 fleet used during the second World War

coherence of the local population.

abstract this gas from the atmosphere.

of the ecological cycles, exhaustion of reserves

that became superfluous after the war. In the

As Dutchmen we often do not realise that water

One kilogram of kitchen waste is valued by the

and taking an advance on the future.

late 1960s hardly anybody believed in the plans

is a scarce resource in large parts of the world.

surface area that is necessary to recycle it into

This manifests itself, for instance, in an increase

of Pan Am and Boeing for the construction of a

Water shortages are basically expressed in

valuable matter. Unlike kilograms of carbon

of the concentration of carbon dioxide in the

gigantic airplane, the Boeing 747. Even Pan Am’s

the dropping water level of the “aquifers”,

dioxide and kitchen waste, hectares can be

atmosphere and the resulting climate change,

chief executive Juan Trippe thought that

water-bearing layers. The aquifer below Bejing,

added up. The available ecological footprint

eutrophication, a structural shortage of fresh

passengers would be travelling supersonically

essential for the water provision of this city with

per human being is 1.9 hectares. As the world

water and the accelerated extinction of species.

within ten years and wanted to use the airplane

over a million inhabitants, dropped about sixty

population grows, this number will obviously

The ecological footprint of tourism constitutes

for cargo transport after that decade.

meters in the past thirty-five years. Below the

decrease. An inhabitant of Eritrea merely uses

a disproportionate part of the total ‘fair

The possibility of cheap mass transportation

granary of India, the Punjab region, the water

0.4 hectares, a Dutchman six and a US citizen

footprint’. That is why a true sustainable

does not seem to have been generally

level drops by half a meter annually. Major

sixteen7. So, the ecological footprint of the

development demands major adjustments

recognised. Nevertheless, the public adored

grain exporters such as the United States are

Dutch has to be reduced more than threefold.

from the tourism sector as well.

the ‘Jumbo Jet’ and it caused a breakthrough

also facing problems with fresh water.

This makes the Kyoto climate objective – 6%

in (intercontinental) mass tourism. Nowadays

Prehistoric aquifers - which apparently are

reduction of greenhouse gas emissions with

nearly half of all the travellers from Shiphol

barely replenished - in the states of Colorado,

respect to the 1996 values – look rather weak.

Airport are travelling for holiday purposes.

Paul Peeters | Sustainable Transport and Tourism

Science in 1997. Their summary states:

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©NHTV 2003

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f i v e k e y s t o a s u s ta i n a b l e development

or conversely, will all this travelling spoil the

the growth of far-away holidays and the use of

rest travels for visiting friends and relatives.

fascination. Five keys may give entrance to a

aircraft. That is why it is of vital importance to

Tourism and aviation are interlinked to a great

We are faced with the apparently impossible task

sustainable development: knowledge,

involve the technological possibilities of aviation

extent.

of decimating the ecological pressure of tourism,

technology, communication, growth control

in the development of sustainable tourism.

The inner drive to travel of people seems to be

and at the same time saving without eradicating

and ethics.

hereditary, even if major individual differences

the tourism sector and the jobs of hundreds of

exist. The ’hidden demand’ is omnipresent, the

millions of people all over the world. A reduction

term has been used earlier. Hidden demand does

of the ecological footprint of tourism is at odds

manifest itself the moment limiting factors like

with the development of the past twenty years,

time and money become less oppressive.

during which it actually increased two-fold.

The emergence of faster and cheaper modes of transport always causes the demand for

©NHTV 2003

In its report “Aviation and the Global

1

knowledge

Atmosphere”, IPCC presupposes that fuel

Thorough knowledge is absolutely essential in

economy of aircraft will increase by 40% to

taking the right decisions and steering major

50% within the next fifty years13. Whether

changes in the right direction. Knowledge is

this will cause a proportionate reduction of the

This redoubling is predominantly the result of

necessary on all items and interfaces of the

ecological footprint, depends on numerous

the growth of the share of far-away holidays and

triangle tourism - sustainability - transport.

other factors, such as the efficiency of the

transport to grow. Time seems to be more

the ecological footprint produced by the air

Travellers, travel agencies and governments do

traffic system, the cabin-layout of the airplane

oppressive as the money, because the

transport necessary for these holidays.

not have an adequate understanding of these

(low-cost and high-density or luxury and

individually available amount of money is

The hidden market for far-away holidays is large:

three terms. An in-depth research programme

low-density), the possible introduction of

more volatile, than the individual amount of

the current share is only 6% of the total number

that tries to answer questions such as “what is

supersonic airplanes, and the feasibility of

time; a day will always consist of 24 hours.

of holidays. The profound linkage between

the size of the ecological footprint of tourism

the technologies proposed. For instance, the

That is why it is not surprising that the average

tourism and transport suggests that ’sustainable

and its required transport?”, “what are the

present-day generation of aircraft engines is

amount of travelling time on the population level

tourism’ cannot exist without ’sustainable

differences in sustainability between the various

slowly but gradually advancing towards the

has been constant over many years and more

transport’. In the tourism community, however,

types of holidays?”, “which role do businesses

theoretically maximum feasible efficiency,

or less independent of the properties of the

this idea does not seem to be widely accepted

in the transport and tourism sector play in the

eradicating any room for improvement in a few

population. This means the average American

yet. In the definition of sustainable tourism of

development of tourism?” and also questions

decades. In the short term operational and

spends an equal amount of time on travelling as,

WTO (World Tourism Organisation), it is not

such as “which role does tourism play in

technological improvements are possible and in

say, the average Dutchman or even the average

specifically mentioned:

happiness in life and on which variable does this

the long term one can think of the development

Indian. What greatly varies is travel distance.

“Sustainable tourism is envisaged as leading

happiness depend?”, “how do tourism trends

of a new generation of aircraft driven by, for

This ‘natural order’ was described as early as in

to management of all resources in such a

arise?” and “why do some people travel a lot

example, hydrogen and fuel cells14.

1977 by Hupkes in his dissertation “Gasgeven

way that economic, social and aesthetic

and others hardly?”.

For medium distances within Europe the

of afremmen”10. Recent research conducted by

needs can be fulfilled while maintaining

The current educational institutions of

(high-speed) train offers a good alternative to

the University of Maastricht and Peeters Advies

cultural integrity, essential ecological

tomorrow’s managers need to focus on these

the plane or the car. Rail transport also displays

produced no grounds to refute this hypothesis11.

processes, biological diversity and life

relations. Only in this way does it seem possible

a technological development towards the

A consequence of the hypothesis is that the

support systems” (source: UNEP12).

to train a generation of ’socially committed’

direction of sustainability. The International

managers capable of facilitating the major

Union of Railways sees possibilities in the short

a great extent by the speed of the available

Only few publications on sustainable tourism

changes towards a sustainable development.

term for enhancement of the specific energy use

transport technologies. Furthermore, the fast

even mention the influence of transport.

In the development of knowledge it is important

by 40%15, 16. At this moment, the train has

modes of transport such as aircraft usually have

That is why current efforts towards a sustainable

for universities and institutions of higher

a modest market share. Technology may offer

far lower operational costs per seat kilometre

development of tourism may turn out to be

education to cooperate. Networks are necessary

assistance in expanding this share. When in

than slow forms of transport, which places

futile. Of course sustainable tourism - as it is

that reach beyond the borders of the

2002 Die Bahn in Germany introduced a system

long-haul trips within the budget of a wider

interpreted nowadays - will offer some relief.

Netherlands and Europe. The knowledge

enabling passengers to buy a ticket online up

public. To summarise, at least theoretically,

But considering the necessary reduction of

acquired accordingly forms the foundation for

to one hour in advance of their trip and print

there is an almost infinite hidden demand for

the ecological footprint by a factor of three,

the contributions of technology, communication

the ticket at home, this system was paralysed

mobility, which manifestation at this moment

this relief will not be sufficient.

and growth control to the development of

already after a few hours due to an explosive

largely depends on the speed of the available

This deficiency in thinking about sustainable

sustainable tourism and sustainable transport

demand for this service. By now server capacity

transportation systems. Consequently, the

transport and sustainable tourism is most

in mutual coherence. Knowledge provides the

has been increased and the system operates to

development of this demand is dictated by

evidently expressed in ’ecotourism’. Many

basis for an essential debate on the ethical

everyone’s satisfaction.

transport technology. As long as we keep making

regard ecotourism as a form of sustainable

consequences of living beyond one’s ecological

At present, buses feature the lowest energy

transport faster and cheaper, the number of

tourism. But the average ecotourist lives in the

footprint, but also of the possible harmful

use per passenger kilometre. This is opposed,

people travelling and the distances travelled

west and has to travel a long distance to the

consequences of a sustainable tourism for parts

however, by a higher emission of most harmful

will increase. Controlling the size of the mobility

biological hotspots, predominantly to be found

of the sector and its employees and the options

exhaust fumes, especially as long as the sector

market in terms of kilometres travelled seems

in the tropics. Also taking the journey itself

for mitigating these consequences.

mainly employs diesel buses. A development

to be the only possibility for a sustainable

into account, the average ecotour is far from

development of tourism and transport.

sustainable.

The positive effects of ecologically sound

Obviously holidays do not only generate

improvements to vehicles and infrastructure

disadvantages. Travelling is also just great fun

will be offset by the negative effects of the

and can be calming or inspiring. There is holiday

growth of the market for almost all conceivable

distance travelled by people is determined to

Paul Peeters | Sustainable Transport and Tourism

Less than one-third has business reasons, the

5

towards the use of other fuels and eventually

2

technology

hydrogen gas and fuel cells might metamorphose

There is ample room for the improvement of

the bus into a highly environment-friendly

technology. The suppliers of accommodation

alternative.

may benefit from technology such as the use of

Whether the mentioned technological

fun, holiday allowance, holiday love, travel

sustainable sources of energy, separation of

developments will actually take place depends

future scenarios, which will make us need more

adventure and travel craze. If you deprive people

waste products, water saving systems, sewage

on the market stimuli. The tourism sector may

and more planets earth. But there aren’t any.

of their holiday, you will cause a great deal of

purification. In the transport sector, new

make a contribution, because it constitutes the

unrest. The question is whether we can come up

technologies offer scope for improvement of the

demanding party in the market. For example by

with something that will enable us to run with

ecological performance per traveller kilometre

considering sustainability in the selection of a

the hare and hunt with the hounds. Is there a

by car, bus, train, ship and aircraft. An important

transport company, much the same as is already

future for travelling across our fascinating world,

portion of the environmental strain stems from

happening in the choice of accommodation and ©NHTV 2003

accommodation and sustainable excursions with

is for Europeans to confine themselves

people of the poorest countries waiting to gaze

tourism. In this way, one commands a form

a price tag that is in conformity with the high

to Norway and Iceland, Americans to

at rich tourists and, conversely, do these tourists

of benchmarking in the transport sector.

quality. In addition to labels it is important to

Newfoundland and Australians to Australia.

want to be confronted with this misery during

Any additional costs may be passed on to the

communicate the threats and opportunities

A beach holiday is possible everywhere where

their holidays? I hope that WTO and UNCTAD’s

consumer, if a market for “sustainability”

of tourism and transport with the sectors.

there are clean beaches, good hotels, discos and

first intentions are to establish solid scientific

emerges in that area as well. This brings us to

For instance, by offering instruments to

sun. Why must the Dutch go all the way to the

foundations, before activating a large-scale

the subject of communication.

entrepreneurs which they may use to assign a

Caribbean to get a tan? All kinds of active

irreversible and potentially undesirable

more prominent role of sustainability in their

holidays are also perfectly possible in Europe.

development.

c o m m u n i c at i o n

product development processes. Here lies a task

Every conceivable outdoor activity is possible

Another frequently heard argument for the

At this moment it is rather difficult for

for the government, but also for the academic

on this continent, boasting practically every

advancement of far-away trips is to enhance

holiday-makers to assess the ecological cost

community. More often than not, important

imaginable type of landscape and climate.

a better distribution of wealth and a better

of a tour. The price of a holiday offers no help

research results do not leave the grounds of the

Naturally, an eight thousand meter mountain

understanding for other cultures. I dare to

whatsoever. A holiday in the sun in the

universities, if they contain a less favourable

climb is not among the options and the

question this as well. According to the World

Caribbean is sold for less money than a trip to

message or just do not happen to fit into the

Himalayas are probably more impressive than

Bank, the number of people living on less than

Portugal, whereas the ecological footprint is

prevalent trends towards growth. And this

the Alps. On the other hand, I have personally

two dollars a day has increased to almost three

three to four times higher. A way of providing

brings us to the next subject: growth control.

experienced that even relatively low

billion in the past decades. At the same time,

mountainous regions such as in Wales or

the contrasts between cultures also seem to

growth control

Scotland present very impressive landscapes,

have increased rather than decreased. People see

The trend is to travel more often and farther

especially when the mountain tops are covered

with their own eyes how life on other continents

away using more and more environmentally

with a little snow. What is more, these

is determined by different norms and values.

3 6

holiday-makers with information are ecolabels, dozens of which already exist. Unfortunately, the criteria are very diverse and virtually not a single label expresses the environmental strain

unfriendly transport modes such as cars and

mountains tend to be easier to climb, which will

Superficial observations - major hotels often

In addition, the labels do not only comprise

airplanes. These trends are far from sustainable.

increase the holiday pleasure for most tourists.

keep their guests on the premises on account

ecological aspects, but also matters such as

That is why sustainable tourism necessarily leads

A possible objection to the discouragement of

of alleged criminal activities outside the hotel -

working conditions of hotel staff and the

to changes in present-day holiday behaviour.

intercontinental tourism could be that it will

may lead to the idea that these other cultures

influence on the local economy. There is nothing

To reverse the trend, growth control seems

cut off a potential source of income for the

are “backward”. What good did the very large

wrong with that, except that these are

unavoidable. Growth control does not need

developing countries. On 1 July 2002 WTO and

growth of intercontinental holidays really do to

incomparable aspects, which cannot be lumped

to be synonymous with a kind of communist

UNCTAD started the initiative for the ST-EP

the abatement of poverty and the understanding

together with ecological variables. A good

statism. Trends can also be bent by economic

project - Sustainable Tourism as a tool for

between cultures? To my knowledge, no research

solution seems to institute labels revealing three

measures, communication, debate and in

Eliminating Poverty. At this occasion, the

has been conducted to give any proof for this

separate scores:

some cases legislation. The term ‘transition

secretary-general of WTO, Mr Frangialli,

hypothesis.

management’ may assume a pivotal position in

emphasised that tourism makes an important

Suppose we want to realise more holidays with

all this. Transition involves a gradual, continuous

and growing contribution to employment,

less transport, would that be a bad thing for the

process of structural changes in a complex

prosperity, investments and cultural exchange.

Dutch tourist? I shouldn’t think so, because of

product to the protection and development

societal system. The government can manage

The initiative aims at sustainable tourism in the

the following reasons:

of nature;

transitions of this sort by guiding innovative

very poorest countries in order to substantially

processes in society in the desired direction17.

contribute to the economic development of

world. It offers a highly varied combination

price of the trip that is conveyed to the local

The realisation of a sustainable development

these countries. The question is whether this line

of nature, culture, history, landscapes,

economy.

demands that growth is based on sustainability

of thought is altogether true. Is it possible to

criteria to a far greater extent. For tourism this

provide structural assistance to the poorest

n Most Dutch holiday-makers stay within

Labels do not only provide holiday-makers

means: closer to home, less often and longer,

of the world by a strong growth of a sector,

Europe as it is, a large part even within

with an argument to opt for a more sustainable

more by train and bus and less by car and

which - as a result - will cause an even greater

the Netherlands.

holiday destination (for example a sun holiday in

airplane, more buying or renting on the spot

pressure on the global ecological system?

Portugal instead of one on the other side of

and taking less luggage. The latter applies to,

How many people can make a one-year living

That is why most people will not experience

the globe), but they also offer competition

for example, the rental of a camper or car plus

on the income generated by the holiday of one

any major changes because of a sustainable

opportunities to entrepreneurs in terms of

mobile home in the destination country, instead

tourist from the West? Less than one, I believe.

tourism development. Not in their choice of

sustainability. It is not always desirable for the

of driving or taking these all the way from the

The two billion poorest people live on less

destination, at any rate. Perhaps they will in

ecolabel to give an absolute assessment in all

Netherlands. This also precludes the need for

than two dollars per day, or rather less than

their way of travelling. That is why we have to

instances, because that may tip the scale com-

driving a far too heavy and energy-wasting

730 dollars per year. On average some

pay attention to the underlying motives of the

pletely the wrong way for all intercontinental

car in the Netherlands the rest of the year.

500 dollars per intercontinental traveller in

transport mode choice in tourism and how

trips, which would probably do the credibility

Intercontinental tourism does not need to

the fifty poorest countries goes to their own

this choice can be influenced into a more

of the label to the public no good. By also taking

disappear, but the ecological cost should be

economy18. How much of this money will

environment-friendly direction. Railways in

into account the extent to which the destination

better illustrated in the price. A trip around

actually trickle down to the poorest people

particular still offer a huge potential, basically

is unique, this can be avoided. For the Dutch

the world will then become what it once was:

of these countries? All of this means that

by the expansion of the high-speed network and

tourist, a far-away holiday in the sun will score

a unique, once-in-a-lifetime experience. Such a

even as much as two hundred million extra

by using the extensive existing conventional

poorly, much the same as a skiing holiday in

once-in-a-lifetime experience may generate far

intercontinental holidays will merely be a drop

rail networks. The fragmentation of railway

Canada or a cycling or hiking holiday in

more holiday happiness as ten of such holidays

in the ocean for the billions of poor people in

companies and government interests in these

New Zealand. But a well-documented and

made in a routine way. Furthermore, we will have

the world, whereas they will produce double

companies interfere with a consistent and rapid

informative cultural tour to the sites of the

to resist the “exotic things always taste better”

the amount of traveller kilometres for holiday

development. Here lies a task for the EU.

ancient Inca empire may score well, provided

idea. Looking for a whale safari? This is possible

purposes per airplane and thus increase the

Whether the road of competition on the railways

that modern aircraft are used to reach the

in Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland,

ecological footprint considerably. But there is

is the best instrument, seems to me a subject for

destination, complete with sustainable

South Africa or Australia. The sustainable option

another drawback to this idea. Are the hungry

further debate.

of the transportation part.

n Ecopoints based on the ecological footprint or equivalent unit; n Natupoints based on the contribution of the

n Sociopoints based on the proportion of the

©NHTV 2003

4

Paul Peeters | Sustainable Transport and Tourism

excursions within the framework of sustainable

7

n Europe is the most versatile continent in the

peoples and customs.

©NHTV 2003

5

8

to respond to that. They already do in the

Whether we bring our way of life within the

high-speed-rail network, for example between

ecological boundaries prescribed by planet

Paris, Brussels and Amsterdam. Instead of

earth and whether every inhabitant - people,

searching for satisfaction by travelling more and

animals and plants - is given their fair share of

more often and farther away, we might try to

this one earth, is first and foremost an ethical

recapture the old feeling of amazement, of

question. From a purely rational point of view,

interest for the landscapes and environment we

people in the North Western hemisphere would

travel through. By taking it slowly, by staying

be able to survive, even if more than half of the

closer to home and taking our time to be

species became extinct, people elsewhere died

surprised at the many sights that can be found

of hunger and disease, and the climate changed.

so nearby. We will also have to stop making

By means of modern technologies we would

each other’s mouths water with stories about

probably be able to produce the functions, now

far-away destinations, as long as we have not

delivered free by the world ecological system,

seen the sights around the corner.

ourselves. To “market” them, so to speak.

A sensible sustainable development progresses

Whether this possibility is open to the six billion

in an evolutionary, rather than a revolutionary,

people plus all the plants and animals inhabiting

way. That is why, on the basis of the efforts that

this planet, is actually not a question. It is

have already been made, we will have to improve

impossible. With two dollars a day you simply

the situation by means of small but consistent

cannot afford desalination equipment or

steps. Remember the old Chinese proverb

air-conditioning. Whether we let it come this

“a journey of a thousand miles begins with a

far will mainly depend on moral choices. Moral

single step”20.

choices, especially because the possibilities to

Presentation of the NHTV Associate Professorship Visitor Management Frans Schouten

The discussion whether The Netherlands is

Crowded is a relative concept, I will give you

overpopulated was no longer a political issue at

some examples. Just think of taking a nature

turn the tide well in advance are still legion.

Notes

the state parliament elections earlier this year.

walk, which is usually best appreciated on

For example, the road from exhaustible energy

1.

Bates, E.S., Touring in 1600, ed. T.C. Classics. 1911, London: Century. p. 418.

“What is too many?”, you may ask yourself in all

your own or with just one companion.

sources such as oil, gas and coal to renewable

2.

Vitousek, P.M., et al., Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems. Science, 1997. 277(5325):

sincerity. If you want to know what overcrowded

Too many nature lovers around reduces the

p. 494-499.

means, you had better turn to Bombay, Jakarta

enjoyment considerably.

Pimm, S.L., The world according to Pimm. A scientist audits the earth. 2001,

or Canton; these places are really full.

New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 285.

Overcrowded is a relative concept. The question

Brown, L.R., Eco-economy. Building an economy for the earth. 2001, New York:

of what is “full” is covered by the domain of

W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 333.

visitor management.

sources such as solar energy and wind is right in front of us. All we have to do now is take that

3.

road19. It is not a question of “not being able to” but “not wanting to”.

in conclusion

4.

5.

The foregoing might have given the reader the feeling that sustainable tourism and sustainable

6.

transport are utterly unfeasible. It is my opinion

London. p. 398.

Visitor management is the regulation of flows

curve of nature

Wackernagel, M., et al., Tracking the ecological overshoot of the human economy.

of people and an important part is about how to

roamings

PNAS, 2002: p. 142033699.

manage situations characterised by large visitor

Loh, J., Living planet report 2000. 2000, WWF International: Gland. p. 34.

numbers. I will not deny that this subject can be

The greater part of the tourism industry can be

8.

WWF-UK, Holiday footprinting. A practical tool for responsible tourism. 2002,

a reasonably dull story. I do not intend to bore

World wildlife Fund - United Kingdom. p. 38.

you with items such as time-ticketing, park-and-

van der Woud, A., Het lege land, De ruimtelijke orde van Nederland 1798-1748, in

ride schemes, restrictive parking policy, queue

Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. 1987, Meulenhoff Informatief: Amsterdam. p. 686.

management, systems for road signs, and the

any major sacrifices. As in many phenomena, the “twenty-eighty” rule holds true here as well: “twenty percent of the holiday-makers is responsible for eighty percent of the problems”. Only a minor portion of the holidays is

9.

10. Hupkes, G., Gasgeven of afremmen. Toekomstscenario's voor ons vervoersysteem. 1977, Deventer: Kluwer. 11. Peters, P., et al., Een constante in beweging? Reistijd, virtuele mobiliteit en de BREVERwet. 2001, Adviesdienst Verkeer en Vervoer: Rotterdam. p. 96.

like, for that would not be very appropriate for this occasion. Visitor management is the art of spreading

Low

Full

people in space and time, which obviously

intercontinental, but this portion causes the

12. UNEP, International year of ecotourism 2002. z.j., UNEP/WTO: Parijs. p. 4.

involves a great deal of psychology. Managing

If, on the other hand, we look at the enjoyment

majority of the total environmental strain of

13. Penner, J.E., et al., eds. Aviation and the global atmosphere; a special report of IPCC

people is basically about manipulation. However,

of a concert, a visit to a museum or a theme park,

the (transport for the) sector. These holidays

working groups I and III. 1999, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. p. 373.

the word manipulation has a rather negative

the curves looks significantly different.

will see great changes due to sustainable development. Other holidays, by far the biggest part, will be much less affected. So, the tourism sector as a whole does not need to suffer much.

14. Dings, J., et al., ESCAPE: Economic screening of aircraft preventing emissions; main report. 2000, Centrum voor Energiebesparing en Schone Technologie: Delft. p. 57. 15. UIC, Industry as a partner for sustainable development: Railways. 2002, International Union of Railways (UIC): London. p. 76.

connotation in our current language. On the other hand, all communication is manipulation

for theme parks, museums and concerts

A sustainable future for this sector does not look

17. Amelung, B., P. Martens, and J. Rotmans, Tourism in Transition: destinations and

choices as to what we want to communicate or

especially of the intercontinental flights, seems inevitable. At the same time a new technological

18. WTO, Tourism and poverty alleviation. 2002, WTO World Tourism Organisation: Paris. p. 115. 19. ICCEPT, Assessment of technological options to address climate change. A report for the

teach and conversely, what we don’t want to communicate or teach. In the end, a curriculum is no more than a choice from a number of alternatives, based on what we think is

revolution is called for to reduce the

Prime Minister’s Strategy Unit. 2002, ICCEPT Imperial College Centre for Energy Policy and

important for our students to know. Any choice

environmental effects of aircraft. On the other

Technology: London. p. 101.

you make for others is a form of manipulation

hand, opportunities exist for railways companies. And maybe the aviation sector will also be able

20. Chambers, N., C. Simmons, and M. Wackernagel, Sharing nature's interest. Measuring the ecological footprints of our activities. 2000, Londen: Earthscan Publications Ltd. p. 200.

figure 2 Satisfaction curve

indirect sense in education. We constantly make

not been sustainable. Reducing further growth,

Empty

and the dispersal of information, and in an

16. UIC, Railways and climate change. 2000, International Union of Railways (UIC): Parijs. p. 12.

itineraries. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, unpub. yet.

High

in essence, in a direct sense in advertisements

Aviation, however, is a different issue. that rosy. The growth of the past decades has

9

figure 1

Empty

Satisfaction

7.

adjustments, without the sector having to make

High

Clarke, R., ed. Global Environmetal Outlook 2000. 1999, Earthscan Publications Ltd:

that this does not need to be the case. made sustainable by means of relatively small

©NHTV 2003

About the Quality of Life, and Nothing Less Frans Schouten | Visitor Management

ethics

and so, manipulative techniques constitute

Theme park Museum Concert Low

Full

a substantial portion of visitor management. ©NHTV 2003

Every type of activity has its own optimum

n The purposeful cultural tourist

The casual cultural tourist accounted for 23.5%

Closer to home we have the example of Brugge

capacity where the visitor feels the most

(high centrality/deep experience) the major

of the market in Hong Kong, and the incidental

where the ever increasing price of land is forcing

comfortable. That is why this field of study is

reason for choosing a destination for these

cultural tourist for 27.9%. So more than 50%

the local population out of town and leave

so fascinating. It is all about experience and

visitors is learning about, and experiencing

of the visitors do not seek involvement in the

the urban space for souvenir shops, hotels,

other cultures.

culture visited and the cultural supply plays a

restaurants and second homes for those who can

secondary role in the choice of the destination.

afford it (Abele, 1993). The inhabitants’ quality

perception.

n The sightseeing cultural tourist There is no simple set of tools that can

(high centrality/shallow experience) is less

The serendipitous cultural tourist in Hong Kong

of life is, in addition to the care for tourism

be applied within the framework of visitor

after experiencing the other culture but

is represented by 6.2% on average. High in the

resources, of vital importance for a sustainable

management, each situation demands a

interested to visit the cultural highlights.

segment were the scores of Chinese from Taipei

tourism development. The appreciation of the

(12.5%) and visitors from Singapore (11.8%).

atmosphere of local authenticity (the sense of

tailor-made approach. There are bookcases

n The casual cultural tourist

filled with works on the concept of carrying

(modest centrality/shallow experience) for

Visitors who expect a familiar culture are

place) is an essential part of the experience,

capacity, including all kinds of complex

this group culture plays a less dominant role

probably taken by surprise if they get really

especially in cities. Involvement of locals in the

mathematical formulae. In praxis it only delivers

in the decision-making process for the

involved, while not looking for it. These kind of

economic, social and emotional realm is a

the illusion of precision. Carrying capacity can

destination, and being there, the tourist

encounters are based upon individual reactions

decisive factor for the success of any tourism

only be described and sometimes measured from

does not get deeply involved.

and subsequently are rather difficult to predict.

policy.

a particular point of view. This will either be from

n The incidental cultural tourist

The inhabitants of Venice retreat from their

the perspective of tourism and leisure resources,

(low centrality/shallow experience) does not

These figures for Hong Kong cannot be transla-

hometown and surrender it to the perpetual

or from the point of view of the local population,

make a choice for a destination based upon

ted to other destinations. The division of these

occupation of tourists and day visitors (Norwich,

who have to endure the flow of visitors.

culture, and being there he will only be

categories of cultural tourists will certainly vary

(1991). Russo’s research (2001, 2002) with regard

It can also be viewed from the perspective of the

superficially involved.

at different destinations and for different groups

to Venice clearly shows the ‘vicious circle’ in

quality of visitor experiences. This can be done

n The serendipitous cultural tourist

which a place can be trapped when, in the later

(low centrality/deep experience) did not

the McKercher model to different destinations

stage of a destination life cycle, an emerging

intercultural differences where experience is

seek cultural involvement in the choice of

in Europe and elsewhere to see if the division of

class of excursionist tourists increasingly

concerned.

the destination, but whilst there gets really

these typologies is indeed different in various

deteriorates the city’s attractiveness.

involved and has a deep experience.

destinations.

n The quality of the experience, the visitors n The quality of the resources, the tourism product

These three aspects of quality are closely connected. Every activity with regard to planning and development of visitor facilities needs to integrate these three aspects equally. Deterioration in the quality of one of these

Anyone who thinks he can determine the

not forget that they are there for pleasure,

carrying capacity of these aspects to two

whether they are connoisseurs with a very

decimal places only demonstrates he is good at

figure 3

specific interest or people who seek

arithmetics and is able to handle a formula.

The importance

uncomplicated diversion for the weekend.

But it does not necessarily mean that this

Deep Serendipitous Cultural Tourist experience sought

10

n The quality of life, the local population

Whatever the motive of the visitors, we should Classification of Cultural Tourists

aspects will have negative impacts on all other

Incidental Cultural Tourist

Casual Cultural Tourist

Purposeful Cultural Tourist

Sightseeing Cultural Tourist

levels (Schouten, 1992a).

person can make sense of the actual situation.

(centrality) of culture in the decision to

the resources

We shape reality on the basis of our own ideas

visit a destination

The quality of the resources primarily depends

about it, often considering the abstract concept

(Source: McKercher,

on the conservation and protection of the

more important than the real thing. In our

Towards a classification

natural or man-made environment, the tourism

culture holidays and landscapes are enjoyed

of cultural

resources. It may concern the cleaning of the

for their pictorial potential and are ‘frozen’ into

tourists, p. 32)

beach, the authenticity and integrity of the

photographs (Schouten, 1992b).

11

heritage resources, or the preservation of natural

the visitor The quality of the experience of the visitors comprises a multitude of different aspects,

Shallow Low

High

The importance (centrality) of cultural tourism in the decision to visit a destination

which can be discriminated, but not separated.

In his book The Wisdom of Insecurity (1951)

resources for the future enjoyment of visitors

Alan Watts argues that we tend to forget that

and locals alike. Without going into the specific

thoughts and words are based on mutual

questions concerning conservation and restora-

agreements and that it is fatal to take these

Primarily it is about the positive evaluation of

In the segment purposeful cultural tourist in

tion, or nature conservation, it is appropriate to

too seriously. He compares words with money:

the product offered. Such as the feeling of being

Hong Kong, McKercher found a percentage of

mention that visitor management is concerned

confusing money with true opulence is absurd.

welcome, good accessibility, good signposting,

11.8% of the total visitor number. Looking at the

with a methodical approach of the maintenance

Money can go a long way but true opulence,

parking facilities, functional public transport,

visitors’ countries of origin, the US accounted

of resources. An important part of this is the

like food for example, is perishable.

attractive shops, appealing landscape,

for 20%, the UK market for a mere 6.8% and

careful monitoring of the impacts tourists have

Although thoughts, ideas and words are in a

outstanding catering, inviting interpretation,

Australia for 9.8%.

on these resources.

sense ‘small change’ for real things, they actually

clear themes and story lines, captivating

It seems that the farther tourists travel and

exhibitions, excellent facilities, clean sanitary

the less the destination reminds them of home

the local people

stand for the perishability and eatability of

facilities, interesting publications, and possibly

(or the more exotic the destination), the higher

The quality of life of the local people is a broad

food, words and thoughts do not stand for

an enthusiastic guide. Visitors are not a

the proportion of tourists who deliberately seek

spectrum of different elements. There is an

reality. In this context, Watts observes that

homogeneous group, their interest and

a genuine cultural experience.

increasing interest for the public support of

we, Westerners, tend to eat menus instead of

tourism planning and development. In addition

meals. The ambience and composition of the

involvement differs greatly. McKercher (2002)

©NHTV 2003

values. It is about safeguarding the tourism

only represent them. Just as money does not

conducted research into the different types of

For the segment of the sightseeing cultural

to economic benefits such as retail and catering

meal (preferably described in French) is often

cultural tourists in Hong Kong; he identified

tourist the average for Hong Kong was 30.7%,

turnover, employment creation, infrastructure

more important than the actual eating.

five distinct types:

high scores were the UK market with 44.8%

enhancement, there are many negative

and the US market with 38%. Chinese visitors to

implications for the local population.

It is the classic confusion of the map and the

Hong Kong only scored 8.5%. This segment

Historical towns in particular may suffer from

area. The map represents the area, but they are

chooses the destination for its cultural supply,

the influx of tourists. Canterbury and Oxford are

not identical. In Sylvie and Bruna concluded

but does not seek deep involvement in it.

typical examples (Page, 1995 and Glasson, 1994).

Lewis Carroll states the following: ©NHTV 2003

Frans Schouten | Visitor Management

at destinations. It would be a good idea to apply

only by approximation, for there are significant

“That’s another thing we’ve learned from

need for reconciliation. The postmodern

The fourth level of the personal and societal

than the sum of its attractions. Some attractions,

your nation”, said Mein Herr, “Map-making.

consumer expresses this need in the realisation

values is difficult to assess, most interviewed

such as Stonehenge, are so profoundly anchored

But we’ve carried it much further than you”.

of these nostalgic drives, for in the present

visitors have difficulty to discriminate between

that it appears they do not need a concept

“What do you consider the largest useful

discontinuity is both the expectation and the

the level of experiences and the benefits.

to lure visitors. Their concept, however, is

map?” I asked. “Well, we got to six yards to

norm (Van der Staay, 1994). Mason verbalises

the mile. Then we tried a hundred yards to

this in an expressive way, he states that tourism

Based upon the elements of the SWOT analysis

mystery of the site itself. For the development

the mile. And then came the best idea of all!

is to ’mystify the mundane, amplify the exotic,

and the four levels of the Manning-Haas

of a good visitor attraction a good concept is

We actually made a map of the country, on

minimise the misery, rationalise the disquietude

hierarchy, the ASEB grid analysis is a matrix.

of vital importance. Canadian Heritage starts

the scale of a mile to a mile!” exclaimed

and romanticise the strange’ (Mason, 1994).

In this matrix, the strong and weak aspects of

any site development – whether a natural or a

the activities, the setting, the experiences and

cultural location – with the question ‘What is

encapsulated in the stories, legends, and

Mein Herr. “Have you used it?” I enquired. “It has never been spread out” said Mein

That is why it is important to know what triggers

the benefits of a tourism destination can be

the spirit of the place?’ and the second question

Herr. “The farmers objected. They said it

people, to know what kind of experience

described from the perspective of the visitor.

is ‘How do we get this across to our visitors?’

would cover the whole country. We use the

people strive for and to know where they find

This enables us to identify the direction for

That may sound vague for some of you,

country itself, as its own map, and assure

satisfaction. Richard Prentice (1993, 1995) has

development of a destination or attraction.

but is it nevertheless the primary task of the

you it does nearly as well.”

developed an interesting model to map these

Research along this line may produce useful

management of an attraction to formulate the answers to these questions.

aspects. His ASEB grid analysis combines the

information for the implementation of effective

The confusion between the map and the area is

classic SWOT analysis with the ‘Hierarchy of

management tools and for the enhancement of

akin to a phenomenon in psychology, which is

Demand’ developed by Manning and Haas.

the experience and thus visitor satisfaction.

attribute characteristics to the world around

The ASEB grid analysis is a method to research

Let’s return to the theme of external attribution.

exhibit a host of archetypal elements in the

us, which in fact originate from ourselves.

the way consumers evaluate the tourism product.

Disaster tourism is a good example in this

applied story lines. We come across Kings and

Much tourism is based upon external attribution.

It is based on four levels of demand. The first

respect. It reflects the fascination with someone

Queens, Dragons, Robin Hood, Cowboys and

level is aimed at the specific activity the tourist

else’s misery, based upon the horrifying events

Indians. Star Wars is a perfect example of a

Graham Dann distinguishes four types of

undertakes. The second level concentrates on

that could have happened to ourselves.

modern myth based on ancient elements.

tourism: ‘The Longing for Paradise’, ‘The Simple

the setting of the activity. The third level focuses

Life’, ‘Back to Childhood’ and ‘Past Times’ (Dann,

on the experience of the tourist with the activity

1994). These are all aspects of a nostalgic desire

in that setting. The fourth level is aiming at the

to escape from the stress and inconveniences of

values the tourist seeks to realise through that

everyday life. Our society has become so com-

experience. The following table presents these

plex, live so hectic, social coherence so fragile,

levels for heritage tourism, for my prime interest

values so questionable, that there is an urgent

is in that field.

called ‘external attribution’. This means that we

a magical web can be spun. Many attractions

An attraction gets its inspiration from tales There is a journalist maxim, which says:

fascination with the untamed forces of nature, attention =

Level 1. Activities

misery distance

forces of nature. which featured the headline “Aberdeen Man

This is summarised in a simple equation: VA = Dm3

Lost at Sea” at the time of the Titanic’s sinking.

A Visitor Attraction is a Dream that consists of

Close to home is always worse than things that

Myth, Magic en Mystery.

Example

figure 4

(from Manning, 1986)

Borobudur 1

Borobudur 2

The Manning-Haas hierarchy of demand

The fascination with the Titanic drama in itself

the visit consists of these elements:

Wilderness hiking

Visit as part of an all

Individual visit to witness

(after Beeho &

is an example of another aspect of visitor

(Schouten, 1995a):

inclusive package tour

the sunrise from the top

Prentice, 1995)

management that is worth our attention:

Rugged terrain

In the tropical heat

In the cool of dawn

13

happen far away.

Example

Visitors are looking for a UNIQUE experience,

how events turn into myth. Over the years, this

n Uncommon The visit should challenge the

shocking event has taken on almost mythical

visitors to look at the world around them

status, it has evolved into an archetypal disaster,

from a new perspective, make them wonder

in which mankind's hubris collides with the implacable forces of nature. The theme has

Social setting

Few people

In a group, with a guide

Few people

Managerial setting

No restrictions

Tour operator limits

Individual

Discovery Channel and much more of the like.

timeframe

timeframe

Myths have a strong appeal. Venice is more than

Limitations by the site

Limitations by the site

a city, it is a myth and John Pemble describes

management

management

the development of that myth in his book

Risk taking

Informative

Adventure

Yeats (and rightly so) “Man is in love and loves

Challenge

Admiring

“Mysticism”

what vanishes, what more is there to say.”

Physical exercise

Understanding

Emotional involvement

(Pemble, 1995).

inspired musicals, films, and documentaries on

‘Venice Rediscovered’, giving it a motto from Level 3. Experiences

the human society and its values and the brute

Example

Level 2. Setting Environmental setting

with Tarzan as the bridging function between

A perfect example is a Scottish newspaper,

The Manning-Haas ‘Hierarchy of Demand’ Hierarchy of Demand

and legends of the past. As well as from the

about the marvels of the world around them. n Novelty The visit should make the visitors curious, the visit should stimulate the visitor’s imagination. n Inspiring The visit should be inspiring; should stimulate and provoke the visitors. n Quality The visit should be a qualitative experience, a strong emphasis on service and customer care. n Understanding The visit should lead to a better understanding of the relevance of the site, visitors should leave the site with

Attractions are attractions because they appeal

Level 4. Benefits Personal

Enhanced selfeesteem

Being there

Peace of mind

to visitors, they add something to their visit. In this process, the sum is more than just adding

Ticking off WHS

new insights and experiences. n Emotions The visit should touch the visitors emotionally, it should touch their hearts.

up the parts. Even the Eiffel Tower would face Societal

©NHTV 2003

Increased commitment

Tolerance to other

Tolerance to other

difficulties if it was not located in Paris.

Applying these elements to tourism attractions

to conservation

religious values

religious values

The concept of ‘Paris’ as a mythical romantic

in the cultural and natural domain in the

destination by excellence, is far more valuable

Netherlands quickly leads to the reproach of ©NHTV 2003

Frans Schouten | Visitor Management

12

Every attraction needs a myth, around which

commercialisation. In the English language

the more it eludes and escapes us. The more

there is a more appropriate word for it;

intense the sense of authenticity, the more

it becomes a commodity, ready to be marketed.

profound the illusion. The question is, is that

In his publications about heritage tourism,

bad? My response would be: certainly not. We

Ashworth (1992, 1994) regularly alludes to the

live in a dynamic, ever evolving society, which is

’commodification’ of the past. Something is

continuously assessing the significance of values

only interesting for visitors if this process has

and looking for new meanings. In addition to

been set in motion for a broad public. McKercher

being a science, interpretation is also a form of

and Du Cross (1999) rightfully mention that

art. Picasso once said ‘Art is a lie that convinces

‘to succeed cultural heritage tourism must

us of the truth’ (Hugh and Brecht, 1978)

actualised, commoditised or somehow commercialised to facilitate consumption of the experience’.

References: Abele, baron van den, A (1993) Toerisme en monumentenzorg, bondgenoten of vijanden? in:

14

The French have a beautiful concept for this:

Cultuurhistorisch toerisme: Kip met de gouden eieren of Paard van Troje? NCM, Amsterdam.

“Lieux de memoirs”. This denotes more than a

Ashworth, Greg (1992) Heritage and Tourism: an argument, two problems and three

place to commemorate, as we do on the 4th of

solutions, in: C.A.M. Fleischer van Rooijen [ed] Spacial Implications of Tourism, Groningen.

May at a local memorial plaque for those who

Ashworth, Greg (1994) From History to Heritage – From Heritage to identity,

lost their lives during the German occupation.

in search of concepts and models, in: G.J. Ashworth and P.J. Larkham [eds] Building a new

‘Lieux de memoirs’ are places, which express

heritage, Tourism, culture and identity in the new Europe. London.

the myth linked to the site. They are sites we

Beeho, Alison and Prentice, Richard (1995) Evaluating the Experiences and Benefits Gained by

have endowed with all kind of meanings and

Tourists Visiting a Socio-Cultural heritage Museum: An Application of ASEB Grid Analysis to

significance. That is why I personally find the

Blists Hill Open-Air Museum, The Ironbridge Gorge Museum, United Kingdom, in: Museum

introduction

placing of memorial wreaths on the former

Management and Curatorship Vol. 14/3.

The corporate community is going through hard

After all, theme parks, but also the tourism

execution site of Waaldorpervlakte more

Carroll, Lewis Sylvie and Bruno concluded, in: The Works of Lewis Carroll,

times. Hypercompetition is the reason why

and leisure industry in general, were faced

impressive than the one on the Dam in

Roger Lancelyn Green, [ed], (1965) London.

marketing is contending with a decreasing added

with an emotion demand at the time of their

Amsterdam with all the officials. Places acquire

Dann, Graham (1994) Tourism and Nostalgia, Looking forward to going back, in:

value, as a result of which companies are able to

initiation. The specific set of instruments

a specific aureole by way of the significance we

Vrijetijd en Samenleving Vol. 10/1-2.

commit less money to innovations. Traditional

that is applied in the world of theme parks to

attach to them. Auschwitch has developed into

Eco, Umberto (1985) De Alledaagse Onwerkelijkheid, (Commonplace Irreality) Amsterdam.

marketing methods seem less and less effective.

respond to the emotion demand is referred

a destination for Israelian pilgrims, and with

Glasson, John (1994) Oxford: a city under pressure, in: Tourism Management No. 2, p. 137-144.

Share prices are collapsing, consumer choices are

to as “imagineering”, “engineering for

the increasing pressure on the state of Israel to

Hughes, P. and Brecht, G. (1978) Vicious circles and Infinity, London.

becoming increasingly individually-based, and

imagination”, emulating Disney’s jargon.

resolve the issue of the Palestinians this specific

Mason., G. (1994) The ‘Fakelore of Hawaii’, manufactured myth, in: The Eye, Vol. 11/4.

the call for socially justified business operations

Imagineering is the art of management to

interpretation of Auschwitch is reinforced.

McKercher, Bob (2002) Towards a Classification of Cultural Tourists, in: International Journal

is growing louder and louder. Saturated in the

combine soul and professionalism into

of Tourism Research, Res. 4.

material sphere, western consumers exhibit an

“inspiring” business operations. Similar to

Giving significance is one of the most important

McKercher, Bob and Du Cros, Hillary (1999) The fundamental truths about cultural tourism,

ever more explicit demand for “companies with

marketing, it is a set of instruments that can

characteristics of mankind. Signification is the

paper for the International Conference ‘Heritage and Tourism’, Hong Kong, 1999.

their hearts in the right place”. Market share is

be used to achieve commercial and social

very essence of our existence. That is why

Norwich, John (1991) Tourist pollution, The Furture’s Most pervasive Problem, in: Museum

becoming more and more a derivative of “heart

objectives. Contrary to marketing, it is not

interpretation of the ‘Lieux de memoirs’ is crucial

Management and Curatorship Vol. 10 p. 45-52.

share”. This development gives rise to new

the customer/guest who constitutes the starting

in visitor management. But interpretation is

Page, Stephen (1995) Urban Tourism, London Routledge.

problems in the domain of value creation.

and end point, but a “creative thought” or a

subject to fashion, taste, ideology and personal

Pemble, John (1995) Venice Rediscovered, Oxford.

Managers find themselves confronted with

“vision statement” (the soul) of the company

preferences. This may place professionals

Prentice, Richard (1993) Motivations of the Heritage Consumer in the Leisure market: An

emotionally-charged social issues for which

or organisation.

involved in this interpretation in a difficult

Application of the Manning-Haas demand Hierarchy, in: Leisure Sciences Vol. 15 p. 273-290.

they have no ready-made set of instruments.

position. They have to navigate between

Russo, Antonio (2002) The ‘Vicious Circle of Tourism Development in Heritage Cities, in:

Companies do not have any experience with

This article explores the changing value creation

Scylla and Charibdis of ‘historical evidence’

Annals of Tourism Research Vol. 29/1.

these new types of problems, nor do business

in society and analyses the mechanisms behind

and ‘attraction value’ (Schouten, 1995b).

Russo, Antonio (2001) Cultural Clusters and Tourism development: the challenge of Venice.

education institutions have training programmes

the “revolutionary” developments that underlie

Nevertheless, there is a ray of hope for those

Conference paper Dubrovnik, 18-19 May 2001; Culture: A driving force for urban

geared to them.

these changes. We will search for the true

in charge of the interpretation process. If they

tourism – Application of experiences to countries in transition.

don’t provide interpretation, the visitors will

Schouten, Frans (1992a) Cultural Tourism and Sustainable Cultural development, in: Wiendu

The growing relation between “market share”

perspective and then focus on the specific

take care of it themselves, though based on their

Nuryanti [ed] Universal Tourism enriching or degrading culture? Yogyakarta, Gadjah Mada

and “heart share” forces companies to formulate

corporate instruments of the emotional

own ideas, preconceptions, and prejudgements.

Univerity.

a “split vision”: simultaneously focusing on

enterprise: imagineering. The instruments

The visitor creates his own realities and the

Schouten, Frans (1992b) The paradox of the Map, semiotics and Museum Education, in:

information and imagination, on reason and

are represented as a set of ten rules of the

difference between reality and the theme park

Museum Management and Curatorship Vol. 11/3.

emotion. The addition of emotional possibilities

emotion-economy game. In conclusion, we

becomes vague. In his book Commonplace

Schouten, Frans (1995a) Improving visitor care in heritage attraction, in: Tourism Management

expands the scope for competition.

will deal with the social significance of the

Irrealisties Umberto Eco (1985) explores the

Vol. 16/4.

Terms such as “experience economy” and

specialist area of “imagineering”.

boundaries between the two. He discusses the

Schouten, Frans (1995b) Heritage as Historical Reality, in: Herbert, David, Heritage, Tourism

“dream society” should be regarded in this

hyperrealism of an improved past that never

and Society, Mansell, London.

context. The basic assumption of this article is

the idols case

existed, a cleaned version of an unproblematic

Van der Staay, Adriaan (1994)The Future of Cultural Activities. Boekman Stichting, Amsterdam.

the hypothesis that “imagineering”, a method

Millions of people followed the programme

history. He mentions the spastic need for the

Watts, Alan (1951) The Wisdom of Insecurity; Pantheon Books, USA.

Presentation of the NHTV Associate Professorship Imagineering Diane Nijs

15

nature of the emotion economy in international

of working in the world of theme parks, offers a

breathlessly, week after week, in virtually

almost real as a neurotic reaction to the lack of

great many perspectives for the corporate

every European country. We kept track of

memories. The paradox of visitor management is

community at large in the unfolding emotion-

developments on television, on the Internet

that the more we try to make reality accessible,

oriented economy.

and in magazines. We even co-directed en masse ©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

©NHTV 2003

Imagineering: Engineering for Imagination in the Emotion Economy

through our (mobile) phones. Many among us

“Germany Seeks the Superstar” were followed

population worked in industry (40% at its peak).

position would do good to learn how the

talked about it in an enthusiastic and captivated

by over 60% of the viewers. It became a neck-

The process of automation has reduced this rate

“immaterial, soft, emotional” world works.

manner for hours. Many a person videotaped

and-neck race between a man and a woman.

to 15% at present. In our current economy

The ropes of the emotional profession are

parts of the popular programme and in a short

When the host announced the winner, it was

80% of the employed population is active in

becoming the ropes of everyone’s profession.

while we will all buy the CD on top of that.

received with cries of derision. It was thought

the services sectors and, consequently, we

Additionally, developments seem to follow one

Idols 2003 broke records on all fronts. It turned

to be a fraud. There was a host of complaints,

speak of a services economy. Given the recent

another at an ever more rapid pace.

out to be an excellent business. The “creative

people had not been able to vote due to the

developments of the automation of services

The agricultural society lasted about 10,000

thought” behind the event was: “Deep down

overloading of the telephone network. A similar

pushed to extremes on all fronts, we have

years, the industrial society some 200 years and

we are all potential pop idols and if our own

situation occured in the Netherlands: for weeks

undoubtedly already reached the culmination

the information society almost appears to result

potential is not developed, we are happy to at

on end Jim seemed to be tipped to win, but his

of this economy.

as a reflection in the “experience society”

least point out someone else who qualifies to

winning would have been implausible in the end

become a pop idol.” Every society needs heroes,

because his singing and performance were -

The question is how the economy will evolve

will evoke a renewed employment pattern.

sports heroes and other heroes, and Idols fills

regarded rationally - nowhere near as good as

in the future. The progressive value creation

We will explain the concept of value creation

this need in an ingenious way.

Jamai’s. The broadcasting corporation is also

proceeded from raw materials to goods and

in the emotion economy.

aware that the high ratings of this programme

from goods to services in the past, in order to,

“Idols” is a successful contemporary concept,

have a drawback: a large proportion (almost half)

according to some authors - at least for now,

not so much because of its content as its

of the viewers felt deceived or disillusioned.

reach “experiences, perceptions”, and according

exploitation method. “Idols” is an almost

These feelings also affect the broadcaster.

to others “dreams and stories” today.

(also called “dream society”) which, in its turn,

caricatural illustration of the way the emotion economy works. It is an extreme example of

We advance the thesis that value creation will A comparable problem can be found in

“imagineering”. A multimedia story, which

“Eurosong for Kids”, a new European concept

future, but that it may take any possible shape

70

can be co-created and co-experienced by “fans”

acquired in Belgium by the national television

and direction: theatre and entertainment

60

in every conceivable manner.

station. The morality of this concept - children

formulas, “we-care” stories, educational and

50

between the age of 8 and 12 in an elimination

aesthetical propositions. Emotion economy is

40

The former rules of the music industry (simply

race in the European media - has become the

perhaps the term that covers the phenomenon

30

put: first a CD, then concerts) no longer seem

subject of political debate. We haven’t heard

best. In line with this development, the

20

to apply. There is no money to be made in the

the last about this matter.

expectation that in the future a growing portion

10

with artists have been subjected to regular adjustments lately so as to enable producers to obtain their share of the income generated

1

emotion

of the employed population will be active in

0

value creation in the “emotional sphere”,

1750

service industrial agricultural

1900

2000

economies where corporate value creation

Figure 2

“ va l u e c r e at i o n ” i n s o c i e t y

basically revolved around the profit dimension,

Tendency in employment patterns in historical

a penny to be earned from the “material” form

Constructively building a fascinating world

value creation in the emotion economy will be

perspective

of music “in the old way”, but all the more from

begins with checking the rearview mirror.

a mixture of the three dimensions: people,

the “immaterial, fleeting” world. Idols translates

We will place value creation in historical

planet and profit. Our essay will explain this in

this rule in an extreme manner. The procedures

perspective in order to then examine the

more detail.

are totally reversed: first the fleeting world of

mechanisms which are responsible for the recent

experience is created, a process in which - early

and current “revolutionary” changes in society.

followed by the products, merchandise, such

1 . 2 va l u e c r e at i o n i n t h e new millennium The growing awareness of the scarcity and exhaustibility of the natural resources of value

Value creation in the competition sphere

creation increasingly fuels the debate regarding the one-sided financial interpretation of the

as “memorable” gadgets, such as “proof of

1 . 1 va l u e c r e at i o n i n historical perspective

participation” in the experience. CD’s are no

Value creation is the only sense of all actions

longer a basic product, rather, they have turned

taken by companies. Value creation is defined by

and action against unbridled growth and blind

into a lucrative sideline, a nostalgic symbol

Bil and Peters as “the creation of means that fill

pursuit of profit sound louder and louder.

for deep emotions that make life transcend the

the needs of various interested parties of the

“ordinary”.

company”. Value creation in the broad sense

term value creation (value creation as a synonym

Differentiated immaterial/emotional

for shareholder value). The voices of protest

creation was interpreted solely in financial

The focus, which used to be on “the material” in

terms. Only in the 21st century does the term

the old economy, has shifted to “the emotional”,

value creation appear to be further refined.

“the immaterial” in the new economy.

to neglect of the value of other interested

Services: services economy

parties, such as employees, customers/guests,

Products: industrial economy

suppliers and society. In wider circles people

Raw materials: agricultural economy

Undifferentiated material 1750

2000

17

are becoming aware that purely financial value Time

creation is accompanied by value destruction in other domains too often as it is, the domains of

Figure 1

humanity and environment. The attention for

The art of appealing to the imagination, to a

Until 1750 agriculture was practically the only

Value creation in historical perspective:

sustainable enterprises or socially responsible

greater or lesser degree, has become a

sector responsible for value creation in society.

the shift from “undifferentiated material”

enterprises is increasing rapidly. It is evident

management skill essential in every sector.

The majority of the employed population,

to“differentiated immaterial/emotional” and

that the contrast between value creation and

some 90% at that time, operated in the

the “triple P”-notion in the emotion economy.

value destruction will constrict the freedom

Totally unexpected, however, “Idols” also

agricultural sector, in other words the

illustrates the growing problems of the disparity

“agricultural economy”. By now, this percentage

The trend is obvious: value creation in society

have no other option than to contemplate this

between “market” share and “heart” share

has decreased to 5% in Europe and less than 3%

evolves from “undifferentiated material”

contrast and to prepare their operations in a

and the subtlety which should be applied in

in the US. During the period of the “industrial

to “differentiated immaterial/emotional”.

constructrive, integrated manner: business

imagineering. In Germany, the finals of

economy”, the majority of the employed

Companies aiming to maintain their leading

operations that take the “triple-P” notion into

of enterprise in the long term. Businesses will

©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

company. Until recently, the concept of value

(imagineering) in a highly extreme fashion.

The one-sided focus on shareholder value leads

Experiences/Stories: ‘emotion’ economy

of the word, is a sensible objective for every “Idols” illustrates the “new rules of the game”

2020 Time

seems legitimate. Contrary to all the previous

by live performances just the same. There is not

as it may be - even the target group is involved,

©NHTV 2003

ECONOMY

90 80

indeed be more emotional, immaterial in the

production of music carriers any more. Contracts

16

% employed population 100

account: people, planet and profit.

the social and ecological field in shareholder

own individual identity and the economic

organisation (such as in the 20th century)

Until recently, the focus was clearly divided:

value will become an art in itself, which will

systems. Communication is a special case in

can only lead to predominantly short-lived

organisations focusing on people and planet

require a great deal of communication with the

economic history. The subsequent inventions

advantages. The only possible source for

were non-profit and organisations focusing on

financial markets. After all, rational investors

of the printing press, radio, television and

competitive advantage that remains, is

profit ignored the two other dimensions more

are also becoming more sensitive to the

internet have radically altered human

made up of emotions and fantasy, but

often than not. The simultaneous focus on the

reputation of a business. They also attach a price

interaction and the dispersal of knowledge

classically-trained managers often fail to

three dimensions often seems a utopian dream at

to environment and social risks, given that the

and science. Interaction and communication

rely on this fact. People, and particularly

this moment. Nevertheless, it is becoming more

value of reputation also affects the share price.

in general drastically changed during the

their creativity and passion, eventually will

twentieth century. Communication is now

appear to be the only possible and most

and more obvious that this is the only feasible long-term strategy for companies. Capitalists too

Naturally, companies will not become charitable

characterised by fragmentation and

sustainable source for competitive

are expected to adopt a humanist attitude if this

institutions. They will not fill any needs which

interactivity. Media influence the

advantage.

turns out to be necessary for further business

the public sector is better capable of filling.

“psychology of society” to an increasing

operations.

For both the shareholders and society, the best

degree. Companies and organisations find

opportunities for corporate value creation will

themselves necessitated to redefine the

Instutitions such as family, church, political

The great difference between the profit

lie in the consequences of a company’s core

function of communication within the

parties and companies constitute the foun-

dimension of value creation and the people and

competencies and not in its good intentions.

framework of the business instruments.

dation of our society. They form the social

planet dimensions is the fact that the first is purely rational of character and the other two

framework that should give our lives more

emotional and more immaterial.

1.3 the mechanisms u n r av e l l e d

Managers find themselves confronted with an

stability and predictability. Strong and stable institutions make life simpler because they

Some decades have seen a multitude of changes

crucial piece of information is possible for

define our freedom. The happily married

emotionally-charged value(s) economy with

in a very fundamental sense. Some authors,

everyone and “public resources” such as

couple with 2.4 children and a dog has

problems that are entirely new to them.

including Ridderstråle and Nordström, speak

the Internet make knowledge available to

become an unusual archetype of a fading

Problems they have never had to cope with and

of a “revolution” that changes the essence of

everyone, night and day. The relatively

ideal. The church and accompanying

for which they are furthermore not trained.

our society, economy, industry, businesses

long-term stability which enabled planning

metaphysical picture of the future convinces

The “humanity and environment” buttons are

and personal lives. A revolution which is

and investment for years ahead, has

less and less people so that life and

now nevertheless added to the “dashboard of

all-embracing and which is taking place at

disappeared. Products are copied and

experience are placed in a different

corporate governance” and the manager will

this very moment. There is constant motion,

innovations become public property.

perspective. The basic principles of political

have to learn how to steer the “company” car

continuous evolution, eternal dynamics. The

IT, consultancy businesses and increasingly

parties usually have their roots in another

again in a highly turbulent environment while

familiar roles, skills, strategies, expectations,

internationally-oriented training program-

time segment and given that they keep

closely watched by the Argus-eyed public, armed

boundaries are no longer applicable. New rules

mes have a strongly homogenising effect,

playing the game on a national level, their

with every conceivable communication method.

come into effect in an emerging new economic

causing companies and organisations to

social profile is levelling out and the major

The management of emotional and immaterial

order. This world calls for different roles and

resemble one another more and more.

themes are more efficiently answered by

problem areas is also subject to different rules

different models. According to Kelly, this new

The creation of a monopoly position on the

other players such as Greenpeace and

than the management of rational and more

economy has three distinguishing features: it is

basis of a clever idea is possible for a very

Amnesty International and multinationals.

material problem areas which we have grown

global, favourably disposed towards immaterial

short while only, also due to the limitations

Time and again, people choose which

accustomed to.

objects and it is strongly interlinked. In order

of, for example, the patent act. Finding the

“tribe” they join. The role of the traditional

to be able to operate in this “new economy”,

right balance between the exploitation of

institutions are taken over by new, more

The growing relation between “market” share

it is important to understand the underlying

existing products and the search for new

fleeting, but also more explicit groups.

and “heart” share forces companies to draft a

mechanisms.

possibilities is still important for the

In the year 2000, even most of the smaller

competitive position, but it becomes more

companies offered only a fraction of the support they used to.

As mechanisms behind the revolution described

and more difficult to find this balance.

emotion. The scope for competition widens

above, we can distinguish four major changes.

Marketeers are at an utter loss. Marketing

because of the addition of (new) emotional

Changes in the spheres of communication, know-

efforts produce a decreasing added value.

alternatives. Concepts like experience economy

ledge, institutions and values. Moreover, these

On the basis of identical market research,

social responsibility.

and dream society should be regarded in this

forces are interrelated and overlap each other in

only more of the same is developed: a sort

Values are mental patterns describing how

context. Experience and emotion taken together

certain fields.

of innovative boring uniformity.

we regard relationships, work, technology

Swimming-pools are “innovating”, but they

and life in general. Values are enormously

Gradually, everything is coloured by experience

n Communication is not merely a sector of the

n Values - Everyone needs to assume their

are unable to come up with something other

powerful, omnipresent and vary greatly from

and emotions. Not a single component in

economy, but becomes the economy itself.

than the familiar slides and palm trees and

place to place and person to person Values

society will escape. Politics, religion, media,

Every change we are going through at

even cities and tourist destinations exhibit

are also changing, though very slowly: our

businesses, non-profit organisations, cities and

present, springs from the fundamental

more and more similarities. If Henry Ford

work ethics, our belief in the hereafter, the

destinations; experience and emotion are seized

revolution we are currently unleashing in

had primarily focused on market research, he

importance we attach to parties, to other

at everywhere as if they were the last straws to

the field of communication, explains Kelly.

never would have invented the car - a faster

cultures and to life (abortion, euthanasia).

clutch at in customer/guest relations.

It is about a different “nervous system”, a

horse at the very most. If based on market

Nevertheless, we may currently speak of a

new wiring of our society. During the indus-

research, the mobile telephone would never

“spiritual void”. We are no longer the

In times of economic recession this turnaround

trial era, physical contact between compa-

have been introduced. After all, market

credulous, hard-working westerners with a

to more experience and emotion is hardly a

nies and their customers was necessary.

research showed that there was no need for

clear goal in life. Renewed attention for the

sinecure. Rational managers are driven by these

Suddenly an infinite gamut of new shapes

the mobile telephone.

traditional norms and values is necessary.

external developments to devise emotional

and volumes of social organisations and

strategies. They are forced to tread on thin ice.

groups is uncovered. Communication is

Location-based competition (such as in the

“right” way cannot be chosen. There is an

The creation and conversion of added value in

the foundation of society, our culture, our

19th century), technological innovation and

abundance of information as there is an

19

Without a soul, goal and meaning, the

©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

information and imagination, on reason and

make up the latest form of competition strategy.

©NHTV 2003

n Knowledge - Everyone knows everything. A virtually simultaneous disposal of every

“split vision”: simultaneously focusing on

18

n Institutions offer less support

abundance of everything. We live with the

technology and a changing society. Around

an apparent economic recession, but we will

economy. As prosperity and leisure time

chaos. Insecure people cry for strong leaders.

1990 (in 1989 the Iron Curtain fell) the mobile

recognise the ascending economic line with

increase, the customer wants more than a

The shift to right-wing politics is manifested

telephone, digitalisation and the Internet

a range of immaterial emotionally-charged

product and he is prepared to pay extra for an

in all Western countries. Complexity is

provided us with the means to satisfy the social

services that emerged around the year 2000,

experience. The customer happily pays much

terrible for some people, but at the same

need for faster and directer communications.

when the Internet was made mobile. However,

more for a cup of coffee in café Florian at San

time extremely fascinating for people with

In 1930, Kondratieff established that if a new

we should always take heed of the “blind spot”

Marco square in Venice, than for a cup of coffee

an open-minded and unbiased spirit.

technology becomes affordable enough to be

in our rearview mirror.

at the local pub, simply because of the added value of the location. And if, for instance, live

applied across all sections of society, a great The Italian artist Francesco Clemente

deal of changes would occur in the “upswing”

comments on this subject: “Tourists and

of such a wave in twenty years’ time. After the

refugees inhabit our world, either you

upswing, things would quiet down again.

2

companies are advised to build a “stage” to direct “memorable experiences” for their

Companies, and certain brands in particular,

We have mentioned it earlier: value creation in

Work becomes theatre in which, according to

appear capable to respond to this “spiritual

society evolves from undifferentiated material

Pine, “acting” is not synonymous with “faking”,

void” with positive results. Where younger

to differentiated immaterial/emotional. In this

but conversely, synonymous with “making your

generations used to take a stand against

section we will try to present a detailed picture

best effort in a specific situation”. In the age of

church and politics, they now do so against

of the true nature of the emotion economy,

the new economy companies are able to create

brands and companies that refuse to assume

based on recent publications and international

an added value by anticipating the entertain-

their social responsibility. The emergence of

value research.

ment needs of their customers. The significant

Nicolai Kondratieff’s Long Waves

1811

1789

1871

1847

1896

1921

1971

1930

1990

2020

the protest consumer with Naomi Klein and

guests, which will give them a warm feeling.

contribution of Pine and Gilmore lies in the very

her book No Logo as the exponent, provides

Figure 3

2 . 1 r e c e n t p u b l i c at i o n s

simple fact that in their book The Experience

open-minded managers with new tools

Kondratieff’s “double” wave-like motions. The blue

1999 was a productive year in this field. In this

Economy they make a distinction between a

to realise a solid collective anchoring by

line indicates the long economic wave, the light blue

year a number of books was published about the

service and an experience. This gives us an

behaving softer, more human, more socially

line illustrates the basal feeling of “fear” in people

described phenomenon; the works most quoted

insight into a new sort of economic value.

commited and more sharing. Only if our

that is at the core of the economic cycle.

current capitalism becomes more humane,

in this context are The Dream Society by the

This time it is about an economic value that,

Danish futurist Rolf Jensen and The Experience

due to its personal dimension, cannot be

Economy by the Americans Pine and Gilmore.

displaced by technology. How this economic

will it be possible to restore the betrayed

But what might be more important, is that

trust. Brands based on a broad vision such

Kondratieff discovered an “opposite” wave-like

as Bodyshop, Ben & Jerry’s, Harley Davidson

motion behind this economic wave, which he

In The Dream Society Jensen asserts that people

question of a different nature. Pine and Gilmore

and Manchester United may grow stronger

defined as the basal motive for every social

today need good and socially justified stories

leave no doubt in this respect whatsoever:

than ever. In this context, Van Kralingen’s

development. An initial wave-like motion which

(and heroes) and that they are also prepared to

“Work is theatre and every business creates its

book Superbrands mentions “brand

identifies the general feeling of fear and

pay for this. For instance, there is a company

own stage”. The only sense of the experience

communities” as the churches of the

uncertainty in people and which correlates

that markets “Greenland ice”, chopped in cubes

economy is the creation of experiences for which

21st century.

with the economic cycle to a great extent. As the

on the Northpole for exclusive parties. You will

customers are willing to pay extra and to which

feeling of fear fades, room for the acceptance of

be drinking “centuries of history”, so to speak.

they intend to remain loyal, because of that very

Changes in the above-mentioned powers have

new technological findings and for the recovery

As prosperity and leisure time increase, we

experience. Impressive examples are Heineken

resulted in a deregulated world predominantly

of the economy is offered - almost by definition.

attach more importance to the emotional than

Experience in Amsterdam, Niketown in London

based on knowledge. At the dawn of the new

By the time fear crops up again, economic

to the rational value of what we consume.

and Autostadt in Wolfsburg, “brandlands”

millennium we are free to make our own choices

growth will decline. The Belgian professor Gauss

Jensen defines the dream society as “a new

that can be experienced personally. In their

and to compose our own invididual value profile.

has conducted research on the basis of this

society where companies, communities and

latest publication, they therefore state that

This also holds true for companies. They are

economic correlation theory for many years.

man as an individual will flourish on the basis

“The experience is the marketing”, a good

expected to assume their responsibility, to

He believes that the double wave-like motion

of stories and not solely on the basis of

experience should preclude the need for

operate from a broad social vision consisting of a

affects other fields in life, such as fashion.

information”. According to the author, stories

marketing. A special experience is more effective

mixture of the three dimensions: people, planet

His research validates the connection between

represent a new economic foundation for

to convince the market than words and images.

and profit. And given that human capital, and

the Kondratieff waves in the economy and the

companies. He places the inherent logic of

especially passion, fantasy and human emotions

degree of “fear” in society. An upswing is

the information society against the logic of the

are the only source for competitive advantage

characterised by an increasing degree of

dream society: the first claims that people are

difference of The Experience Economy and

left, companies and organisations are beginning

self-confidence, freedom, self-expression and

replaced by machines, the second features a

The Dream Society by means of our coffee

to operate on the basis of feelings and fantasy,

explorative behaviour, a downswing by an

comeback of emotions, stories, descriptions and

example. As a result of agricultural efforts, a

emotion and imagination to an ever greater

increase in the level of fear, the search for

values and claims that people cannot be replaced

coffee bean is (as a raw material/bean) not worth

extent. To such a great extent that we may speak

security and defensive behaviour in society.

by machines. Then Jensen defines markets that

much. Grinded and packaged, the coffee bean

of an experience economy and a dream society.

Given that we currently find ourselves in the

may comply with our basal, emotional needs

has strongly increased in value, as a result of

upswing, the emotion economy may unfold

and describes how companies are able to

industrial operations. Processed into a cup of

Not everyone agrees to the fact that changes

under the most ideal circumstances and the

respond to this. He distinguishes six markets:

coffee and served in a restaurant the value of

in society follow one another more and more

emotion or experience economy may be

the market for adventure, love and solidarity,

the coffee bean has risen exponentially due

rapidly. Nicolai Kondratieff believes that a clear

expected to only just have started.

care, who-am-I, peace of mind and convictions.

to service efforts. If the proprietor of the

economy. He sees a pattern of economic waves,

When we look in the rearview mirror around

In their book The Experience Economy, Pine and

a cup of coffee into an intense experience by

each wave covering 40 to 50 years. Each new

the year 2020, we will not be blinded - as we

Gilmore also demonstrate that a new economic

creating a theatrical setting that stimulates

wave begins with a combination of a new

are now - by computers and band widths or by

age has arrived: the age of the experience

several senses (San Marco square with live music

value may take shape in the economy, is a

21

We will try to illustrate the essence and the

restaurant manages to turn the consumption of

©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

and cyclical pattern can be detected in the

©NHTV 2003

increases and so will the price. That is why

the “emotion economy” in i n t e r n at i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e

embrace change or you try to escape from it.”

20

music is added to the scene, the added value

described above), the value of the coffee bean

command more attention and that entertainment

allow the measurement of the basic personality

The findings: three of the four criteria, that is

may increase yet again. The customers are eager

is the pre-eminent instrument for this purpose.

of a country. The criteria (dimensions) are.

power distance, uncertainty avoidance and indi-

to pay for this special story. An experience,

The fact that entertainment works, is proved by

however, is not the only way of creating an

the huge success of the movie-based toy gadgets

society accepts that the power in institutions

results for the Scandinavian countries involved

added value to coffee. It can also be achieved in

in McDonald’s Happy Meals, the singing waiters

and organisations is unequally divided; a

and the US. If we look at the fourth criteria, that

a more abstract manner by means of “emotion”.

in many a restaurant and the staged entertain-

low score means that one tries to minimise

of masculinity vs. femininity, we see that

Some consumers readily pay more for Max

ment in shops.

inequality in society.

especially the Scandinavian countries score

n Power Distance - indicates to which extent a

n Uncertainty Avoidance - describes the

Havelaar coffee and they as well buy a special On the basis of a number of recent publications

extent to which a society feels threatened

Hofstede’s model, the US may be typified as

justified viewpoint, a valuable perception.

we dare to assert that the emotion economy has

by uncertain and ambiguous situations.

a highly “masculine” society, whereas the

The Max Havelaar example does not comply with

several opportunities for implementation.

A society with a high score features a great

Scandinavian countries (and the Netherlands

the definition of experience by Pine and Gilmore,

Interpretation in line with:

career certainty and many formal rules.

as well) are extremely “feminine”.

society. It is also possible to combine both types

n Individualism vs. Collectivism - an n The traditional “profit dimension”: American

individualist society has a loose social

On the basis of these data it is understandable

of “added value creation”: Max Havelaar as both

authors are obvious exponents in this

framework where everyone is supposed to

that the preferred implementation approach

“emotion” and “experience”, by placing the

respect. They only speak of an experience

look after themselves and their immediate

of the emotion economy in the US is along

consumption of the socially acceptable coffee

economy if:

family members. Much importance is

the line of the masculine profit dimension, of

the customer/guest pays distinctly more than

attached to individual decisions. In a

sensations and that a “newer” implementation

for a “simple” service;

collective society the group decides.

along the line of the feminine people and

in a “theatrical context” at San Marco square.

• •

Price of Coffee Offerings euro 5

• ‘Value’ and ‘Theatre’

4

2

1

n Masculinity vs. Femininity - this score

there is a staged sensory touch of the mind

• ‘Valuable’ ‘Theatrical’ Perception experience

planet dimensions, of sentiment, is expected

(“sensation”) which is experienced live by the

indicates to which extent the prevailing

by Scandinavian futurists.

customer/guest;

values in a society are either masculine or

In a masculine society such as the US, the

there is a centrally chosen theme and a sti-

feminine. In a masculine society the men

emotion economy will lead to the fairly

mulation of the five senses.

are “assertive” and the women “caring”,

unrefined, though very successful staging of

performance and ambition take a pivotal

“experiences”. In a feminine society as we

n The “planet” and “people dimensions”.

3

position and the ideal of people is to be

come across in the Scandinavian countries we

It is the Scandinavian authors that mention

independent. In a feminine culture the

see that answers to the emotion economy

these newer dimensions of implementation

distinction between male and female roles

question are sought in the broad social vision.

in addition to the traditional profit

is less obvious, there is much interest for

Other European authors such as the Frenchman

dimension. Contrary to the profit

the quality of life, humanity and the

Kapferer corroborate this idea. He stated the

implementation version:

environment, and people pursue mutual

following: “Big is beautiful” should evolve into

it concerns the staging of stories as a

dependence.

“Big is responsible”.

strategical foundation for business o perations;

Later a fifth dimension (Confusianism) was added

Of course, masculine and feminine activities

it usually concerns “valuable” stories.

which appeared crucial in understanding Asian

will be visible in all parts of the world.

Points of departure are “values” in society,

cultures (and which Hofstede himself initially

(The Body Shop is American, but managed and

Figure 4

things that are close to peoples’ hearts

overlooked, being a born and bred European).

invented by a woman - Anita Roddick, with a

An indication of the correlation between coffee price

(“sentiment”);

There is no need to discuss the research here

social commitment at the core.) The trend,

a “live setting” is not necessary. Stories

extensively. A comparison of the scores of the

however, is clear. I dare to assert that a large

may also be communicated otherwise

US and the Scandinavian countries may shed

number of Europeans in the emotion economy

(multimedia);

light on the two-track implementation of the

has explicit “care” expectations with regard

the products (tactical, short-term) are

emotion economy.

to companies, as opposed to the US. Different

Commodity Good

Service

Emotion

and method of offering.

•

•

Note: Max Havelaar is a fair trade label. Products with the Max Havelaar label have been grown with

•

subordinate to the story (strategical,

environment-friendly manner.

long-term);

• Apart from The Dream Society by Rolf Jensen,

values lead to different interpretations of the Emotion Economy in International Perspective

the starting principle is another type of company: the company as a “tribe”.

“emotional enterprise”. The Hofstede model offers a very interesting

Hofstede’s multi-dimensional model, measures the “basic personality” of a country on the basis of “occupation-related” values.

first analysis of the differentiated international

Country

Individual/ collectivism

Power distance

Uncertainty avoidance

Masculinity/ Femininity

and publications about the experience economy.

context which forms the basis for contemplations

Funky Business, written by Ridderstråle and

By means of international value research we will

Nordström. They argue that, in essence, the age

try to find an explanation for the “two-track

of abundance gradually proceeds to the age

implementation”: the “sensation track” and the

USA

91

50

40

16

46

11

62

36

research instrument is founded on interpersonal

of affection. We must no longer compensate

“sentiment track”, in order to gain more insight

NL

80

46

38

14

53

18

14

3

behaviour within the IBM concern. This might

abundance by more of the same, but by

into the true nature of the emotion economy.

Norway

69

38

31

6/7

50

16

8

2

not be a representative cross-section of the

It is important to mention, however, that the

Sweden

71

40

31

6/7

29

4

5

1

population in general and it does not concern

“sensation and sentiment”. And in addition to

2 . 2 i n t e r n at i o n a l va l u e r e s e a r c h

Finland

63

34

33

8

59

20

26

7

consumer or leisure behaviour. More (culturally)

The Experience Economy by Pine and Gilmore,

In our quest for the true nature of the emotion

Denmark

74

42

18

3

23

3

16

4

specific value research is advisable to

two other works were published in the US in

economy we will confine ourselves in this essay

1999: The Entertainment Economy by US media

to the research instrument which was created in

Figure 5

consultant Michael Wolf and The Attention

1973 by Geert Hofstede, the results of which

Value of the four indices (left number in each cell)

Economy by the Americans Thomas Davenport

were validated repeatedly and on a worldwide

for the US and the Scandinavian countries with rank

Moreover, value research relates to only one

and John Beck. Both endorse the opinion that

basis. On the basis of global research within the

numbers (rightnumber in each cell) in the original

facet of the necessary information for the

companies in the year 2000 should be able to

IBM concern he formulated 4 dimensions that

table of 50 countries.

emotion implementation of companies. Another

introducing emotionally-charged elements of

23

demonstrate its validity in other sectors and to achieve an ideal situation.

©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

care under good working conditions and in an

the Scandinavian realm provided us with

©NHTV 2003

extremely different than the US. Based on

story or, in this case, a remarkable socially

but it does accord with Rolf Jensen’s dream

22

vidualism vs. collectivism, produce comparable

aspect involves the existing experience supply in the various countries. The fact that the US

the sentiment track Value creation in the competition sphere

y

m k’ ion no rac pt co t t rce e e n u e e im le p Val nt my ‘Se luab no e eco Va c k’ ien ce rac er en n t exp eri o i l Exp at ns rica ‘Se at

and Japan have a different leisure pattern than Europe, caused the leisure infrastructure and supply to develop along totally different

Differentiated immaterial/emotional

patterns. This is why the competition situation

le op Pe net a l P

for experience suppliers varies with the different continents and countries.

e Th

degree, but to a great extent also strongly culturally determined. Further research is, therefore, certainly recommendable.

Undifferentiated material

as imagineering) will never render marketing

Value economy +

new type of business instrument to shape the

2000

Marketing Product-oriented Engineering

An “immaterially and emotionally focused

Figure 7

society” demands a different way of working

Development of the economic theory and accompanying set of management instruments.

Figure 6

from the corporate community. If the corporate

perspective has not been conclusively

The two-track implementation of the emotion economy.

community wishes to restore the lost trust of

3

attitude, this requires a fundamentally different

organisations from bad experiences.

The relation and transaction with the customer

method of working and not only a different

is optimised by employing experiences as a

form of marketing. This calls for a cultural shift

marketing instrument. “Experiencing” and

in companies, the responsibility for which is

“perceiving” have become the magic words in

borne by the senior-level management and

profit dimension (the “sensation track”):

the land of marketing, communication and

in which the marketeer has an important

“Experiences and sensation” are the obvious

events. Companies create and stage an

awareness-raising task at the most. According

answer to the emotion economy on the basis

experience to entertain the guest in a personal

to Van Kralingen, the majority of the managers

imagineering as a management instrument in the emotion economy “the ropes of the emotional game”

of the profit dimension. This answer will

way at a charge. Technological possibilities

is convinced of the necessity of a fundamental

Customers or guests who think differently and

probably be emulated by representatives

facilitate the creation of a richer and more

cultural shift. It is just that such a cultural change

companies that compete differently, call for

of the more masculine countries.

intense experience by appealing to several

is rather complicated, because there is no recipe

managers who operate differently. The shift

senses. In this way, companies hope to make

and because, at the same time, it should not

from material to immaterial and, the European

an indelible impression. They use experiences

harm the competitive position of the companies.

emphasis on sentiment instead of sensation

the people and planet dimensions

in this respect for reasons of competition.

Companies are truly in a splits between growth

and on E-commerce, demand a different set

(the “sentiment track”):

Experiences offer a new opportunity for

and efficiency, and real contact with markets,

of management instruments. It is about

“Emotions, stories and sentiment” constitute

differentiation. The company that knows how

employees and citizens.

“engineering for immaterial things” or

an answer that is more in agreement with

to employ this new economic value efficiently,

Both potential customers and future employees

“engineering for imagination”, imagineering.

the socially committed “we care” notion of

will make money and possibly also capture the

cry for products, services, strategies, leaders

The ropes of the immaterial and emotional

planet and people. As a result, answers of

hearts of its customers. Goods are exchangeable,

and organisations that touch them (E(motional)-

profession have become the ropes of everyone’s

this sort will be successful in the more

products tangible, services intangible and

commerce). We all want to be touched. We crave

profession. Essential for the success of

feminine countries (and companies).

experiences “memorable”. The guest has

attention. In the emotion economy it no longer

companies in the future is the skill to optimise

acquired yet another “fantastic” story, a

suffices to “act” differently, companies need to

the opportunities for emotional competition and

2 . 3 t h e t w o - t r a c k i m p l e m e n tat i o n and the “emotional enterprise”

“memorable” experience.

“be” different. That is why companies depend

the skill to constantly mobilise a company-wide

so much on people.

commitment to fantasy.

It seems realistic to expect that the two tracks

marketing” offers an escape route from the

We may conclude that the true nature of the

A similar situation has constituted the essence of

in the emotion economy - the sensation track and

“marketing spiral” which is currently typified

emotion economy is variegated. There is the

the management of theme parks (and other types

the sentiment track - will also have implications

as “pointless” by some marketeers.

“sensation track” which involves “experience

of leisure supply) since its origin around 1950: a

for business operations. We feel that the

Hypercompetition and a too strong dependence

marketing” and the “sentiment track” which

demand for experiences and perceptions should

“sensation track” corresponds with “experience

on market research appears to lead to the

has a strategical character and usually requires

be answered with a surprising, new emotional

marketing”, whereas “a different” company may

same answers everywhere, in this case to more

a reversal of company cultures.

supply every time. The method of working in this

be necessary for following the “sentiment

“brandlands” and “brand events”. Marketing

In view of the declining added value of

micro situation may also be very inspiring for

track”.

instruments may also achieve less and less added

marketing efforts in most sectors and the social

other companies and organisations that have

value. We need to get rid of the marketing

development in the field of “people and planet”,

reached a similar supply-demand situation due to

dogma that it all begins and ends with the

we expect the sentiment track to be more

the social shift from material to immaterial.

consumer. This was the radical idea held by

beneficial in the long term.

Within the world of theme parks, this method of

especially American multinationals which have

“Emotional value creation” in combination with

working is mostly referred to as “imagineering”.

built their empires on a global scale since 1950.

the technological developments in the field of

It is not really possible to give old answers

communication necessitate and enable a new set

Imagineering, a term contrived by the Disney

to the new social issues in the long term.

of business instruments. The following section

concern, is a contamination of imagination and

Stage-managed entertainment does not

explores these instruments of the “emotional

engineering, in other words, the engineering of

immediately seem the most adequate answer

enterprise”: “imagineering”.

immaterial things. Imagineering refers to the

The topical question is whether “experience

to the call for more meaningful and socially

work of a group of people, a team, which is in

responsible enterprises.

charge of the creation, development and

25

©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

t h e s e n s at i o n t r a c k

n “value economy” is an exponent of

Physical communication

the consumer by a more humane and creative

undoubtedly prevent companies and

n “experience economy” is an exponent of the

‘Broadcast’ communication

supply-demand relations more adequately. Time

“the experience economy” in international

We can make a few general assertions, though:

Interactive communication

Market-oriented

superfluous. Nevertheless, the sentiment track

corporate value creation naturally evokes a

determined yet. Research in this field may

©NHTV 2003

Imagineering

superfluous, a new set of instruments (such

of the new people and planet dimensions to

It may be clear that the true nature of

24

Immaterial/emotional-oriented

marketing has never rendered engineering

‘Emotion’ economy = Experience economy 1750

has become superfluous. Much the same as

calls for a more radical approach. The addition

it of Pr

Finally, emotions are universal to a certain

Development of the Economic Theory

This does in no way mean that marketing

communication of all the elements of a theme

In essence, the broad vision needs to come from

to exist within the group. When going through

be restructured for this purpose. Continuous

park. This unique theme consists of illustrators,

inside, the market cannot tell you what to do

hard times, it was these common values that

innovation also keeps creating newsworthiness

architects, designers, engineers, writers, artists,

in this respect. So, companies that already have

helped the company make its choices.

(great or small), the experience becomes a

researchers, planners, sound technicians, scale-

a lot “in” them, have a natural headstart, which

The company of Mitsui initially operated in the

never ending story.

model builders, film producers, and depending

makes it quite difficult for others to draw level.

drapery trade, then in the money exchange

This is the point where many newly created

on the nature of the project, many others.

For companies taking this road, it is important

sector and yet later in the mining industry and

experiences fail or are wrongly employed.

Imagineering is certainly not a synonym for

to realise that this “broad vision” is a subjective

manufacturing. Such companies resemble living

More often than not, entrepreneurs respond in

“Disneyfication”. The fact that Disney uses

point of view. As a consequence, people will

ecosystems which are subject to the same laws of

an absolutely simplistic and voguish way to the

marketing, does not mean that all marketing

either be fully in favour or fully against it.

nature as humanity.

customer’s increasing emotional need. Although

efforts immediately lead to “Disneyfication”.

The vision statement is allowed to evolve over

Just like marketing, imagineering is a set of

the course of time, though, it is not a dogma. To illustrate that this vision statement is also

3 e v e r y t h i n g h a s t o c o m m u n i c at e c o n t i n u o u s ly .

for structural policy choices and for a broad

instruments to optimise supply-demand relationships. The difference between marketing

effective for small local companies, we will

To shape this immaterial world on the basis

widen their scope beyond a trivial story in

and imagineering chiefly lies in the fact that

give you the following example. A Dutch camp

of that personality, attractive and inspiring

connection with a one-off humerous shop offer.

marketing is entirely focused on the market

site opted for the “broad vision”: “With more

communication - both internal and external - is

A major toy chain seriously thought to have

in the realisation of its objectives, whereas

respect for man and nature”. This meant that

crucial. After all, immaterial things you cannot

found a new distinguishing capacity in the

imagineering is about gearing all business

all business operations were geared towards

communicate, do not exist for other people.

experience economy for some years. The box

operations to inspiring, surprising the market.

this vision. For instance, the site was quiet at

Words, symbols, brands, stories are necessary

with teddy bears was transformed into a “jungle

Marketing starts from analysed target groups,

10 p.m., the guests were charged extra for green

to make the immaterial “material”, tangible.

experience” by painting the nearest walls in the

whereas imagineering starts from the “broad

investments, the guests were notified of these

Multimedia storytelling, to be able to appeal

store green and by suggesting lianes (a bunch

(or creative) vision”, from shared values which

investments and their results, and package deals

to the imagination, is a primary skill in the new

of ropes). Sales figures were not disappointing,

the company is willing and able to represent in

with parties, media or companies representing

society. At the beginning of this essay we

but one could hardly speak of an experience or

order to inspire follower groups. Imagineering

the same values were organised. This caused a

already stated that the media affect the social

a story, let alone of a remaining attractiveness.

is a term that perfectly covers these aspects.

part of the “old” guests to drop of, but on the

psychology to an ever greater extent. Whether

After a week or so the turnover effect had gone

Terms such as “visioneering”, “emotioneering”

other hand, the group of fanatic guests grew and

you like it or not, this is the new social reality

and ten days later the walls were restored to

or “immaterialisation” are far less adequate to

this group had a better experience at the camp

and our vision of it and the choices we make in it.

their original white colour. On the basis of the

cover the essence of the set of management

site. Throughout the year, the company inspires

On top of that, the communication technology

same logical error even potentially attractive

instruments than the term “imagineering”.

the guests at its specific, “valuable” premises.

enables one and all to communicate about

concepts do not always make it. For instance,

anything and in this way, we can constantly make

Hardrock Café is not a remaining success in

our own choices as customers in accordance

several European cities. It is much more a tourist

with our own personal values and standards.

attraction than a café where you would want

The explanation below represents imagineering

2 a c o m pa n y b e c o m e s a (subjective) personality, a “ l i v i n g c o m pa n y ” .

Ridderstråle and Nordström believe that

to meet people regularly. On the other hand,

in the form of a sort of toolkit with “10 rules of

Next, this “broad vision” is given a “personal”

attractive and inspiring communication is always

the trendy lounge café “Buddah-Bar” in Paris

the game” in order to achieve a method of

explanation. The company becomes a personality

a mixture of reason, affection, intuition and

has truly managed to become “the place to be”

working in the emotion-oriented economy.

that crystallises the broad vision from “its” heart

desire. Most managers are experts in reason.

thanks to a cunning new age concept and a

It goes without saying that it concerns the

and makes itself heard at the right moments.

Telling stories is an art that integrates the other

multimedia marketing concept on the sentiment

essence. For a more detailed elaboration you

At Disney this is the fairy-teller who takes

three components in this reason. Machines,

track; it frequently welcomes the rich and

are referred to the book Imagineering.

you to a world away from reality, the world of

moreover, are unable to tell stories, so that alone

famous of this world at its tables.

Mickey Mouse but also countless fairy-tales. At

is reason for a company to personalise in the

1 the “broad vision” or the “ c r e at i v e t h o u g h t ” o c c u p i e s c e n t r e s ta g e .

De Efteling this is a beautiful world, in particular

emotion economy. Living symbols may prove to

also a naturally beautiful setting with fairy-tales

be quite powerful in this area, just think of the

and gnomes with a very aged look. At Bodyshop

KLM swans as opposed to the national railways

5 everyone, colleaguecompetitors and guests/ customers, is invited to join.

Imagineering revolves around the “broad vision”,

it is the committed world and employees are

that lack such an image. All communication,

The living company is an open system, not a

the immaterial soul, the ideological starting

supported to participate in local pressure groups

even crisis communication, gets totally different

sect, a system that integrates with others who

principle of the social stand of the company

in a wide range of fields.

overtones as a result.

share the same values. Due to the high degree

or the organisation. If we look at Disney, this

A company as a strong personality, with a “broad

is “family happiness as a social basis”, at

vision” and shared values, is capable of creating

Ben & Jerries “social awareness-raising and change”, at Bodyshop “responsible business

An explanation of the instruments may clarify this point.

©NHTV 2003

creative support, many entrepreneurs fail to

27

of copyability of all material things, an open mindset is recommendable. Open, outgoing

a working community that is flexible and sticks

4 not an ordinary story but a serial story.

together even if the world turns away from the

The company or experience should also remain

attractive than closed personalities. Successful

operations with an eye for the regional

specific concrete products or services at a given

captivating in the long term. That is why the

creation and production also demand openness.

(environmental) responsibility and action”,

moment. In his book De levende onderneming,

essence of the story has to be obvious, natural,

Joint promotions and joint communication are

at Club Med “Fraternité, égalité, liberté”.

De Geus states that there has not always been

not too complex. Because the company has

frequently used techniques in the leisure sector.

The difficulty about this “broad vision” is not

a direct relation between a company and a

become a “living company”, an enterprise with

An inspiring personality tries to offer the guests

its invention - entrepreneurs tend to succeed

production line. A century or even longer ago,

a heart, it continues to move, change and

possibilities for co-creation and co-production.

in devising a vision statement without much

there were companies in Japan whose mission

captivate. Rather than brusque changes, it

Even a brand can be constructed interactively.

difficulty, if necessary with the help of external

in life was not to deliver a certain product or

involves continuous innovation which is sensed

Harley Davidson customers even propagate the

advisers - but “being” this broad vision and only

service, but to survive: to maintain themselves

harmonically by guests and customers. With the

brand connotation spontaneously. They are on

then will success in the “immaterially focused

as working communities. The coherence of the

conventional set of communication instruments

equal terms with the company, so to speak.

society” be possible in the long term.

working community was based on values and

this would be an unaffordable strategy. The new

They spontaneously organise major happenings.

The vision statement is more important in

rules which newcomers in the company had to

set of communication instruments suddenly

Harley bikers tatoo the name of the brand on

business operations than the current “product”.

make themselves familiar with in order to be able

makes it possible. Only, the company needs to

their bodies and in this way carry the brand’s

persons are, as a matter of fact, usually far more

©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

26

a true experience, a real never ending story calls

ideal of freedom in their genes. They have transformed Harley biking into a way of life. Not a single other motor bike brand boasts supporters that are so strongly committed to the brand’s “broad vision”: total freedom. Coca Cola involves the “fanatical followers” in

7 the physical context: everything has to be “right” t o t h e s m a l l e s t d e ta i l a n d where possible, all senses w i l l b e i n v o lv e d i n t h e e x p e rience.

from the organisation and to keep the passion

been explained in great detail. Communication

burning. Both authors attribute the failure of

is the beginning and the end of all imagineering.

many mergers to the fact that such jobs are

The British football club Manchester United

lacking. However, as it also appears on other

(MU) is a typical example in this context.

fronts, it will only really work if it becomes

Society is watching you with Argus’ eyes and

In many countries football is emotion par

the frame of mind of everyone within the

published on the Internet and then broadcast

judges you on your consistency. Every time, in

excellence and as a result, capable of developing

organisation. Safety does not improve by

by MTV.

each sort of creation, one needs to think about

real communities. But the game in itself is not

initiating a seperate department for this

Inspiring personalities of companies will also

the essence of the magic. Sports or culture, for

enough for true commitment. Real loyalty of the

purpose, but by convincing everyone of its

contemplate interactive business operations in

instance, have entirely different value profiles

follower group only materialises on the grounds

importance, just like in marketing. This is

the future. Unfortunately, it is impossible to

and magical nuances. If a camp site chooses the

of wider communication. That is why, based

probably more explicitly so in imagineering.

command such situations, but they are the

broad vision “with more respect for man and

on the “broad vision”, the football club has

It is possible to appoint a person to mainly focus

evident consequence of the right inspiration in

nature”, the guests will evaluate everything,

developed into a diversified entertainment

on this problem area, temporarily or otherwise.

line with the company’s values and the “broad

including any brochures and the swimming-pool -

company. By now, MU has its own internet

The only way to survive in an emotion economy,

vision”.

to name just two items, on these values.

portal, pay-TV channel MU TV and a wide range

is to keep breathing and moving, and by

And even the smallest details, such as, in this

of merchandise. Merchandise is a powerful

innovating keep taking the customer’s or guest’s

6 i t c o n c e r n s a n i n t e g r at e d approach, it affects all and one.

example, the choice for environment-friendly

communication instrument which stimulates

emotional need seriously.

chlorine-free paper or the right colour of the

commitment in the best possible way owing to

housestyle, will be given even weight in the

its tangibility and accessibility. The “magical

Companies that play the game according to

Communication is crucial, but we have to bear in

consistency evaluation. Inconsistency will give

symbolism” of the football matches on the

these rules, play the game “differently”. And

mind that adequate creation and development,

rise to questions or complaints. For an optimal

other hand, is far less tangible, but inflames

of course, imagineering is merely an instrument,

followed by a consistent and inspiring

experience it is furthermore important to involve

commitment by a powerful word-of-mouth

similar to marketing. It may be employed for the

production process are analogous to effective

all senses, where possible. Scent, for instance,

effect. Pine and Gilmore speak of a “mixture

realisation of bad or good objectives.

and inspiring communication. So, it involves

is an often forgotten but highly essential sense

of memorability” in this context.

The latter depends on who uses the instrument

an integrated concept in which communication

in experiencing, even if scent in relation to

In this context it is also important to briefly

and what his or her objectives are. Marketing

speaks to the imagination, occupies centre

experience is not exactly an overworked area

mention the fact that the role of the traditional

and imagineering in themselves are neither

stage, but is inextricably bound with the

of research.

advertising agencies is under pressure from

good nor bad.

new technological possibilities. The “Idols” case

People, customers, guests will choose which

inspiring creation and production can only

8 socio-ecological context

shows all the more that SMS income generated

tribe they join time and again. It is up to the

take place if the people involved at all levels

Stimulate interaction and ensure that people

by media channels is considerable, so that

companies and organisations of the future to

are imbued with the values the company or

get committed on the basis of their personal

dependence on the traditional commercials

create these opportunities for joining.

organisation stands for. Then the brooding on

interest. The “broad vision” should enable

declines. In addition, subtle “programme

Obviously, this demands a cultural shift within

impressions, symbols, magic and the power

different forms of commitment. The zoo, for

placement” may be more effective for the viewer

many a company and organisation to realise this

of the product and the creative thinking on

example, should offer room for once-only

who is tired of commercials. This means that

and, in addition, it tends to consume a great deal

the basis of a shared vision, has to become

visitors, casual passers-by, as well as fanatical

the emergence of multimedia communication

of time and effort. John Chambers, CEO of Cisco

a company or organisation-wide frame of

and active animal lovers. People who carry the

presents the traditional advertising agencies

Systems, speaks in this respect of “evangelising”

mind. The “interactive imagineering model”

care for animals deep in their hearts, are much

with an entirely new sort of problem!

a concept, driving at the stamina companies need

visualises how all components are inspired and

less inspired by any zoo. Nevertheless, they were

implemented on the basis of the core value,

the true “follower group” of the “broad vision”

while at the same time contribute to its creative

to possess in the case of such a cultural shift. The awkward thing is that there is no ready-made

on the basis of which many a zoo was founded at

10 the personal context: p l ay t h e g a m e s u b j e c t i v e ly .

expression. The following four rules of the

the time. It goes without saying that zoos in the

Personnel is undoubtedly the most important

A copied personality is just like a copied work of

game give an explanation for the various

year 2003 have to feature stories that are far

component in a value-oriented company, they

art, it is worth nothing. Choosing to play the

business contexts.

more aimed at social awareness and educational

make the difference. Only they are capable

game differently, is a venturesome step which

interaction, than in 1850, when “watching

of propagating the values “in the flesh” and

requires a lot of nerve, because, preferably,

animals” represented the essence. This means

bringing passion and creativity into the business.

taking this step is not allowed to affect the com-

that the “broad vision” is of all times, but

The fact that people love their work to begin

petitive position too much. But it is first and

evolves incessantly along the track of the

with, inspires others. A “living company” does

foremost a step that each company takes indivi-

prevailing social priority.

not work along the “standard” nine-to-five

dually and of their own accord. It may be clear

Relation technology may be high-tech, but also

routine, but works “subjectively” and on the

that this step can only succeed if the senior-level

has simple forms that do not detract from its

basis of true commitment. As a matter of fact,

management assumes responsibility to that

effectiveness. Just think of the Disney buttons

research has shown that a hospital where the

effect. And this is what will distinguish the top

pinned to a necklace and intended to be

“experience” is better because the doctors act

manager with an original sense of enterprise and

swapped with cast members or visitors. They are

better, actually achieves better results as a

open mind from others in the future.

a simple and concrete means to establish contact

company in the long term.

Traditionally thinking top managers have been

with others who share the same values. And this

Where imagineering is concerned, new jobs

trained with the standard recipes that do not

is precisely what many people look for in the

pop up here and there. In the hotel and catering

contain this cultural shift as an ingredient.

emotion economy, affection and attention.

world we come across the “mood manager”,

Playing the game differently, calls for an

Pine and Gilmore introduce the “Chief Xperience

individual subjective statement that also

Figure 8

Officer”, Prahalad and Hamel believe in the

confirms the “being” of the organisation and

The “interactive imagineering model”.

“Chief Imagination Officer” as the person who

inspires further business operations.

Social and ecological context

Personal context “broad vision” values (international!) magic/charisma soul

Media context

Physical context

formula for the implementation of imagineering.

29

©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

The Interactive Imagineering Model

©NHTV 2003

is responsible to remove any creative obstacles

The pivotal importance of communication has

the production of the commercials that are

development and production phase. After all,

28

9 the media context

values of the culture that puts them on a

Let us return to our opening case: Idols. On the

pedestal. This gives their hero status something

grounds of the above, we could assert that the

industrial, the idol status has been produced, in

Dutch “Idols” is of a feminine and sentimental

consultation with the target group or otherwise,

fashion where it concerns the “content

as was the case in Idols. In general, but certainly

creation”. Simply because the programme has

in the Dutch version of Idols, one could speak

been produced on the basis of our feminine

of a consciously created “star status”, of an

culture. For we have chosen Jamai ourselves.

“industrial hero status” for the winner, precisely

NHTV Breda University of Professional Education

In other words, a pop idol always reflects the

because Idols exploited sentiment from its very

wants to make a contribution to building

As an objective player, NHTV will try to

cultural values of his own domestic market and

outset and because the Dutch, feminine side is

a fascinating world on the basis of its own

identify the possible strategies and tactics

the Idols jury is fully aware of that.

strongly emphasised in Jamai’s set of emotional

identity. Established in 1963 as an educational

so that companies and organisations may

The winner of the Dutch Idols could never be a

values.

answer to the tourism (emotion) demand, NHTV

in conclusion: the social r e l e va n c e o f t h e s p e c i a l i s t area of imagineering

motives to demonstrate the importance of the Associate Professorship Imagineering. n Pragmatical motives are obviously essential for an educational institution: companies are confronted with new types of problems.

reap the benefits. n Ethical motives are also essential for an

version would be a sensational experience and

We have chosen the Idols example in this essay

its social contributions in the social development

objective player in the market. The institute

would have a typically masculine winner which,

not so much for its “content” as for the sake of

towards an emotion economy. Mechanisation

has the pre-eminent task of, on the basis of

in terms of image, corresponds with the set of

“imagineering”. More than any other situation,

and automation put a different complexion

research, contribute to building a fascinating

values prevailing in America.

Idols makes clear how the focus is shifting

on “emotion” in society, also in the corporate

world where everyone’s emotions are dealt

However, we don’t know what to do with a

from material and tangible to immaterial and

community. NHTV considers it its social task

with respectfully. In view of the fact that the

hard-nosed, businesslike and emotionally

emotional and what this implies for the “rules”

to inspire the various stakeholders (companies,

emotion economy is unfolding at this very

unmoved pop idol as preferred by a masculine

of “engineering”.

customers/guests, government, media) to a

moment, it is all the more relevant for the

thorough insight into and optimum use of the

institute to make itself heard at crucial

emotion economy.

moments because the “formal” context of

society. We don’t identify with that, we do not see such a pop idol as a “hero”. The Idols

n the creative (simple but broad) passionate thought at the core;

programme in our country positions itself more

n personal and subjective;

as a sentimental experience, a quest for a musical

n the necessity of communicating everything

hero with a cuddly character. Jamai is the perfect

you do;

the phenomenon has yet to be shaped. The Associate Professorship Imagineering

Legislation has not yet been equipped,

plays an important part in this as a knowledge

media and public authorities keep searching for the “boundaries” and “consequences” of

answer: a soft, friendly, a bit vulnerable looking

n it becomes a captivating serial story;

portal between the institute and the industry.

boy who does not even sing that well (yet) and

n everyone is allowed and able to join in their

This essay confirms the hypothesis that

moves awkwardly, but manages to amass hordes of fans by his soft, slightly self-willed looks and his heart in the right place.

own way; n all actions on all fronts are imbued with the foregoing points.

the “players’” behaviour.

“imagineering”, a method of working in the

Furthermore, the “we-care” version of this game

world of theme parks, offers a great many

requires a great deal of courage, so that all help

perspectives for the corporate community as a

will be welcome. In this sense, the Associate

whole in the unfolding emotion economy.

Professorship Imagineering may contribute to

Many American and British pop idols, such

Moreover, it appears that the 10 described rules

This essay was written on the basis of literature

welfare in society, although perhaps a rather

as Michael Jackson, Robbie Williams and

of the game hold true, but that the sentiment

reading and empirical research, which led to a

small contribution. The funny thing about

David Bowie also possess feminine sides, but

track and the sensation track are expected to

number of interesting findings that will serve

this emotion economy in the digital society,

in terms of image they are far more masculine

entail subtly different priorities and effects.

as hypotheses for more detailed research in the

however, is that you do not need to be great

of character. The American domestic market,

Further research has to demonstrate this.

future:

to accomplish great things.

after all, prefers self-assured, cool heroes and

Still, the fact that the multimedia interactive

identifies more readily with businesslike and

and emotional approach works, has been proved

self-assured pop idols. A striking thing in this

beyond dispute by Idols.

respect is that originally British pop idols

Mid-March 2003, on the release day of his first

in the “masculine” countries (and companies)

flowing from the Associate Professorship,

who are successful in America (David Bowie,

single, the Dutch winner sold more CDs than the

and the value version has more supporters in

the institute itself will also contemplate the

Phil Collins, Sting) provide the feminine side

entire top 3 from the Top 40 normally do in one

the “feminine” countries (and companies);

consequences of the social developments for

of their image with a more authentical

week’s time. Jamai also entered the hitparade at

n the experience version is unfolded along the

emotional charge, whereas originally

number 1. Let’s hope that the story was directed

sensation track and focuses on the creation

calls for a “split vision” within the institute:

American pop idols seem to fake this feminine

as a serial story. Let’s hope that Jamai’s story is

of memorable experiences by stimulating the

apart from the regular “material” orientation,

side (Michael Jackson) or leave this side out

a never ending story.

senses;

the institute will also have an eye for the

n emotion economy is the umbrella term of experience economy and value economy; n the experience version mainly has supporters

n the value version is unfolded along the

The institute itself is a player in the emotion economy. In addition to inspiration for others

its own actions. The emotion economy also

“immaterial focus”.

and British pop idols do not differ much from

sentiment track and is based on a strategical

The institute will be acting as a “player with

their male counterparts; Mariah Carry and

approach of the emotion economy which will

insight”. This means that this player realises

Jennifer Lopez emphasise (often artificially)

require a cultural shift in many companies;

that the experience version, the sensation track,

n imagineering is the set of instruments to

makes up only one side of the picture and that

surgery and hair extensions, but in spite of

appeal to the imagination in an emotion

value orientation is an equally relevant option

this, they are typical pop idols of the masculine

economy by centralising the “broad” or

for an educational institute, to say the least.

fashion.

“creative vision” in all continuous

their femininity by means of short skirts, plastic

communication and creation. In a general sense, it seems that, in terms of

n imagineering, although practicable in the

31

n The first track is tantamount to the attractive organisation of all infrastructure, the

image, ideal pop idols harmonise with the set

sensation track, will produce the best result

“theatrical direction” and probably also a

of emotional values of the culture which they

if pursued along the strategical, integrated

short drama course for all NHTV students.

originate from, but especially which they are

sentiment track. The more immaterial and

Students need to realise that communication

active in. Their hero status seems to be

emotional the subject matter, the greater the

is not a question of “faking”, but a question

prescribed by the ruling set of emotional

effect of imagineering.

of getting the best out of yourself. They ©NHTV 2003

Diane Nijs | Imagineering

altogether (Bruce Springsteen). Female American

©NHTV 2003

So, there are both pragmatical and ethical

and organisations in the emotion economy

recognises opportunities to widen the scope of

typically masculine figure. An American Idols

30

4

idols case

need to experience that true emotion

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colophon

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