Climate issues in focus

Contents Foreword by Leif Johansson Renewable fuels – an overview Seven alternatives – with different prerequisites Climate impact Energy efficiency Land use efficiency Seven alternatives Fuel potential Vehicle adaptation Fuel cost Fuel infrastructure Holistic view and interaction – the keys to success Overview / Detailed evaluation Glossary

4–5 6–7 8–9 10 – 11 12 – 13 14 – 15 16 – 17 18 – 19 20 – 21 22 – 23 24 – 25 26 – 27 28 – 29 30 – 31

CO2-neutral vehicles are powered by fuels produced from renewable raw materials, such as biomass. Since these materials do not add carbon dioxide to the ecosystem, they have no impact on our climate.

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Climate issues are among the major challenges of our times. And their resolution will require concerted effort on the part of the corporate sector, public agencies and individuals, calling for collaboration across national boundaries and between different industries. The transport industry plays a crucial role in the development of society and its economy. Vehicles are used to build our roads, lay water pipes, and create the foundations of our homes. Vehicles are used to transport people and goods, and to facilitate trade and travel. Despite this, we recognize that the transport sector accounts for a significant proportion of the emissions that have adverse effects on our climate. At present, approximately 14%* of all greenhouse gas emissions are generated by transport of various kinds. Concern for the environment has been a Volvo priority since 1972. Because of this, we naturally feel a particular responsibility for climate issues. We have no hesitation in admitting that we are part of the problem. And we also recognize that we are part of the solution. This bold and optimistic assertion is based on the advances that have been achieved to date in the areas of energy efficiency, hybrid technology and alternative fuels. Leif Johansson CEO Volvo Group

One of the major advantages of the diesel engine – one of the most efficient energy converters available to us today – is that it does not have to use conventional diesel fuel or other fossil-based fuels.

With the aid of sophisticated engine technology and minor modifications, the diesel engine can be adapted to run on a wide range of renewable fuels that emit no excess carbon dioxide when used to power a vehicle, whether it be a truck, bus, wheel loader or boat. What is needed now is to undertake the production and distribution of renewable fuels on a major scale. International coordination between producers and legislators is also required to develop uniform fuel standards and stable, longterm regulations, since neither trucks nor buses – no more than climate issues – are constrained by national boundaries. Broad consensus at the highest levels is needed to ensure the successful development of CO2-neutral transport and assist our endeavor to be part of the solution. In this brochure, we compare a number of renewable fuels for which we have developed functional CO2-neutral demonstration vehicles, specifically trucks.

The Volvo Group is prepared to meet the challenge. CO2-neutral transport is not just a utopian dream!

*Source: Stern review, The Economics of Climate Change

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Renewable fuels – an overview

CO2-neutral vehicles do not add to the greenhouse effect. CO2-neutral vehicles are powered by fuels produced from renewable raw materials, such as biomass. Unlike fossil fuels, CO2-neutral fuels add no excess carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The combustion process generates exactly the same amount of carbon dioxide as that absorbed by the source material during its growth, and no increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide will result provided that crop regrowth matches the quantities harvested. Three crucial factors make the changeover to renewable fuels more urgent than ever: • Climate change The use of fossil fuels contributes to global warming which, in the long term, will certainly have dramatic and unpredictable consequences for life on Earth. • Increased energy demand Rapid economic development in populous countries, such as India and China, is increasing the pressure on the crude oil market, which is now at the limit of its production and refining capacity. • Decline in finite resources The Earth’s reserves of oil and other fossil fuels will eventually be exhausted – the only question is when – and some observers believe that oil production has already peaked. The price of oil will increase in the long term and will also become unstable due to geopolitical factors.

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Seven alternatives – with different prerequisites The Volvo Group is studying and evaluating all renewable fuels with potential for use in the Group’s products. On the following pages, we will examine a number of renewable fuels based on what we regard as the seven most important criteria:

Biodiesel

Biogas

Process

Fuel Biodiesel

Rapeseed

Rapeseed oil

Esterification

Sunflower

Sunflower oil

Hydrogenation

Soybean

Soybean oil

Wheat

Biodiesel is produced by the esterification of vegetable oils. Rapeseed oil and sunflower oil are the most common feedstocks in Europe while soybeans are the main feedstock in the US. Biodiesel can be mixed with conventional diesel fuel. The hydrogenation of vegetable oils is another promising method of producing fuel for diesel engines.

1. Climate impact 2. Energy efficiency 3. Land use efficiency 4. Fuel potential 5. Vehicle adaptation 6. Fuel cost 7. Fuel infrastructure

Synthetic diesel is a blend of synthetically generated hydrocarbons produced by the gasification of biomass. Synthetic diesel can be blended with conventional diesel oil without problem.

In each case, the fuel will be rated on a descending scale of five (best) to one (worst). Production is considered from a North American and European perspective.

A gas that is handled in liquid form at low pressure, dimethylether (DME) is produced by the gasification of biomass.

Biogas is a gaseous fuel consisting mainly of the hydrocarbon methane. Biogas can be extracted from sewage treatment plants, landfills and other sources of biologically degradable material. The fuel can also be produced by biomass gasification. Since biogas, in this case compressed to 2 900 psi, must be burned in an Otto (spark-ignition) engine, its energy efficiency is lower.

Synthetic diesel

DME – Dimethylether

Methanol/Ethanol

Methanol is a product of biomass gasification, while ethanol is produced by fermentation from crops with a high sugar or starch content. Research into the production of ethanol from cellulose is under way at present. Evaluation includes methanol/ethanol with an ignition additive.

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Feedstock

Corn Sugar beet Straw Waste wood

Supplied by separate tanks and injection systems, biogas and biodiesel are used in combination. A small percentage (10%) of biodiesel (or synthetic diesel) is used to achieve compression ignition. In this option, biogas is used in cooled, liquid form. Hydrogen + Biogas

Hydrogen gas can be mixed with biogas in low concentrations, in this case 8 percent by volume. Higher concentrations are also possible. Hydrogen gas can be produced by biomass gasification or electrolysis of water using renewable electricity. An Otto (spark-ignition) engine is required.

Sewage

Ethanol

Hydrogen Gasification

Energy crops Organic waste

Biogas + Biodiesel

Fermentation & hydrolysis

Dimethylether Methanol

Anaerobic digestion

Manure

Synthetic diesel/ Renewable diesel Biogas

Fuels available from different feedstocks.

Esterification is a chemical process in which the properties, particularly the stability, of raw vegetable oils are improved. Fermentation is a biological process in which material containing sugar is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. For use as a feedstock, cellulose must first be hydrolyzed into sugar using enzymes or acids. Gasification means that organic material, such as biomass, is converted into synthetic gas, which is a mixture of hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide. The synthetic gas is then used to produce various synthetic fuel components. Anaerobic digestion is a biological process in which organic material is broken down, primarily into methane and carbon dioxide. Hydrogenation is a chemical process in which hydrogen is used to convert vegetable oils into hydrocarbons. Hydrogenation is not included in the calculations due to lack of sufficient data. 9

Climate impact Carbon dioxide emissions for complete ‘well-to-wheel’ chain.

Although the calculations refer to fully renewable raw materials, fossil fuels are currently used in the cultivation and production. In the future, it will be possible to replace this fossil energy with renewable energy, although at reduced efficiency. Greenhouse gas emissions are reported as CO2 equivalents. In other words, emissions of greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide are converted to the equivalent quantities of carbon dioxide. The five-interval scale shows the reduction in CO2 emissions compared with conventional diesel fuel. Non-fossil CO2 emissions are not included since they do not produce a net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Biodiesel Synthetic diesel DME – Dimethylether Methanol/Ethanol Methanol/Ethanol Biogas Biogas+Biodiesel Hydrogen+Biogas

Five of the options reduce the impact on the climate by over 90%. In the case of methanol, gasification of black liquor is required to achieve the highest rating. In the case of biogas and hydrogen+biogas, biomass gasification is required to achieve the highest rating. The lower rating applies if the biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion of household waste. Biodiesel from soybeans reduces the impact on the climate by up to 60% depending on allocation method.

‘Well-to-wheel’ means that all relevant stages of the fuel chain are considered. This includes the cultivation (including fertilization) and harvesting of the raw material, its transport to the fuel production plant, production and distribution of the fuel to refueling stations, and its use in vehicles.

91-100% reduction 76-90% reduction 51-75% reduction 26-50% reduction 0-25% reduction

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Ethanol offers a reduction of 0-75% depending on the production method. Corn based Ethanol offer a reduction of 0-15% depending on the process energy. In some cases ethanol emits more CO2 emissions compared to conventional diesel fuel.

Source: EUCAR/CONCAWE/JRC, Argonne National Laboratory Greet model, University of Minnesota and AB VOLVO

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Energy efficiency Total ‘well-to-wheel’ energy utilization of a fuel.

In this instance, energy efficiency is rated on a decreasing scale and is expressed as a percentage indicating the proportion of energy reaching the vehicle’s driven wheels. For purposes of comparison, it may be noted that the fossil diesel oil used today delivers an overall efficiency of approximately 35%. This relatively high value is due to the fact that crude oil may be regarded as a ‘semi-finished’ product, making the production of diesel very energy-efficient. The results for the same fuel may vary depending on the production process used.

Biodiesel Synthetic diesel DME – Dimethylether Methanol/Ethanol Methanol/Ethanol Biogas Biogas+Biodiesel Hydrogen+Biogas

DME and methanol are rated highest when produced from black liquor from the wood pulp industry. The higher rating for synthetic diesel is also based on the gasification of black liquor. The ratings for biogas, biogas+biodiesel and hydrogen+biogas are based on production by gasification and anaerobic digestion. However, the production of biogas by black liquor gasification is not included. The high rating for Biodiesel is due to the large amount of by-product credits in the case of soybeans.

Over 22%

The low rating of ethanol is due to the high energy utilization in the cultivation and fuel production process. The results depend somewhat on the fate of byproducts. Corn ethanol has an overall energy efficiency of 15-16% depending on the process.

20-22% 17-19% 14-16% Under 14% 12

Source: EUCAR/CONCAWE/JRC, Argonne National Laboratory Greet model, University of Minnesota and AB VOLVO

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Land use efficiency Scarcity of land resources makes the efficient use of land a particularly important issue.

Efficient land use will be an increasingly important factor in meeting the world’s ever-growing demand for food and fuel. Driving distance per acre and year is a measure of the performance of biofuel. The yield per area unit for each crop has been calculated using figures for average yields. The rating scale indicates the distance per acre that a typical long haul heavy truck can cover annually. Growth is based on typical Swedish conditions and US average figures. Although crop cultivation in other locations may yield different results, the relativities are more or less the same. The quantity of fuel/energy used in harvesting, production, transport etc. is subtracted from the quantity produced. Results for the same fuel may vary depending on the production process used.

Biodiesel Synthetic diesel DME – Dimethylether Methanol/Ethanol Methanol/Ethanol Biogas Biogas+Biodiesel Hydrogen+Biogas

DME and methanol based on black liquor gasification receive the highest rating. Harvest yields are high, only small quantities of fossil fuels are required and the fuels have a high energy efficiency. Synthetic diesel also benefits from high harvest yields and low fossil fuel consumption; however, its energy efficiency is lower and the selectivity in production is limited. Ethanol receives a low rating because of its limited energy efficiency and, in certain instances, high fossil energy requirement. Biodiesel is rated lowest due to low average harvest yields and high fossil energy use.

Over 2 500 miles

Biogas produced by black liquor gasification is not included.

1 876-2 500 miles 1 251-1 875 miles 626-1 250 miles Under 625 miles 14

Source: EUCAR/CONCAWE/JRC, University of Lund, EU RENEW project, USDOE, USDA and AB VOLVO

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Fuel potential The amount of fuel that can be produced varies considerably depending on the particular option.

The availability of raw material and the choice of production process determine the amount of fuel that can be produced. While some processes can use many different feedstocks and complete crops, others are limited to parts of individual crops. Competition from food production is a general problem with feedstocks derived from agricultural products. According to information from the USDA, DOE and the EC, the potential availability of biomass for use as energy in the US and EU in 2030 will be approximately 3 610 and 3 260 TWh (Terawatt-hours) respectively. The amount of fossil fuel that can be replaced by biomass varies depending on the efficiency of the fuel production process, the end use and how much that is used as feedstock for biofuels. Biomass has a limited potential and it will not be possible to replace all fossil fuels within the 2030 timeframe. A selection of the right options together with imports of biomass from regions with better cultivation conditions will increase the potential amount of biofuels. The calculations assume that 50% of the biomass potential is used to produce fuels for transport.

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USA

EU

800-1 000 TWh

720-900 TWh

600-799 TWh

540-719 TWh

400-599 TWh

360-539 TWh

200-399 TWh

180-359 TWh

0-199 TWh

0-179 TWh

Biodiesel Synthetic diesel DME – Dimethylether Methanol/Ethanol Methanol/Ethanol Biogas Biogas+Biodiesel Hydrogen+Biogas

The 800-1 000 TWh fuel potential range in 2030 is equivalent to approximately 12-15% of the current use of road transport fuels in the US. The 720-900 TWh in EU corresponds to 21-26% replacement. DME, methanol, biogas, biogas+biodisel and hydrogen+biogas receive the highest rating. Synthetic diesel, DME, methanol and biogas can all be produced from complete crops, wood feedstocks or other biological materials; however, synthetic diesel has a lower energy efficiency and yields a lower proportion of fuel for vehicle use. Household refuse and sewage can also be used in the production of biogas. Ethanol can be produced from number of feedstocks, including waste wood and other biological materials containing cellulose, although at a relatively low efficiency. Biodiesel, which has the lowest rating, is produced from vegetable oils, such as rapeseed oil, sunflower oil and soybean oil. Its availability is limited due to the need for crop rotation and relatively low yield per land area. Source: Eucar/Concawe/JRC, University of Lund, European Commission, USDOE, USDA and AB Volvo

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Vehicle adaptation Different fuels require different types of vehicle adaptation.

The following is an overall assessment of the technical complexity of adapting vehicles to use the new fuels. Assessment includes the effects of various parameters – such as maximum engine performance, increased weight and range between refueling – on vehicle efficiency. The last of these, for example, may affect vehicle payload. The complexity of adaptation includes factors that necessitate additional fuel storage capacity, and require new and more expensive components, as well as the technology needed to meet future emission standards. As an example, some fuels require more advanced emission control systems than others.

Biodiesel Synthetic diesel DME – Dimethylether Methanol/Ethanol Methanol/Ethanol Biogas Biogas+Biodiesel Hydrogen+Biogas

Biodiesel and synthetic diesel receive the highest rating. Vehicles powered by these fuels are essentially comparable with conventional diesels. However, biodiesel necessitates more service and generates higher nitrogen oxide emissions. Although the lower energy content of DME reduces vehicle range by 50%, the fuel can still be used for long-haul transport. While it requires a unique and advanced fuel system, DME also offers savings in terms of the cost and weight of exhaust silencing and post-treatment systems. Suitable for all heavy applications; no special vehicle adaptation required.

The lower energy content of ethanol reduces the range of the vehicle by 30% per tank of fuel.

Suitable for most applications; no expensive or extensive vehicle adaptation required.

Although biogas+biodiesel offers maximum engine performance, vehicle range is cut by half if the gas is in liquid form. In addition, two separate fuel systems are required.

Suitable for most applications; expensive and extensive vehicle adaptation required. Suitable for up to half of all applications; complex, expensive and extensive vehicle adaptation required.

Biogas and hydrogen+biogas require an Otto (spark-ignition) engine, which limits power output. The low energy density of the compressed gas limits the range of the vehicle to approximately 20% of that of a diesel. Cost and weight are increased by a complex fuel tank system.

Suitable for only a limited number of applications; major, expensive and extensive vehicle adaptation required. 20

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Fuel cost ‘Well-to-tank’ production cost.

Evaluation includes raw material costs, fixed and variable production costs, transport and infrastructure costs, and the cost of energy utilization in the distribution chain. In general, future costs are difficult to predict due to fluctuations in raw material prices and the rapid pace of technological development. In many cases, the cost of producing a fuel is only a small element of the price to the end user, due to taxes and other charges.

Biodiesel Synthetic diesel DME – Dimethylether Methanol/Ethanol Methanol/Ethanol Biogas Biogas+Biodiesel

In these examples, the cost of the particular fuel is compared with that of conventional diesel oil, assuming a crude oil price of USD 100 per barrel (excluding taxes). Comparison is made on a per-gallon equivalent basis. This means that over a gallon of fuel is required in some cases to obtain the same energy content as a gallon of diesel.

DME and methanol receive the highest rating. These are already cost-competitive when produced from black liquor; however, production by gasification of forest products or farmed wood is more expensive.

The results for the same fuel may vary depending on the feedstock used.

Biodiesel is about 55-90% more expensive (excluding taxes) than conventional diesel.

Hydrogen+Biogas

In the case of biogas and hydrogen+biogas, biogas based on waste materials is the most cost effective, due mainly to low feedstock cost. In the case of biogas+biodiesel, biogas in liquid form is approximately 25% more expensive than compressed biogas. Biogas produced by gasification of black liquor is not included in the summary. More than 10% cheaper. 10 cheaper to 29% more expensive. 30 to 69% more expensive. 70 to 119% more expensive. above 120% more expensive. 22

Synthetic diesel is the most expensive fuel due to high capital costs and the relatively low energy efficiency of production. Ethanol is generally expensive to produce. Production from grain is currently the most expensive process. Ignition improvers for ethanol and methanol are not included in the figures. Source: EUCAR/CONCAWE/JRC and AB VOLVO

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Fuel infrastructure Handling and distribution.

Infrastructure is an important criterion in terms of how quickly and easily a new fuel can be introduced and integrated with existing systems. As such, it is often regarded as the greatest challenge to the introduction of an alternative fuel.

Biodiesel Synthetic diesel DME – Dimethylether Methanol/Ethanol Methanol/Ethanol

However, it should be noted that since the infrastructure for conventional fuels is also in need of major investment, infrastructure is a secondary issue in the longer term.

Biogas

This evaluation also takes into account the safety and environmental aspects of handling the fuel within the infrastructure.

Hydrogen+Biogas

Biogas+Biodiesel

Synthetic diesel receives the highest rating. The fuel can easily be mixed with conventional diesel oil without compromising established standards and specifications. Specific measures are required in the case of biodiesel due to the lower stability of the fuel in storage. When used in pure form, methanol and ethanol require corrosion-resistant materials, additional fire safety measures and a separate infrastructure. Due to the significant health hazards involved, methanol should be handled in completely closed systems.

No changes (liquid fuel). Minor changes (liquid fuel). Major changes (liquid fuel). Gas handled in liquid form at low pressure.

DME is a gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. In a vehicle, the fuel is used as a liquid at a pressure of 70 psi. The distribution infrastructure for DME is similar to that of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). DME is heavier than air and can accumulate in the event of leakage, creating a fire hazard. Biogas is handled at high pressure (2 900 psi) and requires the same infrastructure as that currently used to distribute natural gas. The infrastructure required for hydrogen is the most expensive and complex of all since hydrogen is handled at an even higher pressure than biogas.

Gas handled under high pressure or in liquid form at low temperature. 24

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Holistic view and interaction – the keys to success This brochure emphasizes the importance of a holistic view, and of interaction between the various players involved in the analysis and selection of the biofuel of the future. All renewable fuels have the potential to reduce climate emissions from the transport industry by a significant amount. As one of the world’s leading manufacturers of heavy trucks, buses, construction machines and diesel engines, Volvo is willing and able to shoulder its share of responsibility for climate issues by developing engines designed to use renewable fuels. As outlined in these pages, all renewable fuels have their advantages and disadvantages and, as a vehicle manufacturer, we would encourage joint evaluation in choosing the fuel of the future.

One aspect of renewable fuel production not discussed in this brochure is how the necessary crops are cultivated – a conscious omission since this is a general criterion that does not apply to specific fuels. However, this is not to suggest that it is unimportant – quite the opposite. It is very important that the methods used to grow biomass for renewable fuels are sustainable in the long run, otherwise the advantages may be lost. It is also important that our common interest in developing CO2-neutral transport does not interfere, for example, with food production.

Volvo has already demonstrated its ability to develop vehicles for all of the renewable fuel options discussed here. However, the development of carbon dioxide-neutral transport will not happen of its own accord – nor can we do it alone. Making CO2-neutral transport a reality will require the active participation of politicians, government agencies and fuel producers. Politicians and government agencies must take international decisions, to enable stable, long-term regulations to be implemented, while fuel producers must provide the answers as to when production and distribution can begin.

The availability of biofuels is another crucial factor. Even if current production resources are expanded rapidly, availability will be limited for a number of years to come. For this reason, the best and most logical solution in the short term is to blend the biofuels now available with today’s fossil fuels. This can be initiated immediately, does not call for extensive technical modifications or a new infrastructure, and offers immediate environmental benefits.

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In the longer term, the feasibility of developing CO2-neutral transport will be influenced greatly by ongoing efforts to improve energy efficiency, the introduction of hybrid technology on a wide scale and technological advances in fuel production. Neither we in the Volvo Group nor anybody else knows with certainty when or in what quantities CO2-neutral fuels will become available; nevertheless, we feel that there is reason for optimism. In the company’s experience, developments that appear impossible at a given point in time often become a reality several years later. Since this has been the case in other environment-related areas, such as exhaust gas emission control, energy efficiency and hybrid technology, the Volvo Group is fully confident that developments in CO2-neutral transport will ultimately prove successful.

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Overview and detailed evaluation

Detailed evaluation of fuels

Summary of results for different criteria and fuels.

Detailed summary of figures used to evaluate fuels in accordance with specified criteria.

Climate impact

Energy efficiency

Land use efficiency

Fuel potential

Vehicle adaptation

Fuel costs

Fuel infrastructure

Climate impact

Energy efficiency (well-to-wheel)

Index

Production is considered from a North American and European perspective.

Efficiency



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Glossary Anaerobic digestion

A biological process in which organic material is broken down, mainly into methane and carbon dioxide.

Atmospheric pressure

Normal air pressure at sea level (approx. 14.5 psi).

Biomass

Biological material from which energy can be extracted.

Black liquor

A high-energy residual product of chemical paper pulp manufacture whose energy content is normally recovered by burning.

Carbon dioxide-neutral transport

CO2-neutral transport is achieved by means of vehicles powered by fuels produced from renewable feedstocks, such as biomass, that add no excess carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

Cellulose

The principal component of plant cell walls. Approx. 40-50% of wood consists of cellulose.

Climate impact

Activities that affect the climate; in this context, mainly greenhouse gas emissions.

CO2

Carbon dioxide.

CO2 equivalents

The result of conversion of a greenhouse gas into the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide with the same greenhouse effect.

Compressed biogas

Biogas compressed to approx. 2 900 psi.

Compression ignition

The process in which the fuel in a diesel engine is ignited by the high temperature – produced by compression in the cylinder.

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Diesel engine

An engine in which the air/fuel mixture self-ignites under high compression.

Electrolysis

The breakdown of a substance using electrical current; in this context, the breakdown of water into hydrogen and oxygen.

Energy efficiency

In this context, the proportion of the input energy that reaches driven wheels of the vehicle.

Esterification

A chemical process in which raw vegetable oils are converted into esters and given enhanced physical properties, particularly greater stability.

EUCAR/CONCAWE/JRC

Fermentation

EUCAR – European Council for Automotive Research and Development CONCAWE – Oil Companies´ European Organization for Environment, Health and Safety JRC – Joint Research Center of the European Commission. http://ies.jrc.cec.eu.int/wtw A biological process in which a material with a sugar content is broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide. When cellulose is used as a feedstock, decomposition (hydrolysis) into sugar must first be carried out using enzymes or acids.

Gasification

A process in which an organic material, such as biomass, is converted into synthetic gas, a mixture of hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide. The synthetic gas can then be used to produce various synthetic fuel constituents.

Ignition improver

A fuel additive that improves the compression ignition in a diesel engine.

Liquid biogas

Biogas liquefied by cooling to approx. -265ºF.

Gasification of black liquor

Black liquor from pulp mills can be gasified and used to produce synthetic vehicle fuels such as methanol, DME and synthetic diesel. In the pulp mill, the energy content of the black liquor is replaced using low-grade biomass, which is burned.

Methane (CH4)

The simplest type of hydrocarbon, and the primary constituent of biogas and natural gas.

Otto engine

An engine in which the air/fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug.

Renewable electricity

Greenhouse effect

Long-wave radiation is prevented from escaping the Earth’s atmosphere by greenhouse gases, contributing to higher temperatures on the planet’s surface.

Electricity produced from a renewable energy source, primarily hydro, biomass and wind.

Renewable fuel

A fuel produced from a renewable source, such as biomass, hydro, wind or solar energy.

USDA

US Department of Agriculture

USDOE

US Department of Energy

Well-to-wheel

A concept in which all relevant stages of the fuel chain are considered. This includes the cultivation (including fertilization) and harvesting of the raw material, its transport to the fuel production plant, production and distribution of the fuel to refueling stations, and its use in vehicles.

Greenhouse gases

Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect; in this context, primarily carbon dioxide of fossil origin.

Hybrid technology

Propulsion technology for vehicles based on two different energy converters, such as a diesel engine and an electric motor. Braking energy can be stored and returned to the electric motor.

Hydrocarbon

A chemical compound of carbon and hydrogen.

Fossil energy

Non-renewable energy from earlier geological periods, primarily oil, coal and natural gas.

Hydrogenation

The treatment of plant oils or animal fats, primarily with hydrogen gas in a refining process, for the production of synthetic hydrocarbons.

Fossil fuels

Fuels based on fossil energy, primarily oil, coal and natural gas.

Hydrolysis

A chemical process in which a molecule is broken down following the addition of a water molecule.

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