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Collaborative Environmental Systems Project 2015 - 16 Feasibility Study

Desalination Pilot Plant in Praia de Leste, Brazil Authors:

Ines Duclairoir Madeleine Gray Dua Zehra Shule Li Yang Li Tingen Rong

Supervisor:

Dr. Luiza Campos



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Executive Summary This project focused on a desalination pilot plant in the coastal town of Praia de Leste, in the south of Brazil. The region’s main water utility company, SANEPAR have designed a pilot plant to increase potable water provision in the town during the summer season, and required technical advice on renewable energy solutions to power the plant, and brine management techniques to handle the waste. This report summarises previous research and findings conducted by the UCL team in the following areas: Filtration Technologies and Pump Efficiency; Brine Management – focusing on Electrodialysis (ED), Aquaculture and the SAL-PROC process; Solar and Wind Energy potential of the region; and a thorough Life Cycle Assessment of the chosen technologies. After careful consideration of all brine management methods, the final chosen technology was a combination of ED and the Salt Recovery process to effectively manage brine concentration and produce useful products in the process. Industrial salts were recognised as useful by-products, theoretically leaving no waste in the process. Aquaculture and Irrigation were also considered as possible waste disposal methods. Although these technologies provided innovation, they currently lack widespread development in order to be implemented in Brazil; hence they are noted as possible future recommendations for SANEPAR to make. With regards to renewable energy, previous detailed research on PV Solar and Wind energy showed that both could harness natural resources to power the plant efficiently. However, the utility’s budget limited the technology available to the site; the recommendations of 100 solar panels and a large 70m hub height turbine remained large scale and out of reach for a pilot plant. Details of the smaller wind turbines chosen by SANEPAR have been given, and the large-scale options have also been listed as future recommendations for expansion. An in-depth Life Cycle Assessment of the technologies in the system was carried out determine their environmental impact and ensure it is kept to a minimum. It was found that the incorporation of a suitable brine management and renewable energy solution was extremely useful in reducing environmental impact of the project. A schematic diagram of the final chosen technologies at the pilot plant has also been provided to illustrate our ideas to the team at SANEPAR. Hopefully this completed piece of work will provide the utility with technical guidance regarding the pilot plant’s operation and successfully meet its target for efficient water provision for Praia de Leste.



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Contents Acronyms and Symbols 1. Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Objectives

2. Filtration Technologies and Pump Efficiency 2.1 Membrane Technologies

3. Brine Management 3.1 Electrodialysis 3.2 Aquaculture 3.3 SAL-PROC Process 3.4 Conclusion

4. Renewable Energy 4.1 Solar Energy Potential in Brazil 4.1.1 Solar Panel Cost and Availability 4.1.2 Solar Panel Requirements 4.2 Wind Energy Potential in Brazil 4.2.1 Wind Turbine Requirements, Cost and Availability 4.3 Conclusion

5. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of System 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Life Cycle Assessment 5.2.1 Goal and Scope 5.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory 5.2.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 5.3 Results and Conclusion

6. Final Conclusion

Page 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 20 21 22 23 24

6.1 Schematic Drawing 6.2 Future Work and Recommendations

7. References 8. Appendix



27 30

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Acronyms and Symbols RO =Reverse Osmosis
 ED = Electrodialysis
 RED = Reverse Electrodialysis
 UEPG = State University of Ponta Grossa
 TDS = Total dissolved solids
 D = distance between panels based on consecutive rows (m)
 Y = 3.5 z = 3.5 L sin α = free dimension between panels rows (m)
 x = L cos α = panel projection dimension on the horizontal plane (m) L = width of solar panel (m)
 α = solar panel tilt angle
z = height of solar panel at tilt α (m) 
E = Energy
Pac = Power (alternating current)
 S = Solar insolation LCA = Life Cycle Assessment
 LCI = Life Cycle Inventory
 LCIA = Life Cycle Impact Assessment CFj i= characterization factor of substance i according to the impact indicator j. j= Impact indicator
 Mj = flow of substance j GE = General Electric



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1. Introduction 1.1.Background Praia de Leste is a coastal town in the city of Pontal do Parana (Figure 1), in Brazil’s southern state of Parana. The population of the region is approximately 21 000, but as a peak tourist destination for the summer (December, January and February) and for New Year’s Eve and Carnival, it can dramatically rise to 500 000. Although this benefit’s the region’s economy, which relies predominantly on fishing and tourism, it puts a large strain on the area’s water supply. The main water utility company in the state of Parana is SANEPAR, and it is struggling to meet water provision needs in Praia de Leste. To address this issue, the utility has developed a pilot plant to test the feasibility of desalination technology. Technologies assessed in the report include Reverse Osmosis, Electrodialysis, Salt Recovery and PV Solar and Wind Energy. The process involves an intake of brackish water being purified by Reverse Osmosis (RO) by applying large amounts of pressure to remove impurities and produce potable drinking water. RO is widely recognised as a state-of-art technology that accounts for 44% of the world’s desalination production and 80% in over 15,000 plants installed around the world (Greenlee et al. 2009). This project has focused on providing SANEPAR with technical advice for the pilot plant with regards to the plant’s energy supply and efficient management of brine, the waste produced as a result of Reverse Osmosis. Different renewable energy sources and brine management methods have been explored to determine the best options for SANEPAR in this case; for the case of energy, the solar and wind energy potential of Praia de Leste have been assessed in research. For efficient brine control, the possibilities of using brine for fish farming with irrigation and Electrodialysis (ED) with Industrial Salt Recovery have been considered. Further details on this research will be provided later in the report, before the most suitable technologies are selected for the plant.

Figure 1. Map showing Location of Pontal do Parana on the coast of Brazil (Source: Google Maps)



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1.2.Objectives The overall project objective is to study sustainable energy supply solutions and brine management strategy for the desalination pilot plant which SANEPAR could practically apply in Praia de Leste. 
However, the project also has several specific objectives that must be addressed. These can be seen in Figure 2. Previous work in this project has successfully met objectives 1 to 4 and is summarised later in the report. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) will be conducted in this report using previous work carried out on the chosen technologies for the brine and energy solutions. For objectives 6 and 7, justification will be provided to explain the chosen solutions for each process, and a schematic diagram of the plant incorporating all the technologies will be provided later in the report. This document intends to give an overview of the research and technological advice available to SANEPAR for the brine management and energy supply technologies with sufficient justifications behind each decision. A detailed LCA will highlight the lifespan of chosen solutions.

Figure 2. Diagram showing the specific project objectives

2. Filtration Technologies and Pump Efficiency A detailed study was conducted to investigate the different membrane filtration technologies and pumps used in water purification, with a focus on RO systems. The possibility of a multi-sage system for RO and its improvement of efficiency was assessed for the case of the pilot plant. Additionally, a mass balance was conducted for the drinking water storage tank and brine management, the results of which are shown in Table 1 and 2 below.



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Table 1. Mass Balance for Drinking Water Storage Tank

TDS Final TDS after treatment (mg/L) V (m3/h)

2000 (mg/L) 25 0.71

4000 (mg/L) 25 0.71

8000 (mg/L) 25 0.71

Table 2. Mass Balance for Brine Management

TDS Final TDS after treatment (mg/L)

2000 (mg/L) 6835.34

4000 (mg/L) 17180.17

8000 (mg/L) 27525

V (m3/h)

0.29

0.29

0.29

2.1.Membrane Technologies The differing membrane technologies can be divided into two sub categories; membrane bioreactor (MBR) and direct membrane filtration (DMF). DMF includes technologies such as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, RO and ion exchange. The main difference between these membranes is the pore size. The technologies of ultrafiltration and RO were studied in further detail as these technologies are used in the desalination plant in Praia de Leste.
Based on a literature review and case study, it was ascertained that the best choice of RO system could be a multi-stage system, consisting of more than one stage to achieve a higher recovery rate of 75%-90%, depending on the number of stages, as indicated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Schematic Diagram of a Multi-Stage System (Source: LANXESS, 2012)

According to a study by Bradley Sessions (Affordable Desalination Collaboration ADC), a two-stage brackish water system is used to optimize the desalination process and achieve lower average energy consumption and a high recovery rate. The schematic process of ADC system is shown in Figure 4. The system uses a two-stage 2:1 array system with seven 8-inch elements in
each vessel. With the help of an inter-stage booster pump, an energy recovery system, a PX booster pump (which is installed between the first and second stage) and higher pump efficiency, an 80% recovery rate is attained. Figure 5 illustrates the recovery from the RO and the whole system.



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Figure 4. A schematic drawing of the ADC system process (Bradley Sessions, 2010)

Figure 5. Recovery and RO permeate flow (Bradley Sessions, 2010)



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From Figure 5, it can be seen that the recovery rate reaches a much higher rate of around 80% after the second stage RO recovery, whilst the system recovery reaches 85%. Therefore, a two stage RO system with an energy recovery system will significantly reduce the energy consumption and increase the recovery rate. Additionally, the use of PX and inter-stage booster pumps helps to prove energy efficient and the two-stage system helps to achieve a high recovery rate. In order to select the optimum RO system, the daily feed of around 5-6 m3/day and permeate rate of 0.71 m3/h must be considered. Systems from DOW were considered for use in this pilot plant, and as brackish water contains around 2000 mg/L TDS, the possible products from DOW are BW30- 2540, XLE -4021 and TW 30-4021. For seawater with more than 2000 mg/L TDS, products DOW FILMTEC SW30-4021 and DOW FILMTEC SW30-4040 could be used (DOW 2016).

3. Brine Management Several options have been studied and compared for the treatment of brine, produced by RO. Table 3 summarises the main advantages and disadvantages of these options. Three of them – Electrodialysis (ED), integrated aquaculture scheme and SAL-PROC process – were studied in further detail. The key reasons for choosing these options are as follows: a) SANEPAR is particularly interested in using Electrodialysis, therefore further research can provide additional information; b) SAL-PROC has the potential to produce commercial salts which can provide economic benefits and increase the cost-effectiveness of the desalination process; c) all of the options are feasible and reliable based on previous case studies. The feasibility was assessed based on the characteristics of brine (e.g. flow rate and total dissolved solids) and local environmental conditions. The main findings are concluded as follows:

3.1. Electrodialysis (ED) ED is an electrochemical separation process, which can further concentrate the brine by the movement of salt ions through selected membranes (Valero et al. 2011). Compared with RO, ED has a higher recovery rate and requires less energy from pumps. As shown in Table 1, the highest possible total dissolved solid (TDS) values of the concentrate after ED were calculated by considering similar experiments conducted by Jiang et al. (2014). Based on the concentration data, two brine technologies were researched to further treat the brine: Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) and Industrial Salt Recovery. RED is one of the most promising salinity gradient power technologies that retrieves power from the salinity difference (Tedesco et al. 2016). It is still under research (Vermaas et al. 2013) and not mature enough for the pilot plant in Brazil. While salt recovery is fairly mature in industrial scale and has been widely used all over the world. The by-product from this process can also make extra profit for the plant. The details of the process and relative cost will be elaborated in the coming chapters. Table 1. TDS value in the ED concentrate



Brackish feed water number 1

Initial TDS (ppm) 8,000

TDS in Brine Waste (ppm) 27,537

TDS in ED Concentrate ppm(ppm)

2

5,000

17,191

42,290

3

2,000

6,847

16,844

67,741

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3.2. Aquaculture As shown in the figure 7, an integrated aquaculture scheme combines fish farming, irrigation and fodder making by utilizing brine waste in a systematic way (Sánchez et al. 2015). Based on the research of several similar cases, the feasibility of this scheme is explored from different aspects, covering fish farming distribution in Brazil, production of tilapia cultivation in the state of Parana, water quality tolerance from different fishing species, the irrigation of halophyte plants and their value in haymaking. All the results show that there is a high possibility of utilizing this integrated scheme in the pilot plant. However, there still exist concerns in the scheme’s application, for example the high salinity from brine can not only impact the water quality of fish ponds but also destroy the testing equipment. Moreover, further research needs to be done in investigating the risk of salt accumulation in the soil and feasibility in terms of local weather. Hence, untreated rejected brine from RO is not recommended for the use of most of fish farming.

Figure 7. Four stages of integrated scheme (Gabelich G.J.et al. 2010) Table 3. Comparison of main brine management approach Technology Advantages Disadvantages (Morillo et al., 2014) Technology Disposal into water body Deep well injection Evaporation ponds WAIV technology Membrane distillation

Two-stage reverse osmosis Forward osmosis



Advantages • Low cost; • Easy to operate • Able to isolate waste from water sources • More feasible and reliable than surface water disposal • Simple and easy to operate; • Low cost; • Reduces land requirements compared to evaporation ponds; • More efficient compared to evaporation ponds. • Energy consumption is low compared with evaporation methods; • Could be easy coupled with solar ponds or other residual heat sources; • Available on industrial scale. • Significant improvement in desalination plants; • •

Increase water recovery significantly; Low energy requirements.

Disadvantages • Environment damageable; • Violate regulations and laws. • High requirement of assessing geological conditions; • Environmental impact is unknown. • Only efficient in arid and semi-arid areas; • Requires large area of land. • Availability only demonstrated on a precommercial scale; • Not feasible for large amounts of brine. • Discharge at high temperature; • Fluxes are lower than in other membrane processes for industrial applications.

•

Cost of reagents is required

•

Require draw solutes and specifically designed membranes to improve its

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Electrodialysis

• •

Reverse electrodialysis

Integrated aquaculture scheme

• • • • •

• • • •

•

Efficiently reduce fouling and scaling on membranes; Reduce brine volume and concentrate the brine significantly; Not only reject sale, but also other ions; Low pressure operation compared with RO. Offset cost by generating power; An innovative renewable energy; Greatly reduce the waste quantity.

• •

Reuse the rejected brine for aquaculture instead of disposing to environment; Provides alternative water source for arid and semiarid regions; Less capital investment and cost; By connecting fish farming ponds with irrigation fields, the organic food and feed with high protein for humans and animals; Provides food and feed with high protein for humans and animals.

• •

• • • • • •

• • •

performance. Require technical operators; Organic matter and colloids cannot be removed; Pre-treatment is needed; More expensive than RO; High capital investment and cost. The construction in water body may influence the ecosystem; Requires a concentration difference; Still under research, not mature for commercial use. Requires large area of land; Salt accumulation in the land in irrigation may cause land contamination; The brine waste water needs to be fully tested before used in fish farming; Different plants have different sensitivity to salinity; The feasibility also depends on the local fishing market.

3.3. SAL-PROC process The SAL-PROC process is an innovative alternative treatment, particularly for the drinking water industry (SOL-BRINE, 2010). It comprises an integrated process to extract dissolved elements in the form of valuable chemical products from rejected brine water (Morillo et al., 2014). SAL-PROC usually involves several steps including multiple Figure 6. Three typical SAL-PROC process treatment options (Ahmed et al., 2003) evaporations, cooling, chemical reactions and mineral processing (SOL-BRINE, 2010) and these steps vary with the composition of the brine. Five typical treatment options of SAL-PROC were studied and three of them (Figure 6) were proven to be feasible for SANEPAR due to the TDS and the flow rate of brine. After comparing the characteristics of RO brine and SANEPAR’s requirements, treatment Option 1 seems more suitable for treating brine with a feed water TDS of 2000ppm or 8000ppm, while Option 3 is optimal for a TDS of 5000ppm. Hence, due to greater feasibility, Treatment Option 1 is considered to be a potential optimal solution in SANEPAR’s case.



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3.4. Conclusion Since ED is not a real solution to dispose of the brine but simply to further treat the brine and increase the water recovery rate, there will be even more concentrated brine generated by ED, resulting in the same problem as with RO. As mentioned above, Electrodialysis followed by a salt recovery process is considered to be a feasible solution for brine management, as the SAL-PROC process is proved to be a feasible and reliable approach as mentioned. Hence, a hybrid solution combining ED with SAL-PROC process has been proposed, which may achieve a zero liquid discharge in theory. Four main industrial salts including Gypsum, Sodium Chloride, Magnesium Hydroxide and Calcium Chloride, are expected to be extracted through this process. Figure 7 is a flow chart of this hybrid solution. Table 4 and 5 provide some information about costs and energy consumption of ED and Salt Recovery separately based on previous cases. It is worth noting that two solar evaporation ponds are needed in this hybrid solution but it is still considered to be feasible in pilot plant because only around 90 m3 of ED brine will be generated per year (calculated based on recovery rate) so small solar evaporation ponds are enough. However, for a full-size pilot plant, the availability of land may be an important issue to concern.

Figure 7. Flow chart of the hybrid solution Table 4. Capital and operation cost of ED of previous case (UNEP, N. D)

TDS Treating Limit (ppm)

2,000-15,000

Recovery Rate (%)

up to 94%

Operation Pressure (psi)

100

Operation Cost (US$/m3)*

0.21

Capital Cost (US$)**

3.4 million

*the operation cost includes labour, membrane replacement and energy. The energy consumption is 2.4kWh/m3 ($0.03/kWh). ** It is the cost of a 46l/s (165.6m3/h) electrodialysis plant in Africa (UNEP, N.D.). Table 5. Estimated capital and operation cost of salt recovery based on previous case (WateReuse Foundation, 2008) (in US$, 1 USD=3.58 BRL) Previous Case Sanepar Flow rate of concentrate m3/d 90000 ~1 Capital Cost M$ 136 < 136 Labour 1.1 M 13 Energy 31 M 343 Operation Cost $/yr Sludge Disposal ----Others 0.8 M 9 Total 32.9 M 365



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4. Renewable Energy For the case of renewable energy, the project focused on analysing the wind and solar potential of Praia de Leste. Detailed research was carried out regarding the natural resources available in the region which were accessible to harness, and thorough calculations were conducted to support final decisions. An overview of costs and availability was also provided. In doing so, the best possible energy solution was devised for SANEPAR. The plant requires 15kW of power, which leads to 90kWh of energy to run the system for 6 hours each day. Therefore, the aim of this next chapter is to determine a suitable system by taking the renewable energy potential of Praia de Leste into account.

4.1. Solar Energy Potential in Brazil There is potential in the southern part of Brazil for the use of solar energy, as the region has the only grid connected solar plant in operation in Brazil (Ministry of Economic Affairs 2015; Engie Tractebel Energia n.d.). It was found that there is a high level of solar irradiation in the state of Paraná, meaning the region has a high potential to utilise solar technology. There is a range of 1600 – 2200 kWh/m2 per year for total irradiance, and a productivity of 1200 – 1650 kWh/kWp per year (Pereira et al. 2006). These figures have been compared to five European countries with the highest total installed capacity of grid connected PV systems with exceeding values of 1GWp, Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium (Tiepoloa et al. 2014). It was found that even in winter the productivity values in Paraná are higher than that of Germany and Belgium, and similar to France. Table 4 shows the solar irradiation at Paranagua, 22.3km from the desalination site, and gives an optimal tilt angle of 22°N. 4.1.1 Solar Panel Cost and Availability Solar cells are currently only imported to Brazil and as such are very expensive, about 30% higher than international price levels (Ministry of Economic Affairs 2015). Based on the information in Table 5, which gives the taxes and estimated price of a 100kWp system, the estimated cost of installing solar panels for the 15kWh energy requirement is R$125,400 (32,122.17 USD) (Feldman et al. 2014; Ministério de Minas e Energia 2012). There are approximately 200 companies currently operating in Brazil that provide solar panels. The highest output power PV panel was selected, which has an output power of 320W and is provided by the company Solar Energy do Brasil (Solar Energy do Brasil n.d.). The exact specifications are given in Figures A1 and A2 (See Appendix). Table 4. Monthly average solar irradiation in the city of Paranaguá, at a latitude of 25.5° S, 22.3km from the desalination plant at Praia de Leste (CRESESB n.d.)

Slope

Feb

Mar

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

Average

Delta

Horizontal plan Angle equal to the latitude Highest annual average Highest monthly minimum

0°

4.81

5.03

4.36

3.67 3.33

2.75

3.06

3.33

3.42

4.39

4.94

5.06

4.01

2.31

26°N

4.35

4.79

4.5

4.2

4.25

3.65

4.01

3.95

3.62

4.29

4.52

4.5

4.22

1.18

22°N

4.46

4.87

4.52

4.15 4.15

3.54

3.9

3.89

3.62

4.34

4.62

4.62

4.23

1.33

25°N

4.38

4.82

4.51

4.19 4.23

3.62

3.98

3.94

3.62

4.3

4.53

4.53

4.22

1.2



Apr

Angle

Jan

Monthly average daily solar radiation (kWh/m2/day Monthly Average Daily Solar Radiation

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Table 5. Example of unit price of a 100kWp complete system (Ministério de Minas e Energia 2012)

Component

Module Inverter Structures, cables, connections Project registration, installation System price R$/Wp

Final customer price (R$)

II ICMS (%) (%)

IPI (%)

PIS (%)

CONFINS (%)

ISS Final (%) customer tax burden (R$)

System without taxes (R$)

406.802

12

0

0

1.65

7.65

0

71.802

335.000

156.402

14

12

15

1.65

7.65

0

58.954

97.808

195.000

0

18

10

1.65

7.65

0

60.937

134.063

78.000

0

0

0

1.65

7.65

5

14.235

63.765

R$836.203

205.567

630.636

R$8.36

R$2.06

R$6.31

4.1.2 Solar Panel Requirements The daily energy (E) a solar panel will produce can be calculated by multiplying the maximum AC power (Pac) and the solar insolation (S) at the site (Ribeiro et al. 2016). A “safety factor” of 0.8 is also included, in order to account for inefficiencies. Box 1 shows that 100 solar panels will be needed to fully power the desalination plant. Box 1: Calculating solar panel requirements based on worst case irradiance scenario at 22°N

Worst-case scenario: lowest irradiance of 3.54kWh/m 2 per day, occurring in June. • Using highest output power PV panel of 320W (Solar Energy do Brasil) • 0.32kW × 3.54kWh/m2/day • (0.32 × 0.8) ×3.54 = 0.9kWh/day Panels needed: 90/0.9 = 100 panels

As shown in Box 2 and illustrated in Figure 8, the distance between the panel rows must be 1.2m in order to avoid shading. If ten rows of ten panels were arranged, with 1.2m spacing, the length of the array would be 12m (1.2 × 10), and 19.56m in width (using information giving the solar panel dimenions in figure A1 in the



Figure 8: Distance between PV panels rows (Ribeiro et al. 2016)

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appendix). This would take up 234.72m2 of space. SANEPAR have stated that if solar panels are used then they will be installed on the roof of the Reservatório Projetado building, which has a 490.88m2 roof (figure obtained from email correspondence with academics working on the project). Therefore, the 100 solar panels required could fit upon the roof of this building. Box 2: Calculation of space between solar panel rows using the equation D = y + x (Ribeiro et al 2016)

Using the 320W panels provided by Solar Energy do Brasil: D=y+x Where: D = distance between panels based on consecutive rows Y = 3.5 z = 3.5 L sin 𝛼 = free dimension between panels rows X = L cos 𝛼 = panel projection dimension on the horizontal plane Y = 3.5 ×0.991 sin (22) = 1.3 x = 0.991 cos (22) = 0.92 D = 1.3 × 0.92 = 1.2m



4.2. Wind Energy Potential in Brazil In order to determine Praia de Leste’s wind harnessing capacity, a study of the average monthly wind speeds in the region across a year was made using wind distribution maps from satellite data (See Figure 9). The average calculations determined two key sets of data; firstly, wind was strongest coming on the town’s coast from the south; and average wind speeds for the peak season and months was determined. The lowest wind speeds were recorded in June (See Table 6). In order to ensure enough energy was available at even the lowest wind speeds recorded, the worst-case scenario of June’s lowest wind speed was used in calculations. The results of wind speed also show that Praia de Leste experiences Class III wind, which is classified as speeds up to 5.52m/s (Windpower Learning Centre 2015). As turbines are designed to operate in specific wind classes, turbines that can operate in Class III winds were considered in the research.



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Table 6. The calculated average wind speeds in Praia de Leste using satellite data

Figure 9. Wind Speed Distribution Map of Praia de Leste in January (Forecasts 2016)

4.2.1 Wind Turbine Requirements, Costs and Availability When selecting turbines for the pilot plant, manufacturers with a presence in Brazil were considered to improve logistics and keep transportation and maintenance costs low. Four turbines from three companies – Gamesa, Siemens and General Electric (GE) were looked into. Using design specifications such as the blade length and swept area, the power output for each turbine was calculated. The Gamesa G97 2.0MW turbine was chosen as the most suitable for the site, generating approximately 0.53MW in the lowest wind speeds of June. Further considerations of terrain and varying wind speed due to turbine tower height were made, and it was found that wind speeds would be greater at increased tower heights. If installed, the turbine would face South to capture the greatest wind speeds. Figure 10 below shows the breakdown of costs associated with on-shore wind projects. It can be seen that 64% of the cost is due to the turbine itself. The total capital cost of installing the Gamesa G97 at Praia de Leste would be approximately $4.69 million.



Figure 10. Capital Cost breakdown for a typical onshore wind power system and turbine (Sawyer & Gsanger 2012)

Figure 11. Schematic Diagram of the 16 Compact cia AG 1kW turbine (Compact cia 2015)

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As SANEPAR’s budget remained limited, the Gamesa wind energy project was too large scale to implement at the site. However, the utility has considered wind energy further and after on going correspondence with the team in Brazil, it is concluded that the utility has decided to install two smaller vertical turbines manufactured by a local Brazilian company. Figure 11 shows the Compact cia AG 1kW wind turbine chosen for the site. Two will be installed at the plant and, as the blades are vertical, they no longer need to be facing south. Specifications for this turbine can be found in Table A1 (See Appendix). Additionally, the turbines will provide 2kW of the 15kW required power of the plant, and SANEPAR plans to source the remaining energy from the grid.

4.3 Conclusion The main restricting factor in the application of renewable energy to this pilot plant project has been SANEPAR’s budget; the plant is being designed to test out the technology, hence remains small scale, but there is potential to apply larger scale technologies in the future. There is a high potential to use solar panels to power the desalination plant, and the required number of panels will fit onto the space available. However, further investigation is required of the Reservatório Projectado building to assess if it has the correct structure to carry these solar panels safely.
 Furthermore, the Gamesa G97 turbine proved a suitable turbine through calculations in research, but currently this technology remains too large scale for the scope of the project; hence smaller turbines by Compact cia would be more feasible at this stage. Nevertheless, these technical suggestions remain useful for future development for SANEPAR, and do not necessarily need to be ruled out entirely.

5. Life Cycle Assessment of System 5.1 Introduction This section assessed the environmental impacts of the construction and the operation phase of the desalination plant. A literature review of the life cycle assessment (LCA) of desalination was considered to highlight the general trend and a methodology was developed to undertake the life cycle assessment according the ISO standard using SIMAPRO software. The literature review highlights that there are several methods to develop an LCA of a desalination plant and there is no optimal solution (Ahmed, 2003). Moreover, these methods, mostly software-based, assess different factors, systems boundaries and environmental impacts so it is difficult to compare LCAs (Zhou, Chang, Fane, 2014). Nevertheless, a comprehensive and efficient LCA of the plant can be done with SIMAPRO software and the method CML2, since they are commonplace (Raluy, Serra, Uche, 2015). Then the ISO standard LCA methodology, which includes the determination of Goal and Scope, Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impacts Assessment (LCIA) (characterisation and normalisation) and interpretation can be applied to the desalination plant system. RO has the lowest ecological footprint (Raluy, Serra, Uche, 2015; Tarnacki, Meneses, Melin, Medevoort, Jansen, 2012), and the energy consumption is responsible for up to 90% of the impact, depending on the kind of electricity production (Shahabi, McHugh, Anda, Ho, 2013). RO desalination plant combined with the use of brackish water and sustainable energy supply significantly enhances the environmental impact of the plant (Raluy, Serra, Uche, 2015; Munoz, Rodrıguez Fernandez-Alba, 2007). Furthermore, the use of wind turbines is preferable since the production of solar panel produces SOx



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emissions (Xevgenos, Moustakas, Malamis, Loizidou, 2016). Finally, the brine management is not mentioned in most of the LCA of desalination plants even if the environmental impacts of brine rejection have been proven (Zhou, Chang, Fane, 2012). Using the literature review and useful pieces of information provided by SANEPAR, PhD students and project team members, the LCA methodology of the specific plan has been detailed. These results are provided in the section below and are highlighted in Figure 12.



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Figure 12. The Life Cycle Assessment Methodology



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5.2. The Life Cycle Assessment The sustainable energy and brine management solutions provided for the desalination plant have been assessed according to their environmental impacts. An ISO standard LCA has been performed in order to understand the impact of each sub system of the plant on the local and global ecosystem. 5.2.1 Goal and Scope The goal is the life cycle assessment of a small scale desalination plant which includes RO technology and two small wind turbines as sustainable energy supply combined with the regional grid. The plant also consists of a pre-treatment (ultrafiltration technology) and a post treatment system (electrodialysis technology and evaporation ponds). The worst-case scenario of water salinity (8000ppm) and the transportation from the seaside pump to the plant (small scale container truck) considered here. The construction of the plant is not considered since the building already exists. The functional unit selected for the normalisation of data is 1m3 of fresh water produced. Moreover the data are specified for the local region of Praia de Leste in Paraná state, Brazil. The LCI is detailed thanks to the Ecoinvent3 database and the CML2 method has been selected for the LCIA with SIMAPRO software. The system components and boundaries are summarised in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Schematic design of the system components and boundaries



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5.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory The data inventory is a crucial part in the LCA. These data consist of the inputs and outputs of each subsystem of desalination. The main characterised inputs are the amount and types of energy and chemicals needed in each process. Moreover, the amount and types of raw materials are considered as inputs in the LCI. The outputs are the amount of brine, pollutants and fresh water produced. Consequently, these data for each sub systems are gathered thanks to SANEPAR and PhD students’ pieces of information, literature reviews and project team members. They are detailed in Table 9. Table 9. Life cycle inventory of the desalination plant

Inventory for the current desalination of brackish water per m3 of produced fresh water Type and amount Reference Water treatment Input : Brackish water: TDS= 8000/5000/2000 Calculated by student team (ppm), 1.33 (m3) Pre-treatment: PH adjustment: H2SO4 5.88e-2 (Kg) (Tarnacki, Meneses, Melin, Medevoort, Jansen, 2012) Coagulant: FeCL3 , Al2(SO4)3 7.06e(Tarnacki, Meneses, Melin, 03 (Kg) Medevoort, Jansen, 2012) Anti-foulant: Cl2 3.0e-06 (Kg) (Raluy, Serra, and Uche, 2015) Anti-scalant: HCl 0.0045 (Kg) (Munoz, Rodrıguez FernandezAlba, 2007) Remineralisation: lime(Ca(OH)2), CO2 Membrane cleaning: NaClo, HCl, NaOH (Tarnacki, Meneses, Melin, Medevoort, Jansen, 2012) Ultrafiltration system: Membrane: polyamide 4.4e-04 (Kg) (Munoz, Rodrıguez FernandezAlba, 2007) Reverse Omosis: Membrane: polyamide 4.4e-04 (Kg) (Munoz, Rodrıguez FernandezAlba , 2007) Spacer: Polypropylene 7.30e-05 (Kg) (Tarnacki, Meneses, Melin, Medevoort, Jansen, 2012) Housing: coated steel 8.91e-04 (Kg) (Tarnacki, Meneses, Melin, Medevoort, Jansen, 2012) Post-treatment: PH adjustment: H2SO4 5.88e-2 (Kg) (Tarnacki, Meneses, Melin, Medevoort, Jansen, 2012) Remineralisation: lime, CO2 Disinfection: CL2 7.06e-03 (Kg) (Tarnacki, Meneses, Melin, Medevoort, Jansen, 2012) Total electricity use : From the grid 10 (kWh) Estimation by Sanepar and supplier From two wind turbine 5 (kWh) Estimation by Sanepar and supplier Output: Brine: TDS= Cl−, Na+, Calculated by student team



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27,534/17,124/ SO42−,Mg2+,Ca2+,K+, 6,844 (ppm) HCO3−. 0.32 (m3) Fresh water 1 (m3) Calculated by student team Inventory of the suggestions for the desalination of brackish water per m3 of produced fresh water Type and amount Reference Transport of the brackish water: Lorry with container of 12tkm Calculated by student team 3.5 to 7.5t Brine management: Electro dialysis: Energy consumption 2.4kWh (Morillo, Usero, Rosado, ElBakouri, Riaza, Bernaola, 2013) Solvay process: Chemicals for reaction: Lime, 20g Calculated via equation Evaporation ponds: Use of land: 1m2 Calculated via equation 5.2.3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment The life cycle impact assessment was undertaken using the CML2 method and the SIMAPRO software. The different types of environmental impacts, summarised in Table 10, are characterised for each sub system according to the nature of the inputs and outputs. Table 10. Environmental impact indicators included in the LCIA of the desalination

Environmental Impact indicator Global warming potential Human Toxicity potential Photochemical Oxidant Formation Potential Acidification Potential

units

description

Kg CO2 eq. Kg 1.4 dichlorobenzene eq. Kg ethane eq.

Greenhouse gas emissions Toxic chemicals substances released Formation of ozone and chemicals such as nitrogen oxides Production of ions hydrogen

Kg SO2 eq.

The characterisation phase is based on the following equation of the CML2 approach (Zhou, Chang, Fane, 2014): (Equation 1)



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Thus, the results of the specific environmental impacts of each input and output is available with SIMAPRO Software.

5.3. Results and Conclusion First, according to the results of the characterisation (Figure A3 - See Appendix) the transportation of the brackish water from the seaside pump to the plant by the road has the greatest environmental impact especially regarding abiotic depletion, acidification, ozone layer depletion, eutrophication and global warming. Next, the use of 10kWh of energy from the grid has the second largest ecological impact especially on the terrestrial eco-toxicity and photochemical oxidation. Then, the use of 5kWh of wind power from small turbines has a significant impact on fresh water and marine aquatic toxicity and human toxicity. Finally, the desalination processes such as the RO, ED and UF systems do not have a significant impact compared to the other processes. Next, the impact of each chemical used in the pre-treatment and post treatment can be assessed. According to the results of the characterisation for the post treatment (Figure A4 - see Appendix), sulphuric acid has the highest environmental impact. Moreover, the results are different for the pre-treatment process (Figure A5 - see Appendix) The iron chloride used as coagulant has the highest impact on the ozone layer depletion and terrestrial eco-toxicity while sulphuric acid has the greatest impact on acidification and photochemical oxidation. Lastly, the lime used in the remineralisation process has the most significant impact on global warming and abiotic depletion. According to the results of the characterization of the life cycle of the desalination plant, which includes the brine management, the desalination system has the highest impact on the environment (Table 11 below and Figure A6 – see Appendix). The management of the brine thanks to the electrodialysis and the Solvay process combined with evaporation ponds mostly leads to an impact on global warming and eutrophication. The flooding of fields to make evaporation ponds increases the NOx and CO2 emissions due to the death of the plants. Table 11. LCA results of the desalination plant

Impact category

Unit

Total

Desalination plant

Brine management ED and solar ponds

Abiotic depletion

kg Sb eq

0.054207

0.054064

0.000144

Acidification

kg SO2 eq

0.038816

0.038729

8.66E-05

Eutrophication

kg PO4--- eq

0.010932

0.01028

0.000652

Global warming (GWP100)

kg CO2 eq

9.131442

8.998427

0.133015

Ozone layer depletion (ODP)

kg CFC-11 eq

4.81E-07

4.8E-07

7.54E-10

Human toxicity

kg 1,4-DB eq

4.509833

4.506571

0.003263



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Fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity

kg 1,4-DB eq

1.883726

1.883686

4.01E-05

Marine aquatic ecotoxicity

kg 1,4-DB eq

3.37118

3.37102

1.68E-04

Terrestrial ecotoxicity

kg 1,4-DB eq

0.055743

0.055735

7.28E-06

Photochemical oxidation

kg C2H4 eq

0.002255

0.002225

3.04E-05

All in all, this life cycle assessment underlines the different environmental impacts of the construction and operation of the plant. Thanks to the brine management and the sustainable energy supply, these impacts are significantly reduced. A further improvement for a more sustainable system is the energy self-sufficiency of the plant thanks to wind or solar power and the use of electrical vehicles to transport the brackish water.

6. Conclusion This project has led to feasible technical solutions that can practically be applied to the desalination pilot plant in Praia de Leste. Both brine management and renewable energy issues have been addressed in great depth. The final choice of two 1kW wind turbines alongside the grid connection works economically with SANEPAR’s budget and the scale of the plant, and also means the turbines can be installed at the plant site. Since wind speeds remain low in the region, specific technologies would always have to be considered to operate and generate energy efficiently; the vertical blade turbines will work well in the climate of the area. Although solar energy has the capacity to operate in the region, the large amount of panels needed surpasses SANEPAR’s budget but also raises the issue of where the ideal location for mounting and installation is in the plant. Consideration for the structural integrity of plant buildings would need to be made. For the case of brine management, the project has managed to successfully advise a solution that potentially has no waste product. With the incorporation of ED to increase brine concentration and Salt Recovery to produce industrial salts from the solution, the process seems to be highly efficient and addresses SANEPAR’s waste management needs. Although it is likely salt output will fluctuate with flow rate in the system, the output will still effectively substances that can be used in industry elsewhere. The options of aquaculture and irrigation are innovative and can be explored further; for this particular scenario, the technology remains relatively unexplored in that region of Brazil, but could develop in the future.

6.1. Schematic Drawing Figure 14 shows a schematic of the pilot plant with several systems and segments labelled. A suggested location for the wind turbines and the substation is also shown, and it is important to note that the Reverse Osmosis and Ultrafiltration processes take place in the Sludge Dewatering Building (As confirmed by correspondence with Academics in Brazil working on the project)

6.2. Future Work and Recommendations



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Concerning the energy strategy, Solar PV is a growing industry in Brazil and it is likely that Solar panels may begin to be manufactured in the country itself; this would reduce capital and on-going costs for solar projects in the future, and SANEPAR may be interested in revisiting Solar energy as an option in the future. Additionally, SANEPAR may also consider the larger Gamesa G97 turbine initially suggested as an energy source due to its large capacity; if the plant ever expands in the future, this turbine would efficiently supply enough energy for water purification at a larger scale and even continue to sell back to the grid. It is also possible for SANEPAR to consider a hybrid solution comprising of wind and solar technology if deemed more economically feasible and to harness two key natural resource for energy supply. This area would require further research into how the two systems are combined and two which scale each is implemented, but it is still no doubt a viable option. With regards to the brine management, a detailed water quality test of the concentration of different ions is needed for both the ED and SAL-PROC processes, as their concentrations may influence the efficiency of the processes significantly. In addition, different industrial salts can be extracted from brine with different compositions, leading to a choice of various treatment options. In this case, the composition of seawater and brine was assumed to be similar to the case studies used due to the lack of data, so the result could be biased. Moreover, the amount of organic matter in brine may also need to be measured because of its influences on the efficiency and purity of the salt recovery process. On the other hand, it has been proven by Ahmed et al. (2001) that the volume and concentration of input brine are proportional to the profits returned from salt recovery. This is also the reason why the economic benefit of salt recovery in this case is negligible, therefore a higher flow rate and TDS of feed water is recommended. In order to reduce the economic costs of these processes, possible equipment suppliers should be found with the relative cost information provided, as such with equipment purchasing costs, installation costs, maintenance fee and staff training costs.



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.

Figure 14. Schematic Drawing of the Pilot Plant with legend



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7. References Ahmed, M., Arakel A., Hoey D., Coleman M., 2001. Integrated power, water and salt generation: a discussion paper, Desalination 134: 37-45. Ahmed, M., Arakel, A., Hoey, D., Thumarukudy, M. R., Goosen, M. F. A., Al-
Haddabi. M., Al-Belushi, A., 2003. Feasibility of salt production from inland RO desalination plant reject brine: a case study, Desalination 158: 109-117. Al Suleimani, Z. & Nair, V.R., 2000. Desalination by solar-powered RO in a remote area of the Sultanate of Oman. Applied Energy, 65(1-4), pp.367–380. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261999001002. Bilton, A.M., Kelley, L.C. & Dubowsky, S., 2011. Photovoltaic RO — Feasibility and a pathway to develop technology. Desalination and Water Treatment, 31(1- 3), pp.24–34. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.5004/dwt.2011.2398. Compact cia, 2015. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine 1000W. Compact Cia, Clean Energy and Renewables. CRESESB, CRESESB-Reference Center of Solar and Wind Energy. Available at: http://www.cresesb.cepel.br/index.php?section=com_content&cid=virtual_t our&lang=en [Accessed February 4, 2016]. DOW, 2016. RO & NANOFILTRATION. [Online] Available from: http://www.dow.com/en-us/water-andprocess- solutions/products/reverse-osmosis. Last accessed [Accessed: 28th Feb 2016]. Engie Tractebel Energia, Blue City Solar. Available at: http://www.tractebelenergia.com.br/wps/portal/internet/parque- gerador/usinas-complementares/solar-cidadeazul [Accessed January 4, 2016]. Feldman, D. et al., 2014. Photovoltaic System Pricing Trends 2014, SunShot U.S. Department of Energy. Forecasts, N., 2016. Praia de Leste and Wind Distribution by Month. Surf Forecast. Available at: http://www.surf-forecast.com/breaks/Praiade-Leste/reliability_by_month [Accessed January 29, 2016]. Greenlee, L.F. et al., 2009. RO desalination: Water sources, technology, and today’s challenges. Water Research, 43(9), pp.2317–2348. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.03.010. Himmerlblau, David M, 1976. Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering. Prentice Hall Jiang, C. et al., 2014. Electrodialysis of concentrated brine from RO plant to produce coarse salt and freshwater. Journal of Membrane Science, 450, pp.323–330. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2013.09.020. LANXESS, 2012. Guidelines for the design of RO membrane systems. [Online] Available from: http://lanxess.com/system-design-guidelines-for-the- design-of-reverse-osmosis membrane systems. Last accessed [Accessed: 1th Feb 2016]. Ministério de Minas e Energia, 2012. Análise da Inserção da Geração Solar na Matriz Elétrica Brasileira, Ministry of Economic Affairs, 2015. Market Study : PV Energy in Brazil Morillo J., Usero J., Rosado D., Bakouri H. E., Riaza A., Bernaola F., 2014. Comparative study of brine management technologies for desalination plants, Desalination 336: 32-49. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2013.12.038.



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Munoz, I., Rodrıguez Fernandez-Alba, A., 2007. Reducing the environmental impacts of reverse osmosis desalination by using brackish groundwater resources. Elsevier, Almeria. NWC (National Water Commission), 2008. Emerging trends in desalination: A review. Available at: http://www.nwc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/11007/Waterlines_-_Trends_in_Desalination__REPLACE_2.pdf Pereira, E.B. et al., 2006. Brazilian Atlas of Solar Energy Raluy, R.G., Serra, L., Uche, J., 2015. Life cycle assessment of desalination technologies integrated with renewable energies. Elsevier, Zaragoza Ribeiro, A.E.D., Arouca, M.C. & Coelho, D.M., 2016. Electric energy generation from small-scale solar and wind power in Brazil : The influence of location , area and shape. Renewable Energy, 85, pp.554–563. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.06.071. Richards, B.S. & Schäfer, A.I., 2003. Photovoltaic-powered desalination system for remote Australian communities. Renewable Energy, 28(13), pp.2013– 2022. Sánchez, A.S., Nogueira, I.B.R. & Kalid, R.A., 2015. Uses of the reject brine from inland desalination for fish farming, Spirulina cultivation, and irrigation of forage shrub and crops. Desalination, 364, pp.96–107. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.01.034. Sawyer, S. & Gsanger, S., 2012. Renewable Energy Technologies: Cost Analysis Series. International Renewable Energy Agency, 1(5), pp.24–40. Sessions, B., Shih, W.Y., Macharg, J., Dundorf, S., Arroyo, J.A., 2010. Optimizing brackish water RO for affordable desalination. [Online] Available from: https://www.usbr.gov/research/AWT/reportpdfs/ADC_BWRO_AMTA.pdf. Last accessed [Accessed: 1th Feb 2016]. Shahabi, M. P., McHugh, A., Anda, M. and Ho, G., 2013. Environmental life cycle assessment of seawater RO desalination plant powered by renewable energy. Elsevier, Perth SOL-BRINE, 2010. Deliverable 1.1: Report on the evaluation of existing
31 methods on brine treatment and disposal practices. Solar Energy do Brasil, Solar Energy do Brasil. Available at: http://solarenergy.com.br/ [Accessed January 3, 2016]. Tarnacki, K., Meneses, M., Melin, T., van Medevoort, J., Jansen A., 2012. Environmental assessment of desalination processes: RO and Memstill®. Elvesier, Aachen. Tedesco, M. et al., 2016. Performance of the first reverse electrodialysis pilot plant for power production from saline waters and concentrated brines. Journal of Membrane Science, 500, pp.33–45. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2015.10.057. Tiepoloa, G.M., Juniora, J.U. & Canciglieri, O., 2014. Photovoltaic Generation Potential of Paraná State , Brazil – a Comparative Analysis with European Countries. Energy Procedia, 57, pp.725–734. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.10.228. UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme), N. D. Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Africa. Chapter 3: Water quality improvement technologies. Available at: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications/TechPub-8a/electro.asp Valero, F., Barceló, A. & Arbós, R., 2011. Electrodialysis Technology - Theory and Applications. Desalination,



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Trends and Technologies, pp.3–22. Vermaas, D.A. et al., 2013. High efficiency in energy generation from salinity gradients with reverse electrodialysis. ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering, 1(10), pp.1295–1302. Vince, F., Aoustin, E., Bréant, P., Marechal, F. 2008. LCA tool for the environmental evaluation of potable water production. Windpower Learning Centre, 2015. What is the wind class of a turbine? Renewables First. Xevgenos, D., Moustakas, K., Malamis, D. & Loizidou, M., 2016. An overview on desalination & sustainability: renewable energy-driven desalination and brine management, Desalination and Water Treatment, 57:5, 23042314, DOI: 10.1080/19443994.2014.984927 Zhou, J., Chang, V W.-C., Fane, A. G., 2012. An improved life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) approach for assessing aquatic eco-toxic impact of brine disposal from seawater desalination plants. Elsevier, Singapore Zhou, J., Chang, V. W.-C., Fane A. G., 2014. Life Cycle Assessment for desalination: A review on methodology feasibility and reliability. Elsevier, Singapore



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8. Appendix

Figure A1. Solar Energy do Brasil Module Specification (Solar Energy do Brasil n.d.)

Figure A2. Solar Energy do Brasil Module Specification (Solar Energy do Brasil n.d.)



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Table A1. Technical Specifications of the Compact cia Ag 1kW turbine (Compact cia 2015)



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Figure A3. Characterisation of the environmental impact of the desalination plan





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Figure A4. Characterisation results of the post treatment of the desalination of brackish water





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Figure A5. Characterisation results of the pretreatment of the desalination of brackish water





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Figure A6. Characterisation results of the life cycle of the desalination of brackish water





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