CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter contains the theoretical concept needed for the analysis. The purpose of this chapter is to support the analysis of problem formulation on the previous chapter. This chapter will analyze the concept of women that appear in advertisements, and give the definition which relate with the topic. In order to analyze this paper, this theoretical framework include: (1) Advertising, which includes Types of Advertising; (2) Theory of Advertising, which includes Types of Advertising, Television Advertisement and Image of Woman in Television; (3) Semiotics, which includes Keys of Figures in semiotics, Semiotics by Roland Barthes and Semiotics in Advertisement. 2.1

Advertising Based on Angela Godard (1998, p. 6) the word 'advertisements' is the Latin

verb of 'advertere', meaning 'to turn towards'. While it is true that advertising are text, picture, sound, that do their best to get audience attention, to make the audience turn towards them. Danesi (2002, p. 179) said that “advertisement designates any type or form of public announcement or representation intended to promote the sale of specific commodities or services.” Walles, Burnett, and Moriarty (2006, p. 5) defined advertising as paid persuasive communication that uses non personal mass media – as well as other forms of interactive communications – to reach broad audiences to connect an identified sponsor with a target audience. In the other meaning advertising uses mass media to promote their products or service and to influence the audience. The advantage of using advertising is the ability in reaching masses of geographically scattered buyers, and it enables the seller to repeat a message many times.

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The functions of advertising according to Wells, Burnett, and Moriarty (1992, p. 15) are: 1. Provides product and brand information. Providing the consumer with relevant information that will add decision making. 2. Provides incentives to take action. Give consumer reasons to switch brands. Convinience, high quality, low price, warranties, etc. Might be stressed in advertising. 3. Provides reminders and reinforcement. Constantly remind the consumer about the name, benefits and value. In other words, the main function of advertising is to give the information about the new product and persuade audience to buy and use the product. 2.1.1 Types of advertising According to Trehan (2006, p. 97). There are various types of advertising media. These various types of media can be grouped under the following heads. First, print media, it consists of the newspapers, magazine and journals. Second, broadcast media, it consists of television and radio. Third, outdoor or mural advertising media, it consist of several advertising, neon-signboards, posters, vehicle advertising, sky advertising, sticker, sandwich man, banner, and wall painting. Forth, direct mall advertising media, it can be divided in seven kinds of advertisement, such as leaflets or pamphlets, circulars, catalogues, booklets and brochures, folders, business reply card and personal letters. Fifth, internet advertising, that can be divided in five kinds of advertisement, which is World Wide Web page, banner ads, e-mail, skyscrapers and business to business network. And last, other types of advertising media that can be seen in other media, such as film advertising, window display, interior display, exhibitions and trade shows, tele-advertising, videoadvertising and last, yellow pages advertising. 2.1.2 Television Advertisement The commercial became even more influential as a vehicle for disseminating advertising messages throughout society with the advent of television in the early 1950s. TV commercials of the day became instantly familiar creating a perception of

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the product as being inextricably intertwined with the style and content of the commercials created to promote it (Danesi, 2002, p. 182). By using television for the media, advertisers use graphics, sight, sound, color, music, action, special effect and various visual techniques to enhance the effectiveness of their messages. Because of using those elements, which is graphics, audio, and various visual techniques, television advertising is considered as the most powerful form of advertising. By using audio-visual effect, impact of television advertisement is the advertisement is deep on the minds of viewers and remembered for a long by viewers. Even it needs a high-cost in doing television advertisement, but the producer still thinks that the best way to shows and to tell their product it is from television (Trehan, 2006, pp. 101102) 2.1.3 Image of women in advertisement Cortese (2004, p. 51) stated that “advertising has a great deal to say about gender identity. Advertising use visual image of men and women to get audience attention and persuade.” Advertisements are really projecting gender display—the ways in which we think men and women behave—not the ways they actually behave. Image it self is a concept or a thought of audience based on what they see in the media. In other words, advertisement makes an image or picture of reality that does not have to correspond to reality. Such portrayals or images that are not reflective of social reality, for example, women are known as the second class, the subordinate, and the sexual object. According to Cortese (2004, p. 52) advertising image provide culturally sanctioned ideal type of masculinity and femininity. Advertisers targeting women consumer subscribe to very limited notions of what constitutes femininity (e.g., dependency, concern with superficial beauty, and nurturance). Advertisement also gives a narrow ideal of femininity that they show, especially in beauty product ads. The image of the ideal of the beautiful woman may perhaps be capture with the concept of perfection. Regardless of product or service, woman displays youth which is no wrinkles and lines, has a beautiful face or good looking, has a slim body, tall and long-legged sexual seductiveness, and also perfection on her face, which is no scars, no pimples, no pores and has a white skin. The attractiveness of the woman in advertisement is only her attribute. And if women fail to attain it, women are led to

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feel guilty and ashamed. Cultural ideology also tells women that they will not be desirable to, or loved by men unless they are physically perfect (Cortese, 2004, p. 53). The advertisement tells the audience that the beauty that they shown in the advertisement it can be only be achieved through the purchase of their beauty products. Through the advertising, the minorities or the women who does not look beautiful enough like already represented by advertisement will spend a huge amount of money on cosmetics to get the perfection of beauty that stated in the advertisement. 2.2

Semiotics According to Chandler (2002, p. l), semiotics is about visual signs. The sign

can be drawings, paintings and photograph that also include words, sounds and body language. The combination of picture and words can create sign that have same interpretation in the reader’s mind in general. In Semiotics the Basics, Chandler stated that semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign. Study semiotics is not only everything that refers to sign but anything that represent something else (p.2). There are two different points of view about semiotics study. Firstly, it came from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) and the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1941). Saussure called 'semiology' was a study about the role of signs as part of social life; while the fields of study for the philosopher Peirce, it is called ‘semiotics’ was the common sign that related to logic. Pierce and Saussure are the founders of the study of sign and well known as semiotics study that developed by other work (Fiske, 2002, p. 40). Semiotics is a study or analytical methods to assess the sign. The signs are the devices that we use in an attempt to find our way in this world, in the midst of human and together with human. The most important thing in semiotic is a sign. According to Fiske (2002, p. 40), semiotic have three areas of learning; which are: 1. The sign itself. It is associated with a variety of different signs, such as how to deliver the meaning and how to connect with the people that use it. The

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sign is made by people or human, so it can only be understood by those who connect. 2. The codes or systems into which signs are organized. This study covers the ways that a variety of codes have developed in order to meet the needs of a society or culture, or to exploit the channels of communication available for their transmission. 3. The culture which these codes and signs operate. This in turn is dependent upon the use of these codes and signs for it is own existence and form. Advertising is one of the mass media that there are a lot of signs in it. So the semiotic analysis is the most appropriate analysis to find the hidden meaning in an advertisement. Semiotics is not an exact science, because it is not literally contained in the text or images on an ad (which is analyzed in this study) clearly. 2.2.1 The Key Figures of Semiotics Charles Sanders Pierce was a major figure in Semiotics that comes from America. The term semiotics was first introduced by Pierce. Pierce considers all things that exist in this world are a symbol that definitely has a meaning. Pierce divides symbol into three principal categories; icon, index and symbol. (Fiske, 2002, p. 47)

Picture 2.1 from Fiske’s: Introduction to communication studies 1. Symbol/symbolic is a mode which the signifier does not refers to the signified. It means that the concept not only refers to the meaning of sign and the object, but also refers to the relation that must be learned to know the sign and the meaning of sign, e.g. language in general (plus specific

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languages, alphabetical letters, punctuation marks, words, phrases and sentences), numbers, Morse code, traffic lights, national flags. 2. Icon/iconic is a mode which the signifier is identifying the signified. It means that the concept explanation describe the object that recognize from looking, sounding, feeling, tasting or smelling, e.g. realistic sounds in ‘music programmed, sound effects in radio drama, a dubbed film soundtrack, imitative gestures. 3. Index/indexical is a mode which the signifier have directly connected to the signified. It means that index signify sign as existing sign so it have direct physical connection to the object, e.g. ‘natural signs’ (smoke, thunder, footprints, echoes, non-synthetic odors and flavors) and medical symptoms (pain, a rash, pulse-rate). Second major figure of the famous philosopher and was instrumental in the development of semiotic is Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss philosopher. Saussure uses the term semiology with the meaning of "science that studies the life of signs within society. Saussure's theory refers to value of sign depends on the concept which the relation between the sign with the meaning of sign. In Semiotics the Basics, Chandler (2002, p. 20) stated that Saussure's original model of sign classified sign as 'signifier' and 'signified'. The Saussure model is not study about the relation between the object and the name only, but preferred to the relation between 'the concept' and 'sound pattern'. The sound pattern refers to something physical or material element that represents the object and the meaning of sign.

Picture 2.2 from Fiske’s: Introduction to communication studies

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'Signifier' is interpreted the material or physical thing of the sign that can be seen, heard, touched, smelled or tasted like sound pattern. 'Signified' known as the concept that refers to object. In other words, Signifier refers to the physical aspects of a symbol, such as speech, image, and painting. While signified refers to the mental aspect of the symbol. The relationship between the physical existence of signs and mental concept means signification (Chandler, 2002, p.16). So, signification is an attempt to give meaning to the world. Signifier without a signified would not mean anything, because it cannot be a sign. Instead, signified may not be delivered without a signifier. Saussure introduce semiology through dichotomy a system of signs; signified and signifier. This concept sees that meaning arises when there is an association between signified and signifier. The sign is the unity of a signifier with the signified (Barthes, 1983, p. 155). In other words, the signifier is the sound that is meaningful. So signifier is the material aspect of language, i.e. what is said / heard and what is written/read. The signified is the mental picture, thought, or concept. So the signified is the mental aspect of the language. 2.2.2 Semiotics by Roland Barthes The third figure that really important in semiotics is Roland Barthes. Roland Barthes born in 1915; he was from a middle class family in Cherbourg and was raised in the small town of Bayonne near the southwest side of the Atlantic coast of France. Barthes known as a structuralism thinker that likes to practice linguistics and Saussure's semiology. Saussure uses the signified and signifier and Barthes uses the connotation and denotation to give a meaning. Barthes uses denotation and connotation to describe the levels of representation or levels of meaning (Chandler, 2002, p. 142). Barthes refined his understanding of the relationship between the signifier, the signified and myth by drawing a distinction between denotation and connotation (Strinati, 2004, p. 175).

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Picture 2.3 from Chandlers’: Semiotics the Basics The first order of signification is that of denotation: at this level there is a sign consisting of a signifier and a signified. Connotation is a second order of signification which uses the denotative sign (signifier and signified) as its signifier and attaches to it an additional signified. Connotation is a sign which derives from the signifier of a denotative sign. A signified on one level can become a signifier on another level. This is the mechanism by which signs may seem to signify one thing but are loaded with multiple meanings (Chandler, 2002, p. 140). Barthes himself later gave priority to connotation, stated in 1971 that it was no longer easy to separate the signifier from the signified, the ideological from the “literal”. In the framework of Barthesian cultural studies, myth, like connotation, can be seen as a higher order of signification. Barthes stated that a myth is a culture's way of thinking about something, a way of conceptualizing or understanding it. Barthes thinks of a myth as a change of related concept. A myth is a story by which a culture explains or understands some aspect of reality or nature. Primitive myth is about life and death, men and gods, good and evil. Other myth is about masculinity and femininity, about the family, about success, and science (Fiske, 2002, pp. 88-89). Barthes argues that the main way myth work is to naturalize history. These points up the fact the myth are actually the product of a social class that has achieved dominance by a particular history. For example, there is a myth that women are 'naturally' more nurturing and caring than men, while the men, equally 'naturally', of course plays the role of breadwinners. These roles then structure the most 'natural' social unit of all-the family. By presenting these meanings as part of nature, myth disguises their historical origin, which globally makes them appear not only

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unchangeable but also fair; it makes them appear to serve the interest of men and women equally and thus hides their political effect (Fiske, 2002, pp. 89-90). According to Barthes, semiotics does not just stop at the use of language like semiotics earlier. Semiotics Barthes's models can reach Popular Culture (including mass media) and can be used in all areas of social life. When dividing the media messages, the messages in the form of connotative would create a myth. The second of Barthes's three ways in which signs work in the second order in through myth (Fiske, 2002, p. 87). Myth is not just the things that happen in everyday life such as the legend or traditional story, but the myth is used as a reference that is used to explain the symbols that exist with relation to culture and history. When we use the myth to interpret a symbol, we have to match the existing history and culture. 2.2.2.1

Denotative Meaning Barthes refers denotation as a common-sense, the obvious meaning of the

sign. For example, a photograph of a street scene detones that particular street; the word “street” denotes an urban road lined with buildings. This photograph can be taken into two different ways of photography. Those two photographs will have the same denotative meaning. In other words, whatever the ways the photograph of a street was taken, that photographs of the street will always denote that particular street. It means, their denotative meaning would be the same (Fiske, 2002, p. 86) Strinati (2004, p. 107) said the meaning of popular cultural signs is selfevident. They are what they are or what they appears to be, an advert, a photo of a black soldier, a bunch of roses and so on. They denote something to audience; they present it to us as a matter of fact: this is a photo of a soldier, an advert, a bunch of roses. Denotation refers to those things which appear to us as natural and which people can take for granted. In other words, denotation can be called as a conceptual meaning, i.e. meaning that according to observations by sight, smell, hearing, feeling and everything that has to do with factual information and should be objective. The true meaning or significance that is straightforward. The actual meaning in the dictionary is not a figurative meaning.

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2.2.2.2

Connotative meaning Barthes refers connotation to describe one of the three ways in which signs

work in the second order of signification. It describes the interaction between the sign and the feelings or emotion of the users and the values of their culture. Based on the example in denotation above, those two photographs are both of the same streets. The difference between those photos lies in the form, the appearance of the photograph, that is, in the signifier. By looking from those two photographs, the difference between connotation and denotation is clear. Denotation is the mechanical reproduction on film of the object at which the camera is pointed, while connotation is the human part of the process. In other words denotation is what is photographed; connotation is how it is photographed (Fiske, 2002, p. 86). The connotations can thus be identified: this may appear to be a bunch of roses but it connotes passion; or this may appear to be a photo of a black soldier saluting the French flag, but it really connotes the grandeur and impartiality of French imperialism. (Dominic, 2004, p. 107). So in other words, if people look at the rose, they have several meanings of the rose based on the culture, and society. Someone who lives in the family who sells rose, they can says that rose connotes passion, because they gives their live into rose but for someone that fall in love, they can say that rose connotes love. In other words connotation is a figurative meaning, not the true meaning. A word may differ depending on culture, society, and dependent life and express their particular community norms. 2.2.3 Semiotics in Advertisement The first advertising texts of human civilization were the many outdoor signs displayed above the shop doors of ancient cities of the Middle East. As early as 3000 BC, the Babylonians used such signs to "advertise the stores themselves. The ancient Greeks and Romans also hung signs outside their shops. Since few people could read, the merchants of the era used recognizable visual symbols carved in stone, clay,

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or wood for their signs (Danesi, 2002, p. 181) Time goes by, technology increasingly intense, advertising involved developing, from newspaper ads, banners, radio, tv, and even the Internet. People / producer makes advertising is to sell / introduce their product to the public, so that the product is recognized and will be bought by community. But now, the ads are not only created to sell a product or to introduce a product. Advertising is often entered by the strategy of the people that concerned. Ads can be used for force others to do things through the magic of the media; e.g.to endorse a political candidate, to support a cause, and so on and so forth. Business firms, political parties and candidates, social organizations, special-interest groups, and governments. The ad was made in order to make the image of the "interest" to be good (p. 179). The principle of semiotics in advertisement is that advertising involves signs and codes in every part either verbal; signs we can directly capture through language that we are familiar, and non-verbal; through color, lighting, and presented in the form of advertising. To find a semiotics symbol in advertising, there are three elements that can be used; color, and shooting techniques. 2.2.3.1 Color Colors have such strong associations for a brand. People do not read Coca Cola without thinking red color and see McDonald without picturing the yellow. Color also has a psychological effect in people bodies. Reds make people jumpy, green will calm, and lessen anger with pink. Colors have an important role in the visualization of an advertisement; color can reinforce the impression on an advertisement (Sutton, 2003) Red

Excitement, power, passionate, energy, aggressive, danger, desire

Pink

Romance, love, innocent, feminine, sensitive, kind, sweet

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Yellow

Happy, playful, optimistic, curiosity, loyal, idealism

Blue

Calm, trustworthy, pleasure-seekers, daydreamers, serious, conservative

Gray

Noncommittal,

sad,

bored,

a

watcher

rather

than

participator, calm, professional Green

Feel safe, generous with time, stubborn, youth, successful

Brown

Down to earth, dependable, loyal friend, comfort, hard worker

Purple

Negotiator, strong desire, spiritual, empathy, arrogant, intuition, ambition, miracle

Orange

Gregarious, dynamic, fun, flamboyant, happy, independent

Black

Mystery, formality, negative, sad, not happy, anger

White

Peace, complete, pure and also the power of perfection, purety and innocence

Gold

Healthy,

concentration,

Succces,

achievment,

and

associated with luxury

2.2.3.2 The Composition of the Movie Shots. According to Thompson (2009, p. 42) shot is the smallest unit in photographic which covers person, action or event in a motion picture. A shot size affects the storyline or the narrative and also the viewers’ response to it. Each frames part of shot. A shot is a single setting or moment of action in a film, and it is may be built either in limited number of frames or thousands of frames. The shots will give a view of the characters’ movement related to the film’s purpose, facial expression, feeling, emotions, the way they dress. All of those indicate their roles in the film.

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2.2.3.2.1 Long Shot Based on Thompson and Bowen (2009, p. 10) the long shot (LS) is a more inclusive shot. It frames much more of the environment around the person, object, or action and often shows their relationships in physical space much better. As a result, the environment may take up much more of the screen than the person or the object included in the frame. In other words, a long shot is a shot which gives the audiences a view of a large thing, groups of things. It usually creates or sets up the setting of the movie, because it shows the audiences about the when, where and who from the setting of the movie. 2.2.3.2.2 Medium Long Shot Based on Thompson and Bowen (2009, p. 15), a medium long shot is a shot which cuts off a body part of the subject. The bottom of frame usually cuts off the leg (or above the knee) of the subject. Besides, the subject also takes important parts, because they show details in their clothing, gender and facial expressions. 2.2.3.2.3 Medium Shot Thompson & Bowen (2009, p. 16) stated that the medium shot is a shot type which gives a view of how we (as a human) normally see the environment around us. A viewer will feel comfortable when see in the medium shot because they will feel like a normal observation. A medium shot is a shot which shows the body of the subject from the waist up. The gestures and their facial expressions can be visibly seen by the audiences. 2.2.3.2.4 Medium Close-Up Based on Thompson and Bowen (2009, p. 17), the medium close up is, “Character’s facial are rather clear. An audience is supposed to be watching the human face at this point in the framing so actions or objects in the surrounding environment hold little to no importance.”

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In short, a medium close-up is a shot which focuses on the facial expression of the character. The audiences will see mostly only the human face, and the actions or objects around the main character are not the important points. 2.2.3.2.5 Close Up According to Thompson and Bowen (2009), the close-up is the intimate shot. It gives the audiences a specific view of some person, object or action, and it causes the audiences to get detailed information. The close-up shot sometimes showing just the head, hands, feet, or a small object. It emphasizes facial expression, the details of a gesture, or a significant object.