World Survey of Climatology Volume 5

Climates of Northern and Western Europe edited by C. C. WALLfiN World Meteorological Organisation Geneva (Switzerland)

ELSEVIER PUBLISHING COMPANY Amsterdam-London-New York 1970

Contents

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION by C. C. WALLEN

Radiation conditions in western Europe Air and sea circulation Winter Summer Spring and autumn Circulation of the Mediterranean area Winter Summer Temperature Precipitation Snow cover Conclusion References

1 3 3 5 7 7 7 8 10 15 16 21 21

Chapter 2. THE CLIMATE OF SCANDINAVIA by T. WERNER JOHANNESSEN

Introduction The climatic controls The circulation of the atmosphere and the weather Climatic types Atmospheric pressure and wind Sunshine and radiation Air temperature The winter The spring The summer The autumn The heating season Sea ice Humidity of the air Cloudiness Fog VII

23 25 26 29 30 31 33 39 42 42 43 43 44 45 45 46

Contents Precipitation State of ground Drifting snow Avalanches Hoar frost Flash Hydrology Evapotranspiration and water balance The vegetation period Climatic References Climatic tables

floods

fluctuations

47 49 50 50 51 51 51 52 53 57 62 63

Chapter 3. THE CLIMATE OF THE BRITISH ISLES by G. MANLEY

Historical introduction The observational material Descriptive climatology The meteorological background Characteristics of prevailing air-masses Comments based on the statistics—the average distribution of the meteorological elements Solar radiation Pressure Wind Localised occurrences of unusually strong winds, 104—Coastal and mountain breezes: fohn, 107 Temperature conditions in general Average and absolute extremes likely to be recorded, 112—Overall totals of "accumulated temperature" during the growing season, 112 Humidity Precipitation Duration of rainfall, 117—Intensity of rainfall; continued heavy rains, 118—Frequency of droughts and spells, 119 Snowfall and snowcover Variations in the frequency, or annual number of days, with snowfall, 120—Snowcover, 122 Hail Thunderstorms Evaporation Cloud, fog and visibility Dust storms: haze ; . . . Bright sunshine Average annual duration of bright sunshine, 129 Ground frost VIII

81 83 86 89 91 97 97 101 103

108

115 115

119

125 125 126 126 129 129 131

Contents Atmospheric optical phenomena: aurora Acknowledgements References

131 132 132

Chapter 4. THE CLIMATE OF FRANCE, BELGIUM, THE NETHERLANDS AND LUXEMBOURG by R. ARLERY

""

Historical development Climatic factors Upper air circulation in general Seasonal types of upper air circulation Winter Summer Autumn and spring The characteristics of the surface circulation and weather by seasons and months Winter December, 144—January, 144—February, 144 Spring March, 145—April, 145—May, 145 Summer June, 146—July, 146—August, 146 Autumn September, 147—October, 147—November, 147 Climatic types Mediterranean climate Climates under oceanic influences Oceanic climate, 149—Suboceanic climate, 150 Subcontinental climate Mountain climates . . Distribution of climatic elements Climatic tables References

135 137 138 142 142 142 143 144 144 145 146 147 148 148 148 150 151 151 158 160

Chapter 5. THE CLIMATE OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA by A. LINES ESCARDO

Introduction Historical notes Dynamic climatology Radiation Insolation Temperature Average frost-free period IX

195 196 198 205 206 207 211

Contents Evaporation and evapotranspiration Rainfall Seasonal variation of rainfall Variability of rainfall Mean annual number of days with rain Extreme rainfall intensities Number of days with snow Duration of rainfall Winds Climatic evolution Fluctuations of rainfall over the peninsula in recent years Temperature trends Notes accompanying the climatic tables References Climatic tables

212 214 216 218 220 220 220 221 222 223 224 224 225 225 227

REFERENCES INDEX

241

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX

243

SUBJECT INDEX

251

World Survey of Climatology Volume 6

Climates of Central and Southern Europe edited by C. C. WALLfiN World Meteorological Organisation Geneva (Switzerland)

ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY Amsterdam-Oxford-New York 1977

Contents

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION by C. C. WALLEN

Chapter 2. CLIMATES OF CENTRAL EUROPE by M. SCHUEPP and H. SCHIRMER

Historical account General geographical and climatological features The general circulation over central Europe The annual variation of atmospheric conditions Classification of extended weather types Seasonal characteristics Spring and autumn, 16—Summer, 17 Monthly characteristics Climatic provinces The lowlands north of the central-European highlands The German highlands and the Jura Mountains General climatic features, 31—Special regional features, 33—The Jura Mountains, 34 The northern Alpine foreland The Swiss Midland, 35—The German Alpine foreland, 37 TheAlps The Swiss Alps, 38—The German Alps, 39—The Austrian Alps, 40 The regional distribution of the climatic elements Air temperature Precipitation Sunshine Cloudiness Winds Climatic tables References

3 4 6 12 12 14 18 28 29 31

35 37 41 42 49 49 52 52 57 57

Chapter 3. THE CLIMATE OF POLAND, CZECHOSLOVAKIA AND HUNGARY by W. OKOLOWICZ

The history of meteorological records and climatological summaries VII

75

Contents Geographical position Sunshine and radiation Atmospheric circulation and winds General circulation Migratory baric systems and their part in weather formation Examples of weather situations Upper winds Surface winds Spatial distributions and annual pattern of some meteorological elements Air temperature Cloudiness Precipitation Air humidity and evaporation Seasons Winter Summer Main climatic differences Oscillations and fluctuations of climate References Climatic tables

76 77 80 80 82 85 94 99 100 100 103 105 109 109 109 Ill 112 112 113 115

Chapter 4. THE CLIMATE OF ITALY by V. CANTU

Meteorological observations in Italy Geographical factors influencing the climate of the Apennine Peninsula Meteorological phenomena over Italy The synoptic climatology of Italy Climatology of depressions Synoptic climatology of the upper air Dynamic climatology of the cyclogenesis Weather in climatic regions TheAlps Po Valley Northern Adriatic Central and southern Adriatic Liguria and northern Tuscany Tyrrhenian versants Calabria and Sicily Sardinia Climate and life in Italy The climatic elements Temperature distribution Precipitation and aridity Snow Thunderstorms VIII

127 128 130 130 130 131 135 135 135 137 137 137 137 138 138 138 138 139 139 142 148 150

Contents Diurnal variations of pressure Pressure, temperature, humidity and wind at upper levels Climatic variations Final considerations References Climatic tables

165 166 166 170 171 174

Chapter 5. THE CLIMATE OF SOUTHEAST EUROPE by D. FURLAN

Introduction Factors affecting the climate Geographical position Features of the relief Radiation conditions The general circulation over southeast Europe The main features of the weather Air masses The main characteristics of the most important climatic elements Temperature Mean temperature in January, 194—Mean temperature in July, 196—Annual variation of temperature, 198—Extremes of temperature, 200 Precipitation Annual precipitation, 203—Annual variation of precipitation, 205—Frequency and annual variation of the number of days with precipitation, 207—Maximum daily precipitation, 208—Snow and snow cover, 209 Clouds and sunshine Relative humidity Evapotranspiration Pressure distribution and winds Pressure distribution Winds Remarks on the climatic variation in southeast Europe References Climatic tables

185 186 186 186 188 190 190 192 193 193

REFERENCE INDEX

237

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX

241

SUBJECT INDEX

247

IX

203

210 213 214 216 216 217 220 221 224