COMMUNICATION

1. Communication defined Communication is the transmission of common understanding through the use of symbols. The term is derived from the Latin word 'communis' , meaning "common". In other words, unless a common understanding results from the transmission of verbal or nonverbal symbols there is no communication. 2. Key elements of communication An early, elementary model of the communication process was presented by Aristotle, which comprised the speaker, speech and the audience. The modern models are more complex. The Shannon-Weaver Model developed as a model in electronic communication has been adopted by behavioural scientists to explain human communication. Shanon and Weaver set up a 5 ingredients model in communication: a – source, a transmitter, a signal, a receiver and a destination. The more generally accepted human communication models normally consists of the following elements: Source-Encoder-Message-Channel-Receiver-Decoder-Meaning- feedback -Noise Source and Encoder -Communication requires a source that has some thought, idea or information to transmit. A human source translates mental perceptions into a code that represents the meaning; she or he wishes to transmit. Language is the most popular code used to express such mental perceptions. Message -The result of ~he encoding process is the message -either verbal or nonverbal. Source encodes meaning into a message that can be transmitted. Message could take the form of spoken/printed words, graphics, drawing, and expression of the face or gesture of the arm. The message represents the meaning the source is trying to convey. Channel -The channel is the carrier of the message. The five senses viz. sight, sound, touch, taste and smell could all act as channels (in face to face communication). The others are, air which carries sound waves, a telephone system, written statements, computer networks, audio and video tapes.

Receiver-Decoder and Meaning -For the process of communication to be complete the message must be decoded by the receiver which means it must be interpreted by the receiver. Source and receiver must understand the symbols used, they must attach similar meanings to their symbols. The understanding depends upon communication skills, attitudes, experience, knowledge, and environmental and socio-cultural factors. Communication oriented towards the receiver has a greater probability for success than communication structured entirely from the source's perspective. Feed-back -This enables the source to know whether or not the message has been received and interpreted correctly and, therefore, it is desirable to make provision for feed back in the communication process. Noise- In the context of communication noise is any interfering factor that can distort the intended message. Noise can be present in any element. A source creates noise if it is unable to understand or describe something. Encoding process contains noise if the meaning is not adequately represented by symbols. Message is subject to transcription or other mistakes. Channel might contain noises that prevent the message from getting through accurately. With all these possibilities for miscommunication it sometimes seems a wonder that persons can communicate at all. The important point is to realise that there are numerous opportunities for miscommunication, and to take them to account in all communications. 3. Common barriers to effective communication One of the ways in which .we can improve interpersonal communication is by becoming aware of the barriers in communication. Communication Barriers can be put 1tO few major categories. They are 

Semantic Barriers -those relating to use of language

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Physical Barriers -those relating to age, distance, time, noise

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Socio- Psychological Barriers -those relating to things like attitude, emotions etc.

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Organisational barriers -While the factors noted above may exist both at the interpersonal and organisational levels there are certain barriers which are almost due to organisational factors.

Thus barriers may be within individuals or within organisations.

a) Organisational Barriers i)

Organisational levels

The problems relating to the organisational levels are the physical distance between members of the organisation, specialisation of task functions and information ownership. First, the more links there are in the chain of communication and the further away is the receiver from the sender of a message, the harder it will be for message success. One way out is to lessen the physical distance between organisational membf3rs by reducing the number of links. Second, job specialisation may make it difficult for experts in one area to communicate effectively with those from other areas. Creating a climate of togetherness and showing how one segment is dependent on the other could open communication channels. Third, whenever greater premium is placed upon achievement by position or knowledge rather than achievement by cooperation, there will appear to be power accruing to the "owner" of vital information. Way out of this is to instill a pride in group work and attach importance to achievement of goals by cooperation. ii)

Lack of understanding of the organisation

Lack of understanding of the responsibilities, needs and problems of separate departments/divisions within the business structure could hinder effective communication. Any attitude of the organisation revolving around "my department" "my section" does not serve the cause of effective communication. This happens because the personnel do not understand the general objectives and goals of the top management. iii) Status relationships among members within organisations Free flow of communication is likely to be inhibited whenever persons are placed in superior or subordinate positions. One's ego and status is very important and whenever either is threatened friction and tension is likely to develop and this will inevitably produce distortions, which can affect communication adversely. b. Personal Communication Barriers As against organisational barriers there are certain personal communication barriers. These consist of socio -psychological barriers, physical barriers and semantic barriers. i) Perception -This can be defined as a person's view of reality. No two persons see things exactly alike due to different experiences in life. The differences in perception can be attributed to the differences in one's conception of reality. When people communicate about physical reality

there are few communication problems but there are times when meanings are not definitive and the receiver of the message may have a different interpretation of the communique. This is known as normative or interpretive reality. Whenever two individuals discuss matters of personal opinion there is a good chance of communication to break down. As one moves from sensory to normative reality interpretations become increasingly relative. ii) Attitudes -Attitudes are the result of people's own experiences and are formed through their social environment, educational background, and political and other affiliations. These are sometimes so deep-rooted that it may become very difficult to look at things in a different perspective. iii) Inferences -When we communicate there are two types of statements that we may make about an object, event, or person. Descriptions are factual statements about an object, event, or person. Inferences are conclusions we draw from our observations. However, both observations and inferences are common and even necessary for us to deal with are environments. Problems sometimes arise out of our failure to distinguish between the two types of communication. When we treat inferences as if they were factual observations we are misevaluating reality and miscommunicating to others who may treat our statements as description of facts. iv) Tendency to evaluate -We all have a natural tendency to judge, evaluate, approve or disapprove the statement of another person. The judgements may be based on the receiver's evaluation of the communicator, the receiver's previous experiences with the communicator, or the message's anticipated meaning.  Confusion of Facts with Inferences -There appears to be a common tendency among people to pass moral judgements on situations about which they have no facts. A statement of fact is possible only after observation and is limited to what has actually been observed. On the other hand inferential statements can be made any time because they go beyond what is observed. To develop a habit of discriminating between description and inferences one could ask oneself the following questions: First, did I personally observe what I am talking or writing about? Second, do my observational statements stay with, and not go beyond, my observations? Third, when I deal with important inferences, do I assess their probabilities? Fourth, when I communicate with others, do I label my inferences as such and get them to label theirs?  Either or Thinking (polarisation)- This is also classified as twovalued thinking or simply the judging of people and events in terms of black or white. We tend to think and communicate in either or

terms. But the reality is seldom as clear-cut as the either-or-words. An example of either-or-thinking is management's attitude toward unions " all unionisation is bad". This attitude ignores the possibility of some unions being better than others or some union members being more honest than others.  Bias and Prejudices -Bias and prejudice are an integral part of the emotional nature of everyone. One type of bias is stereotyping. This is the habit of classifying people in an indiscriminate manner disregarding individual differences or distinctions between individuals. We need to be constantly alert to the uniqueness and differences of each person.  Frozen evaluation -A frozen evaluation of a person, object or event is judgement set in concrete and occurs when one forgets the process of change. For example, we sometimes remember someone with whom we had no contact for a number of years as the same person we knew the last time we were with them. We assume no change to occur even though people often change very markedly. One way to thaw frozen evaluatior1 is to ask "when"? v) Thalamic reaction -The th,3lamus lies at the base of the skull and its function is to channel sensory impression to the cortex and return signals for actions to the muscles. The cortex sorts out the sensory impressions, co -relates them with memories stored there and weighs various courses of actions. In an emergency the thalamus can short-circuit the cortex, which can trigger an "emergency reaction" and we may react without thinking. This emergency reaction can become a communication barrier. It is important to control one's emotions, to slow down and think before speaking. vi) Blinderedness -The term is derived from the word blinders worn by a horse and refers to the tendency to look only straight ahead. The tendency to think that there is a limiting factor to the ways things can be done is the result of blinderedness. vii) Semantics and By Passing -This is the study of the way words are used and the meaning they convey. The same words may mean entirely different things to different people. Thus by passing occurs when the sender and receiver of a message give different meanings to the words that are used. This happens when persons engaged in communication have dissimilar background and experiences with the particular symbols being used. For communication to be effective it is necessary that the receiver interpret the sender's words from the sender's perspective and not her/his own. One way to reduce bypassing problem is for the sender to be aware of the audience he or she is trying to reach. Second remedy is to

seek frequent feed back from the receiver, concerning his or her understanding of the message. viii) Timing -Effectiveness of communication can be reduced if timing is not correct. One has to De always aware of what should be conveyed when. ix) Communication overload -When persons are loaded with more information than they can adequately process it leads to communication overload. As a result of this the receiver screens out messages which can distort the message. x) Resistance to change -Basically people resist change. Due to this people may try to ignore or block out inormation when it conflicts with what they believe, and hear what they want to hear. The manager's job is to overcome resistance to change. One of the ways to do this is to explain to people how new ideas can be beneficial to them as well as to the management. . xi) Poor listening skills -Although the last but not of least importance is the lack of listening skills. 4. Basics of Effective Communication It goes without saying that having known the barriers we must try and remove those barriers to make communication more effective. However, it is easier said than done and one really needs to make a conscious effort to communicate effectively. We may try and remember some of the following points: One must seek to clarify one's ideas before communicating. Clarence Randall remarks " I don't advice you to start talking until you have begun thinking. It's no good opening the tap if there is nothing in the tank". One must examine the true purpose of the communication by asking oneself what one really wants to accomplish with the message -is it to obtain information, initiate action or change another person's attitude? One must consider the total physical and human setting whenever one communicates -for example it is important to have a sense of timing, place etc. .One needs to be mindful of the overtones and the basic content of one's message. One could take the opportunity, when it arises to, to convey something of help or value to the receiver.

One must follow up one's communication and make certain that every important communication has a" feed back" so that complete understanding and appropriate action results. One must be a good listener. In fact listening happens to be one of the most important, most difficult and most neglected skills in communication. One must concentrate not only on the implicit meanings, but on undertones, non- verbal communication also. Some of the other things, which could help, are Noting down important points Asking questions and seeking clarifications Repetition of important points Empathy Using language effectively Avoiding speaking faults, which are. 

Talking too slowly -makes the listener lose interest

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Talking too rapidly -makes the listener lose comprehension

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Talking too loudly- makes the listener and others disturbed

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Talking too softly- makes the listener feel strained

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Talking too much and being repetitive -makes the listener feel bored

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Parroting type of talk -makes the listener feel that your talk/speech is a borrowed one

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Talking tough -makes the listener feel distasteful

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Talking personal details -makes the listener impatient

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Talking endless irrelevant details -makes the listener feel that you have lost touch.

Since one of the most important aspects of effective communication is the ability to listen we may take a look at some of the listening sins one may commit. The ten most frequently mentioned examples given include: Does not smile when we talk. Splits attention with other tasks. Never really looks at me. Always changes the subject. Allows interruptions. Never lets me complete a thought. Fidgets, seems irritated. Takes an awful lot of notes. Tries to turn around what I say. Makes me feel insignificant. It is evident that there are a lot of emotions tied up in the act of listening. If we do well the other persons feel good about themselves and their ideas. If we do it poorly the emotions range from resentment to outright anger. To be an effective listener one requires skill and knowledge. The primary factor determining ones level of success as a listener is one's desire and attitude toward people. The acronym P.O. W.E.R. might help one focus on the key ingredients of effective listening. Listen Perceptively- This means listening with senses other than vision; listening between words for feeling and emotion; paying special attention to the tone of voice used, what is left unspoken and what is implied. Be Observant -According to a study conducted by Albert Mahrabian at UCLA 55 percent of communication is based on what people see. One needs to watch a speaker for additional information. Be Willing -It will not be an exaggeration to say that the act of listening may well be one of the most unnatural acts that we perform. Setting aside our own needs and agenda in favour of someone else's runs contrary to basic human nature. No wonder, therefore, effective listening requires a conscious and deliberate effort to make it work.

Be Engaged -This implies a level of connectedness with the speaker through he use of active feedback. Being engaged as a listener means giving the speaker feedback to let him or her know you are involved. Be Respectful-This means listening with focused attention, time to speak without interruptions and not letting ones mind race ahead to formulate a response. Becoming a P.O.W.E.R listener requires real commitment. Anyone one who wishes o become a more effective manager and leader is wasting his/her time if he/she fails to master this skill. In the ultimate analysis we need to remember that the. basic fundamentals of communication revolve around a sense of humanity toward one's fellow human beings. And what does humanity stand for in communication transmission? Honesty with other people Understanding of their problem Mutual respect Awareness of their limitations Negotiability " Identification with their feelings Trust and finally a You orientation, not I References: 1.

Organisational Communications: The Essence of Effective Management by Phillip V. Lewis

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Organizational Communication by Arnold E. Schneider, William C. Donaghy, Pamela Jane Newman

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Management Mess -ups by Mark Eppler.

4.

Management by Herbert G. Hicks & C. Ray Gullet

5.

Fundamentals of Management by Donnelly, Gibson & Ivancevich

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