Child Protection and Child Friendly Justice:

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Child Protection and Child Friendly Justice: Lessons Learned from Programmes in Ethiopia Executive Summary February 2012

One of the three winners of Save the Children’s innovation competition, 2012

This is an Executive Summary of a report written by Tsegaye Deda Baffa, former Assistant Commissioner of the Federal Police of Ethiopia. The full report can be obtained by contacting: [email protected]

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Save the Children Sweden fights for children’s rights. We deliver immediate and lasting improvements to children’s lives worldwide. Save the Children works for a world: which respects and values each child; which listens to children and learns; where all children have hope and opportunity. Save the Children Sweden is a major supporter of child protection and child friendly justice programming in Ethiopia. Save the Children Sweden publishes books and reports to disseminate knowledge about the situation of children, to provide guidance, and to inspire new thoughts and discussions. You can order our publications by contacting us directly, http://resourcecentre.savethechildren.se/ or by visiting Save the Children’s website: http://www.savethechildren.net/ Save the Children Sweden Ethiopia Office P.O.Box 3457 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel: +251 113 21 09 60 Fax: +251 113 21 4234

Forum on Sustainable Child Empowerment (FSCE) (previously called Forum on Street Children Ethiopia) is a national, not-for-profit, non-governmental organization which was established at the end of 1989 by a group of social development professionals who used to work in child-focused organizations. Its establishment was a response to the increased number of orphaned and abandoned children in Addis Ababa caused by the drought and famine of 1984/85. Vision • To see the wellbeing and protection needs of children fulfilled Mission • We are a child protection organization striving for sustainable protection, growth and development of vulnerable children For more information visit our Website: www.fsc-e.org or contact us by Email: [email protected]

© 2012 Save the Children Sweden Programme Officer: Alemtsehay Mulat, Programme Development Manager, Save the Children Sweden Editor: Frances Sheahan, Consultant Design and layout: Sophie Joy Mosko

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Contents 1. 2. 3.

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About this Executive Summary................................................................. 1 Context.......................................................................................................... 1 Implementing the Programmes ................................................................ 3 3.1 Child Protection Units 3.2 Centres for Trafficked Children 3.3 Community Based Correction Centres 3.4 Child-Friendly Courts Lessons Learned...........................................................................................8

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1. About this Executive Summary In 1996, Save the Children Sweden (SCS) and the Ethiopia-based NGO Forum on Sustainable Child Empowerment (FSCE) (previously called Forum on Street ChildrenEthiopia) began working on a far-reaching programme to establish Child Protection Units (CPUs) within police stations in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia’s capital city. One of the central motivations for developing this programme was a growing awareness of the violence, abuse and neglect that children living in and of the street experienced when they were arrested and detained in police stations. Furthermore, it was clear that police themselves had little understanding of child rights and child protection issues and even fewer resources and avenues for responding to children who had been arrested. To address these issues, CPUs were set up to provide children in contact with the law with specialised treatment, follow-up, and support during legal procedures. With the knowledge and understanding gained from this initial programme, SCS and FSCE went on to develop a series of interventions to protect children and instill child friendly justice within the criminal justice system in Ethiopia. These interventions included setting up CPUs in police stations across different regions of Ethiopia and establishing Centres for Trafficked Children, Community Based Corrections Programmes and Child Friendly Courts. As a result of these interventions, children in contact with the law, in areas where the programmes are running, are dealt with more promptly and effectively, agencies such as the police and social welfare officers have a deeper knowledge and understanding of child protection issues and there has been an increase

in the rate of reporting, management and convictions in child abuse cases. This document is a summary of a longer piece of research which was written by a former Assistant Commissioner of the Federal Police of Ethiopia who was actively involved in working with SCS and FSCE in developing and implementing these interventions. It draws on interviews with key informants1, a series of programme evaluations and a literature review. It analyses the successes and challenges of these interventions and is aimed primarily at other organizations who are doing similar work in order to share experiences and learning of over a decade of child protection programming in Ethiopia.

2. Context 2.1 Introduction The child protection and child friendly interventions were developed in a wider context of rapid population growth2 in Ethiopia where 45% of the population are children below 15 and one third of the population survives on less than 1US$ a day. Children are particularly affected by growing up in poverty and a direct consequence is that about 37% of the primary school age population is not enrolled in primary school3. It is estimated that close to 1.2 million children in Ethiopia have been orphaned by HIV/AIDS and abduction and early marriage are widely practiced in most parts of rural Ethiopia. There are between 150,00-200,000 street children nationally with a further one million vulnerable or at risk of ending up on the streets. Girls on the street are particularly vulnerable to sexual exploitation. Only patchy data and research is available regarding the incidence, magnitude and consequences of abuse, neglect, exploitation

More than 70 people were interviewed for the original research from the major cities and towns where programmes are implemented in Addis Ababa, Nazareth, Bahirdar, and Diredawa. The interviewees were drawn from police, judiciary, and NGOs directly involved in child protection and child friendly justice. For a full list of interviewees please see the original research report. 2 The World Bank states that Ethiopia has a population of over 82 million with annual population growth of 2.6% in its World Development Indicators Report (2011) 3 UNICEF-Ethiopia Fact Sheet (2011) 1

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and violence against children in Ethiopia. The evidence which is available is limited in terms of breadth and geography and there is a strong presumption that a large number of cases of child abuse are never reported to the police. Nonetheless, the evidence we have indicates that violence against children is widespread and commonplace. The Federal Police gathered (unpublished) national crime statistics from 1999 to 2003 which indicated that 40% of all reported rapes and 74% of all reported cases of 'sexual outrage' were committed against children aged between nine and 184. Research conducted for the UN Study on Violence found that the vast majority of school children, street children, orphans, children in foster institutions and children with disabilities – from four major Regional States - had encountered physical, psychological, and sexual violence5. 2.2 Existing child protection structures In 1991, the government of Ethiopia ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and it was domesticated into national law in 19926. The federal constitution7 adopted in 1995 provides a framework for the protection and promotion of the rights of children. Furthermore, the revised Family Law

(2000) compels a child's guardian to watch their health, supervise the social contacts and education of the minor and to fix the residence of the minor. Detailed guidelines on institutional childcare, community based childcare, reunification, foster family care and adoption are provided by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. The Revised Penal Code (2004) criminalises certain conduct regarding the abuse of children such as infanticide, sexual violence, abduction, maltreatment, neglect and negligent treatment, sexual exploitation of children, as well as trafficking and female genital mutilation. However, the Revised Penal Code sets the minimum age of criminal responsibility at nine, one of the lowest ages in the world. It also treats children aged between 15 and 18 as adults before the courts. Furthermore, a multitude of National Plans of Action exist to respond to child protection concerns including commercial sexual exploitation and orphans and vulnerable children. However, Ethiopia lacks an overarching, holistic policy on child protection and existing law and policy is poorly implemented. Recently the context for civil society operating in Ethiopia has become very challenging since the introduction of the 'Charities and Societies

What is child protection? Save the Children defines child protection as measures and structures to prevent and respond to abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence affecting children. Recently there has been a shift towards a systems-building approach to child protection. Such an approach emphasises prevention, coordination between sectors and integrated responses that benefit all children. A rights-based national child protection system recognises the state’s responsibilities and human rights obligations to children and provides government with a coordinated and sustainable way to protect children. For more information see Child Protection Initiative. Building rights-based national child protection systems: a concept paper to support Save the Children’s work (2010) The Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. Country Response to the Questionnaire on Violence Against Children. Addis Ababa: unpublished, (2005) 5 Violence Against Children in Ethiopia: In Their Words, African Child Policy Forum and Save the Children Sweden (2006). The Regional States where the research was conducted were: Addis Ababa, Oromia, Tigray and SNNPRS. 6 For more information on this point see Yohannes, Seyoum and Assefa, Aman, Harmonisation of laws relating to children, Ethiopia. African Child Policy Forum, undated. 7 The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) Constitution, Proclamation No. 1 4

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Proclamation' in 20108. This law prohibits foreign NGOs, and local NGOs that receive more than 10 percent of their funding from abroad, from involvement in human rights advocacy and governance issues.

3.Implementing the Programmes 3.1 Child Protection Units In 1996, FSCE in collaboration with the Addis Ababa City Police Commission and with technical and financial support from SCS began a pilot project to establish CPUs within five selected police stations in the capital city. When children are brought to the CPU having been accused of committing an offence, their parents are contacted, their case is investigated and a report compiled. The child’s case is then assessed by a police officer and community worker from FSCE and a decision is taken to either release the child under the responsibility of parents/guardians; refer the child to the Community-Based Correction Programme; or to present the child to a juvenile court. The programme laid the foundations for a successful intervention by intensive work with senior police officers. This involved: sensitising

leaders of the city's police; gathering and learning from practice in other countries; undertaking a gap analysis of police understanding of child rights; holding awareness raising workshops with police leaders; sending high-ranking police officers to South Africa for three weeks training on child rights and child protection and finally reaching consensus with police officials about the required features, operations and objectives of CPUs. A Memorandum of Understanding was eventually signed between FSCE and the Police Commission prior to five pilot CPUs being established in different police stations along with a central coordination office within police headquarters. The next phase was to establish the CPUs themselves. They were located within the compounds of police stations usually in separate blocks close to the outside gate of the compound. They were staffed by three police officers (often the majority of whom are female) and one community worker. The police officers were provided with specialised training on legal, operational and psychological aspects of their work although this training has not been sustained.

For more on this point see Hailegebriel, Debebe, Restrictions on Foreign Funding of Civil Society: Ethiopia International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law 12, no. 3 (May 2010): 18-27

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“The CPU works as a bridge between the community, the courts and the police. It also is key in helping to protect children from further abuse and teaching them how to protect themselves... Before I was trained as a CPU police officer, I didn’t know how to treat children. For me, all children were always guilty. Children always made mistakes. Now I understand the social environment that leads these children into crime. Before, I had very little understanding of ‘child protection’. Now I understand a bit more about protection and sexual and physical abuse.” - Private Indrias, Team Leader, CPU Addis Ababa The number of CPUs grew from the original five and to date CPUs are fully operational in all of the Sub-city police stations in Addis Ababa, and in major towns of the regional states including Nazareth, Bahirdar, Dessie, Diredawa, Shashemane, Awassa and Wolayta Sodo. CPUs are also integrated in all police stations in the regional state of Amhara9 and the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples10. Between 1999 and 2009, over 37,000 children were supported within these Units including 26,047 cases of children who were victims of exploitation and abuse and 11,496 children in conflict with the law11. The work of the CPUs also expanded as networks and collaboration with NGOs developed and the Units focused more on out-reach work within communities. The CPUs also began the process of recording, compiling, processing, and analyzing data on the cases of child abuse and children in conflict with the law. The kind of information captured includes: incident information (place, time, cause, damage); victim and perpetrator profiles (personal particulars, background, relationship, education, job); and process information (measures taken, decisions passed, results achieved). The data operations are supported by a computer programme, as well as standardized formats designed for recording and reporting purposes - there is still scope for improvement12.

3.2 Centres for Trafficked Children The pilot CPU programme highlighted that a large number of children in contact with the law had been trafficked to Addis Ababa from elsewhere within Ethiopia. As a result, FSCE and SCS established a number of Centres for Trafficked Children (CTCs) in national and regional bus stations in urban areas known to be destinations for trafficked children13. These Centres are operated by the police and FSCE and staffed by police and community workers. A case of a trafficked child may come to the attention of the CTCs via the police, NGOs, children (including self-reporting), bus drivers, passengers, workers in the bus terminal, and community members. The CTCs undertake the following tasks: • consult with the child to discuss the possibility of returning them to their families; • provide temporary shelter and food as well as counseling and guidance. Some CTCs have their own temporary shelter and/or feeding facilities while others are assisted by NGOs, Kebeles (local government organisations), churches, hotels, schools, universities and so on14; • trace the addresses of parents or guardians and arrange for the return of the child through direct communication between the CTC staff and parents/guardians if the later are accessible by phone, or through the nearest police station;

Interview by author with police officials at regional police head quarters, including the CPU Coordination Office Head. Child Internet, FSCE (2009) 11 FSCE - Ethiopia. Annual Report 2008. Addis Ababa: FSCE (2009) 12 For a detailed analysis of data collection for CPUs see Deda, Tsegaye, Child Protection Unit Data System: a handbook of system standards, data operations and tools EveryChild UK, 2010 (unpublished). 13 Including the cities of Addis Ababa, Bahirdar, Diredawa, Adama, Shashemane, and Dessie. 14 Police officers and FSCE staff in Bahirdar informed the author that Bahirdar University collaborates with them by providing feeding services to children. 9

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• transport the child back home. Either the parents will collect the child from the CTC or the CTC will ask transport companies for free transportation for the child to the police station closest to their family; and • keep and maintain confidential records regarding children who have been supported.

3.3 Community Based Correction Centres The work of the CPUs also highlighted that large numbers of children who are in conflict with the law need to be diverted from formal criminal justice processes into correction

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programmes which challenge their offending behaviour at the same time as allowing them to remain in the community living with their families. Community Based Correction Centres were first introduced by FSCE in conjunction with Addis Ababa City Police Commission in 2004. Other Centres have since been set up in Addis Ababa and in many other cities around Ethiopia15. They have the following objectives: • Prevent potentially vulnerable children from being involved in criminal activities; • Keep young offenders at home not in reformatory institutions; • Help young people avoid the trauma and stigma associated with involvement in the formal justice process and help them avoid a criminal record; • Reduce the likelihood of future criminal involvement through targeted and individualised rehabilitation; and • Increase collaboration between police stations

and local communities in crime prevention for children. The Centres are operated by the police and bring together NGOs, police, families, elders (locally known as ‘Mekari Shimagles’), teachers and volunteers. Most of the children who attend are referred by CPUs however, they may also be referred by the courts or by their parents. After a child is referred to the Centre, a contract is made with their parents/guardians that the child will attend and meet the expectations of the Centre's authorities. On average, children are enrolled for about three hours a day after school on weekdays for approximately six to nine months. The Centres are run by a police officer who is accountable to the CPU but the organisation is shared by NGOs, families, schools and communities. FSCE provides funding for many Centres in Addis Ababa for hiring and

Tigist's Story “One day, my uncle said he would take me to visit my other uncles in Addis Ababa. After my uncle brought me to Addis Ababa, he sold me as a servant. He doesn’t pay me anything. I work for a family, a husband, wife and two children. I cook, clean, wash clothes for the family. I don’t go to school.The family physically abuses me. I have no proper food, no new clothes and I work 16 hours a day. When I would get sick, the family would punish me. I never went to the doctor the six months I worked there. The father of the family used to hit me the most often." When asked why she is at the Centre, she said: “The family sent me to the market to sell some things for them. Since I don’t know Addis very well, I got lost. I called the family and told them I was lost. They said that if I couldn’t find the house, then I should just leave. A woman found me on the street crying and took me to her house. She fed me and let me stay the night with her and then she brought me to the Trafficking Centre. This was four days ago.” Tigist, 12 years old, Wolita in southern Ethiopia, interviewed at the Trafficking Centre in Addis Ababa

Including Adama, Akakai Kaliti, Bahirdar, Dessie, and Diredawa.

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training counselors and social workers. Local communities provide halls and other facilities including open grounds for programme activities. Elders in the community also participate along with volunteers who are mainly young people who have at least completed their high school education. They are paid with an honorarium by FSCE to cover transportation expenses. High unemployment and the opportunity this work opens up for future jobs make these posts popular. Criteria for recruitment of volunteers focus on the ability of the volunteer to communicate with children, especially adolescents, and the personal characteristics of the volunteer. The latter is important in that the volunteers are expected to be good role models for the children in the centers. They are provided with training regarding child rights. 3.4 Child Friendly Courts Another issue which emerged clearly from the experience of supporting child victims of abuse through court proceedings was the lack of child friendly courts. Therefore, in 2004, a child friendly bench was established with the support of SCS in the Federal First Instance Court in Addis Ababa and in Tigray woreda16 court. in the Federal First Instance Court. This means that a separate courtroom was

"If those who drop out from school and become street children are protected, rehabilitated, reintegrated and to go back to school, then there will be less vulnerability to criminality in the future.That is a very effective proactive strategy to prevent crime, which is being done by the project." Addis Ababa Police Officer interviewed for evaluation of FSCE child protection programming in 2009 established which is linked to another room through a CCTV system. This enables child victims to give their evidence in a separate room whilst the judges and other court officials can follow the proceedings in the court room. The child witness can testify freely without being face to face with the alleged perpetrator. Child friendly courts have now been established in the capitals of four larger regional states in Ethiopia17.

Centre Operations • Child assessment, setting standards and development of individualised treatment plans • Liaising with parents and schools • Organizing daily activity schedules • Continuous monitoring and follow-up as well as periodic assessment • Rewarding good behaviour and innovative actions • Guidance and counselling to children as well as their parents/guardians • School support such as tuitions, uniforms, materials, tutorial, library, etc. • Providing training, such as life skills, computer skill, music and theatre training • Play and recreation: sport, music, drama, games, arts, etc. Woreda is a local, administrative division of government in Ethiopia Oromya, Amhara, Southern Nations and Nationalities, and Tigray – in addition to two benches in Addis Ababa and one in Diredawa city. 16 17

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Alabo's story “I come to the centre every day. Here there are books available. I am able to study and prepare myself for exams. I also get to play games and be in a safe place. I don’t consider this as a penalty, so why should I not continue to come all the time? I want to be a doctor. It is nice in this place I don’t have to pay for the games and support. If I was going to play games outside, I would have to pay and I would be in places where they do a lot of other bad things. I get counselling and guidance as well as tutoring help and music lessons. The children are very involved and we can read books and teach others. I am involved with the health committee in the centre. I get to learn and then teach the other children about health”. Alabo, 16 year old orphan, Addis Ababa Community Based Correction Centre

4. Lessons Learned 4.1. Close collaboration between civil society and police is essential for success in child protection work.... The strength of the CPUs lies in their holistic treatment of children who come in contact with the law, whether as victims or alleged offenders, so that both psycho-social and legal support is provided. This demands close cooperation between police and the civilian staff assigned to the CPU - counselors, social workers, community workers and volunteers who are employed and supervised by the FSCE. Such collaboration requires clear demarcation of roles in for example a Memorandum of Understanding. .....but there is still a tendency for police to think child protection is 'NGO' work Child protection has not yet been institutionalized into police systems and operations. Police engagement in the child protection interventions has therefore fluctuated depending on the individual interest

and commitment of officers at different times in the life of the project. In Addis Ababa, it took more than a decade for the police to fully take over the CPU roles. In other parts of the country this still hasn't happened and the services provided are still initiated and owned by NGOs. There is still a perception amongst some government agencies that child protection is 'NGO' work. At the same time, government restrictions on NGO activities arising from recent legislation18 means that the long-term sustainability of the projects is at risk. Recommendation: The CPU needs to be integrated clearly into the police mandate to ensure sustainability and ownership. This involves incorporating good practice in child protection into police proclamations, service and disciplinary codes, strategic directives and plans, performance standards, operations and service guidelines and so on.

Most notably of course the Proclamation to Provide for the Registration and Regulation of Charities and Societies (2009)

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What is Child-Friendly Justice? ‘Child-friendly justice’ refers to justice systems which guarantee effective implementation of all children's rights at the highest attainable level, bearing in mind the principles in the CRC and all other related international and regional instruments. It gives due consideration to the child’s level of maturity and understanding and the circumstances of the case. It is, in particular, justice that is accessible, age appropriate, speedy, diligent, adapted to and focused on the needs and rights of the child, respecting the rights of the child including the rights to due process, to participate in and to understand the proceedings, to respect for private and family life and to integrity and dignity. 4.2 Ongoing, systematic training and awareness raising amongst police and the judiciary is very important In 1997, 30 members of the Addis Ababa City Police who were assigned to the first CPUs were given one-month training on child protection and on how to investigate and prosecute child abuse cases. The training was intended to provide the newly assigned CPU officers with the understanding and skills needed for executing key child protection functions. The training focused on psychological and policing aspects of child protection and was based upon a manual which was developed by professionals in these fields and was tailored for the Ethiopian context19. The Ethiopian Police University College also developed further specialised courses in collaboration with UNICEF and SCS including: child abuse investigation; police

leadership and child protection; child protection for specialist trainers; CPU staff training; police recruits and child protection; and refresher training to in-service police officers. This training was integrated into the curriculum for new recruits and was ongoing until 2006 when it was revised following an evaluation. The Ethiopian Police University College played an important role in convincing different federal and regional state police commissions to ensure their officers were properly trained in child protection. The training itself has always focused on having practical objectives relevant for police officers' work. ....but police officers who have been trained are not retained to work in the CPUs and Community-Based Correction Centres Most of the police officers who had taken the specialized training on the CPU services and

"Double ownership and double accountability had its own problems creating serious gaps difficult to bridge and therefore the ownership of the project by the Police Commission is essential. FSCE has taken the initiative and the lead and now the police must take over." CPU Co-ordinator interviewed for evaluation of programme in 2009. The psychological components of the training were developed and delivered by a professor of psychology from Addis Ababa University whilst the legal and policing aspects of the training were developed and provided by experienced police trainers from the Ethiopian Police College. 19

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operations have been moved out of the CPUs and Community-Based Correction Centres over time. Currently a large proportion of the officers on post have not taken an equivalent training. Furthermore, the high turn-over of officers in CPUs means that the chance of keeping officers who have developed the necessary attitudes and skills through experience are slim.

that the main problem was that the facilities provided were inadequate. CPUs are also not very child-friendly - although they are housed in separate blocks from the main police station, they are cramped and it is difficult to have confidential discussions with children. They lack outside play areas.

Recommendation: Officially recognise all training programmes on child protection and make such training compulsory and linked to promotion. Officers could also be encouraged through schemes such as awards as well as ongoing day to day support and information.

Recommendation: More emphasis must be placed on providing adequate indoor and outdoor facilities in the CPUs and the Correction Centres in order to achieve the optimal outcome for children in contact with the law. Provision must be made for rooms to be available for confidential discussions with children.

4.3 Children need the physical environment of child protection services to be child-friendly In an evaluation of the Community Based Correction Centres conducted in 2009, children who were interviewed stated overwhelmingly

4.4 Appropriate structuring within government administration is very important CPUs deal with children who are both offenders and victims or witnesses - they therefore straddle both prosecution and crime

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prevention units within police structures. At present the CPUs fall under the Investigation unit although an important part of its function is to prevent child offending. Recommendation: The CPUs need to be accountable to the chiefs of the police department rather than to separate crime prevention or crime investigation units. The Community Based Correction Centres on the other hand should be governed by a multiagency body rather than the police. 4.5 Collaboration with the wider community is essential for child protection initiatives The Centres for Trafficked Children work closely with the management and staff of the bus stations, transport companies and bus drivers to raise awareness about how to identify and report children who have been trafficked. They also lobby transport companies to provide transport free of charge for children who are being reunited with their families. Staff at the Centres also work with local bar owners and brokers for child employment to emphasize that involvement in child trafficking is a criminal offence and to encourage them to report children they suspect have been trafficked. In the Community Based Correction Programmes the wider community is also drawn in to participate through the use of volunteers and elders. Informal settlements of disputes are the socio-cultural norm in Ethiopia, so involving local elders resonates with traditional practice. Recommendation: Child protection initiatives should be enriched by the involvement of volunteers from the community as well as qualified professionals such as health care professionals and academics. 4.6 The Community Based Correction Centres require legal backing Despite there being no formal mandate for diversion by the police, they are actively promoting it as a result of effective training, liaison and support, and no doubt in part

because of its success. However, the Ethiopian penal law has no clear provision for the diversion of young offenders to an informal system of rehabilitation and correction. As a consequence, the Community Based Correction Centres do not have a basis to operate under the law. Parents are not obliged to co-operate and there is no legally enforceable way of ensuring children complete their programme - drop-out rates are high. Recommendation: A change in the law is required to ensure that diversion is allowed for and encouraged in law. 4.7. When children are discharged from the Trafficking Centres there should be follow up to see what happens to them A failure to follow up children after discharge is a primary weakness of the Trafficking Centres. This has arisen because of lack of capacity of staff, lack of resources and challenges inherent in tracing children living in and on the street. Recommendation: Measures that would help in this regard include developing specified techniques and standard procedures of tracing and follow up, designing tools – formats and checklists, for instance – that support proper execution of the follow up processes and maintaining record of the relevant information. 4.8 Better data collation is required Data collection is not systematic nor is the data captured sufficient. This has a detrimental effect on planning for child protection programmes. Recommendation: Effective child protection practice demands the capture, preservation, communication and sharing of a range of information across all actors involved. It is imperative to have a standardized system, practice, and technology of data operations that fits the given context well.

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