CJMS English 8 Grammar Overview This document includes IMPORTANT information on all of the grammar concepts you need to know for this school year; the concepts appear on quizzes, tests, and county formative and semester exams. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

As you know, a participle is a verb form. Participial phrases begin with a participle and are used to give more information about the subject. In this exercise, all of the examples are present participles, so the participial phrases all begin with –ing words. Participial phrases offer an easy way to combine ideas and vary your sentence structure. Example 1—Participial phrases often come at the beginning of the sentence. Combine the following two sentences using the present participle Standingas the first word: Bilbo watched a group of them for some time. Bilbo stood behind a tree. Answer (on page 155 of The Hobbit):

Standing behind a tree he watched a group of them for some time.

Example 2—Participial phrases can also come later in the sentence. Combine the following sentences using the present participle paddling to begin the second part of the sentence. Gollum was in his boat again. He was paddling wildly back to the dark shore. Answer (on page 89 of The Hobbit):

Gollum was in his boat again, paddling wildly back to the dark shore.

APPOSITIVE PHRASES

Using Appositive Phrases An appositive phrase is a group of words that can be used to give more information about the subject. Here’s a sentence without an appositive phrase: Sancta was the leader of the Apache raid. Here’s the same sentence with an appositive phrase: Sancta, an aged warrior with scars from

many battles, was the leader of the Apache raid.

Appositive phrases do not have a verb, and almost always end with a noun.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or." Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ridea bicycle. Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and ridinga bicycle. Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quick ly, accurately, and in a detailed manner. Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quick ly, accurately, and thoroughly.

ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE VOICE In a sentence using active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb. Active:

The dog bit the boy. The scientist performed experiments in the lab.

Passive:

The letter was written by my mother. The lunch was eaten by the hungry student.

*Use strong/active verbs in your writing and look for it in example sentences. Mr. O’Halloran is the director of the spring musical. Mr. O’Halloran directs the spring musical. GENERAL VS. SPECIFIC NOUNS general noun: any nonspecific noun: specific noun: a more specific, exact noun:

girl, language, country, fish Sally, Spanish, United States, trout

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, a noun or pronoun that serves as the object of the preposition, and, more often than not, an adjective or two that modifies the object. Prepositional phrases usually tell when or where: "in forty minutes," "in the sun, against the side, etc." Prepositional phrases can perform other functions, however: Except Jo, the children were remarkably like their father. EX:

1. In case of bad weather, the trip will be postponed to next week. 2. We finally solved our problem by means of a new device created by our research and development department.

CLAUSES/INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENTCLAUSES& COMPOUND/COMPLEX SENTENCES A clauseis a group of related words thatdoes include both a subject and verb.

Independent Clause (IC) An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence. Example:Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz. (IC)

Dependent (or Subordinate) Clause (DC)

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. Often a dependent clause is marked by a dependent marker word. (Examples of dependent clause marker words are after, although, as, as if, because, before,

even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.) Example: When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz . . . (DC) (What happened when he studied? The thought is incomplete.) A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two complete ideas (called clauses) that are related. These two clauses are usually connected in a compound sentence by a conjunction. The coordinating conjunctions are "and", "but", "for", "or", "nor", "yet", or "so". A complex sentence combines a simple sentence (often called an independent clause) with a subordinate clause (a dependent clause.) CONSISTENT VERB TENSE Do not switch from one tense to another unless the timing of an action demands that you do. Keep verb tense consistent in sentences, paragraphs, and essays. Do not change tenses when there is no time change for the action. Ex: During the movie, Jason stood up and drops his popcorn. – WRONG During the movie, Jason stood up and dropped his popcorn. – CORRECT – SAME TENSE CONSISTENT POINT OF VIEW Point of view refers to the perspective from which the sentence is told. When we discuss point of view, we use a term called ―person,‖ meaning ―who (or what) is the focus of the sentence.‖ In English grammar we have three persons, 1st person, 2nd person, and 3rd person. This needs to be consistent throughout a piece of writing. Problem: We were slowly getting closer to our destination, but you could see that everyone was getting frustrated. Fixed: We were slowly getting closer to our destination, but we could see that we were getting

frustrated.

COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS Accept/except Affect/effect It’s/its Cite/site Whose/who’s a lot than/then threw/through ware/wear/where quit/quiet/quite

A subject is "a word or phrase in a sentence that denotes the doer of the action [or] the receiver of the action in passive constructions." To tell if a construction is active or passive simply look at the subject: o o

If the subject is the "doer of the action," the sentence is active. If the subject is the "receiver of the action," the sentence is passive.

That's pretty easy. If you do something, you're active; if you have something done to you, you're passive. Compare the examples: Active o o o

Peggy ate the bone. Big Dog chased the police car. We ate every bite of food.

Passive o o o

The bone was eaten by Peggy. The police car was chased by Big Dog. Every bite of food was eaten by us.

Generally, you want to make your sentences active whenever you can. Active sentences make your writing stronger, more forceful.

Think you understand active and passive constructions? In an active construction, the subject is the „does‟ of the action. In a passive construction, the subject is the receiver of the action.

Select the sentences that are active. The olives were eaten by the hungry patrons. John opened the can. The date was set for the wedding. He lost the bet. Select the sentences that are passive. The cat caught the mouse. The window was shattered by the bullet. A letter is written whenever there is a problem. Sam bought a sports car.

It's usually better to write using active constructions. Rewrite the following sentences and make them active. (Use a simple [one-word] verb and include the definite article [the] where appropriate. Don't forget the period at the end!) A letter was written by Tom. The bet was lost by the students. Doctor Faustus was taken by the devil. The donuts were eaten by Scott.

APPOSITIVES Appositives are a word, phrase, or clause that means the same thing as (i.e., synonym) or further explains another noun (pronoun). Non-restrictive appositives are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Restrictive appositives are essential to the meaning of the sentence.

o o

NON-RESTRICTIVE: o o o o

o o

o o

Her husband, Fritz, is a nice guy. We assume she has only one husband. Thus, commas are used. The firm chose Mary, vice president of public affairs, as its chief executive officer. Because we have identified the person by name, her title is additional information. It can be set off by commas. In other words, we could take it out and the meaning would not change. The Grand Canyon, one of our nation's most popular tourist attractions, is breathtaking to behold. Because we have identified the place by name, the rest is additional information. It can be set off by commas. In other words, we could take it out and the meaning would not change. Neil Armstrong, the first man who walked on the moon, is a native of Ohio. Because we have identified the person by name, the additional information is not restricted to the sentence. It can be set off by commas. In other words, we could take it out and the meaning would not change. RESTRICTIVE:

Evan's friend John cheated on the test. o EVAN has more than one friend; therefore, no commas are used to set off JOHN. We need the name to know which friend we're talking about. o We students are happy with good grades. o STUDENTS identify who WE [subj.] are. If we remove it, WE does not have the same meaning. o She waited patiently for the famous author Stephen King. o STEPHEN KING identifies which famous author. There is no comma after AUTHOR because there are many famous author. o

When we talk about parallel structure, or "faulty parallelism" as some call it, we're dealing with a balancing act. The idea isn't too hard, but most people don't think about it. So what are we balancing? . . . pairs of words or series of words. Look at the following: Pairs a and b a or b Series a, b, and c a, b, or c Looks kind of like an algebra equation, doesn't it? Have no fear! This is a math free zone! Just think of the letters as standing for words or groups of words. Any words or groups of words that you plug in have to be the same kinds of words or word patterns. That's all there is to it! Let's see how the "formula" works: Pairs running and jumping, bothered and bewildered, open or shut, laughing or crying Series broken, bedraggled, and bone-tired an old shoe, a stuffed bear, and a chewed-up blanket When you write your sentences using parallel structure, your ideas come across more clearly because they're easier to read. Compare the following sentences: 1.

Peggotty's toys were an old shoe, a bear that was stuffed, and she had chewed up an old blanket. 2. Peggotty's toys were an old shoe, a stuffed bear, and a chewed-up blanket.

See how the second sentence is smoother and more balanced? If you balance your own sentences in this way, your writing will be more forceful.

PRACTICE 1. Which of the following paired sentences are parallel? She likes to listen to music and reading the latest novels. She likes listening to music and reading the latest novels.

He spent his time studying Spanish, working at the convenience store, and jogging every afternoon. He spent his time studying Spanish. working at the convenience store, and he jogged every afternoon.

The dog was excited: running, barking, and he chased after the boys. The dog was excited: running, barking, and chasing after the boys.

The apartment was filled with old newspapers, broken bottles, and the ashtrays were overflowing. The apartment was filled with old newspapers, broken bottles, and overflowing ashtrays. 2. Make the following sentences parallel. Enter the correct version of the item in the series which does not match the others. Mary wanted to paint her office, to add some new draperies, and the carpet need cleaning. When Friday rolls around, do you go to the mall, head for a bar, or are you going to work? Last year, my brother dropped out of school, was looking for work, and needed a place to stay. He watched the latest version of King Lear, studied for his math test, and was talking on the phone.

Participles and Participial Phrases What is it? A PARTICIPLE is a verb form ending in ing or ed. A participle is used as an adjective and often begins a participial phrase. Example: The two-year-old ran out of the class crying and screaming. The underlined participles modify the two-year-old. Example: Chewing gum in class, the guilty student was given a detention. The participial phrase modifies the student. Example: The tired student fell asleep before he finished his homework. The participle modifies the student. Participial Phrase The participial phrase includes the participle and the object of the participle or any words modified by or related to the participle. [In the following examples, the participle is bold and the participial phrase is underlined.] o o o o

o o o o o o o o

o o

The car sliding out of control toward building will likely hit the window. SLIDING modifies the CAR. The verb is WILL HIT. Cameron spotted his brother throwing rocks at the passing cars. THROWING is not a verb in this sentence. It describes the brother. Without an auxiliary verb, it cannot function as a verb. SPOTTED is the verb for the subject CARMEN. The astronaut chosen to ride the space shuttle to Mars is afraid of heights. CHOSEN describes the ASTRONAUT. Running down the street, Alicia tripped and fell. RUNNING certainly indicates something the subject is doing, but the verbs for the subject are TRIPPED and FELL. Penned in by other runners, Steve was unable to make a break for the finish line. STEVE is the subject. WAS is the verb. PENNED describes STEVE. Mark returned the damaged package to the manufacturer. Follow the steps to find the participle. What is the subject? MARK. What is the verb (i.e. what did Mark do?) RETURNED. And DAMAGED describes PACKAGE. Alex fell down the broken staircase. BROKEN describes STAIRCASE.

Prepositional Phrases Prepositions are words that show how one word or idea is related to another; a preposition is the first word in a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases acts as adjectives or adverbs in a sentence.             

board about above across after against along amid among anti around as at

         

before behind below beneath beside besides between beyond but by

 

concerning considering

 

despite without

 

down during

  

except excepting excluding

  

following for from

  

in inside into



like



minus



near

      

of off on onto opposite outside over

  

past per plus

 

regarding round

 

save since

    

than through to toward towards

     

under underneath unlike until up upon

 

versus via

 

with within

Prepositional phrase as an adjective: The alien spaceship‟s exhaust pipe releases jets of hot gas. The preposition “of” shows the relationship between the noun “jets” and the object of the preposition “gas.” It is an adjective because it tells „what kind.” Prepositional Phrase as an adverb: The ballerina whirls around the room. “Around the room” is the prepositional phrase acting as an adverb modifying “whirls.” Prepositional Phrase Practice

Instructions: A prepositional phrase may be used as an adjective telling which or what kind

and modifying a noun or pronoun. An adjective prepositional phrase will come right after the noun or pronoun that it modifies. If there are two adjective phrases together, one will follow the other. A prepositional phrase may be used as an adverb telling how, when, where, how much, and why and modifying the verb and sometimes an adjective. Adverb prepositional phrases can come anywhere in the sentence and can be moved within the sentence without changing the meaning. Only adjective prepositional phrases modify the object of the preposition in another prepositional phrase. Notice that some prepositional phrases may be adverbs or adjectives because of their location in the sentence. Pick out the prepositional phrases in these sentences, identify what they tell us, and explain what they modify.

1. The librarian took from her desk a new edition of one of the classics.

2. It was placed in the display case in the corner of the library.

3. Many books of mysteries and detective stories are found in the library.

4. One story about magic appears in our literature book.

5. This story contains clues to the solution of the mystery.

6. I have read many stories by Arthur Conan Doyle about Sherlock Holmes.

7. A wall of ancient Pompeii was discovered accidentally by an ordinary peasant. Thank you to http://department.monm.edu/english/kroberts/english201/project2002/group10/phrasework2.htm

Things to remember:  Periods and commas go INSIDE quotation marks.  Only what is being said is enclosed in quotation marks.  There are many ways to say “say.” Converting the comic strip into written dialog~ “You know how the state‟s having budget problems?” the student asks. The teacher responds, “Yes.” “And you know,” continues the student, “that as far as schools are concerned, everything is „on the table‟?” The teacher thinks and says, “Um…yes,” wondering where the student is going with this. He finds out when the girls says, “Is THIS the table that everything‟s on?” The teacher pauses and reflects before he responds saying, “I need to catch up on grading some essays…”

Things to remember:  Periods and commas go INSIDE quotation marks.  Only what is being said is enclosed in quotation marks.  There are many ways to say “say.” Converting the comic strip into written dialog~ “You know how the state‟s having budget problems?” the student asks. The teacher responds, “Yes.” “And you know,” continues the student, “that as far as schools are concerned, everything is „on the table‟?” The teacher thinks and says, “Um…yes,” wondering where the student is going with this. He finds out when the girls says, “Is THIS the table that everything‟s on?” The teacher pauses and reflects before he responds saying, “I need to catch up on grading some essays…”

CHOOSE STRONG VERBS accelerate accept accomplish account for accumulate achieve acknowledge acquire activate adapt add address adjust admit affect agree aid align alleviate allow alter amplify analyze answer anticipate appear apply appreciate approach approximate argue arise ascertain assert assess associate assume attain attract attribute

augment avoid become begin behave believe benefit bound branch break bring (together) broaden build calculate calibrate capitalize capture cause center challenge characterize choose claim clarify collect combine compare compete compile complete complicate compress compute conceive concentrate conclude concur conduct confine conjecture

For the complete list visit: http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~cainproj/writingtips/preciseverbs.html

connect consider constitute constrain construct continue contradict contrast contribute control converge convey convince coordinate correct correlate corroborate create critique crystallize decide declare decode decrease deduce defend define deflect delineate deliver demonstrate deny depict deploy deposit derive

Subject Verb Agreement Subject verb agreement can be one of the more challenging aspects of writing. While short clauses provide for an easily identifiable subject, longer clauses with extensive phrases can make proper subject verb agreement more of a challenge. The first and most important rule in subject verb agreement is that the verb must agree with the intended number of the subject. To accomplish that task, follow two occasionally not so simple tasks. Identify the real subject Determine whether subject is singular or plural The first step is often made difficult by phrases and/or sentence structure that work to obscure (hide) the true subject. Prepositional phrases are one of the main culprits in the misidentification of the true subject of the clause. Among the constitutional rights we cherish is freedom.

AMONG is a preposition; therefore, RIGHTS is the object of the preposition. FREEDOM is the subject of the sentence. The group of protesters is blocking the entrance to the building.

OF is a preposition; therefore, PROTESTERS is the object of the preposition. GROUP is the subject of the sentence and it is singular. The annual rituals of the group confuse the neighbors.

OF is a preposition; therefore, GROUP is the object of the preposition. RITUALS is the subject of the sentence and it is plural. Parenthetical phrases can also work to obscure the true subject. Phrases such as "as well as," "such as," "along with," "rather than," "accompanied by" and "including" introduce items that are NOT considered when determining whether a verb is singular or plural. The quiz, as well as all workbook exercises, was collected.

QUIZ is the subject. The parenthetical expression does not affect the verb. His jacket, not his shirt or his socks, always seems to match his slacks.

JACKET is the subject. It is singular. The parenthetical expression (one that offers more information) does not affect the verb. Her birthday celebration, together with the upcoming holiday, makes for a very full calendar.

CELEBRATION is the subject. The parenthetical expression does not affect the verb. The president and vice president, accompanied by the board of directors, plan to vote against changing the company bylaws.

PRESIDENT and VICE PRESIDENT are the subject. The verb is plural. Expletives (There, Here) are false subjects. Disregard them completely when determining the subject that the verb must agree with. There are fewer students in this class.

The true subject in this sentence is STUDENTS. Officer, here is the person I was telling you about.

The true subject in this clause is PERSON. Predicate nominatives can lead to some confusion when determining the true subject. (Example: At the end of the tournament, Tiger Woods was the leader. The predicate nominative has the same value as the subject) Remember to find the subject and verb combination first and then begin to determine whether that subject is singular or plural. The war-torn country's only relief was the food and medical supplies dropped from the sky.

The true subject in this sentence is RELIEF. The explanation provided by the agency was farming practices, population growth and international aid.

The true subject in this sentence is EXPLANATION.