Chapter I Introduction to Reading Reading is a standard day-to-day activity of a modern human being. There's no single answer why we read. Sometimes we read for the story: we want to know what happens (do they marry? does she find the gold?). Sometimes we read to learn something about our own situation or our own feelings. Sometimes we read in order to become immersed in another time or place, or to learn what it's like living in another culture. Sometimes we read to enjoy the sound and feel of the special language in which a literary text has been written. Sometimes we read to know what happen around us. See that reading is an effective instrument for gaining information and knowledge of the world.
The Importance of Reading Reading is one of the most basic, necessary, important skills in life. It is the fundamental skill of mankind (Dechant, 1991). With reading we expand our tiny world to the vast universe and beyond and it is the lynch pin of all education and all people life When people masters reading and gains an enjoyment of this powerful skill, they have built a foundation on which they can learn any subject. It is the basis for understanding any subject matter. Even learning mathematics, science and other subjects are based upon the ability to read each chapter and its instructions. Reading and comprehension is a must. In our everyday life we start reading when we open eyes, do the routines, be on the way to work until being back home to bed. We read many kinds of reading in the day, books, news, advertisements, road sign, etc. However, there is a further, very
2
important reason why we should try to develop our reading skills. Smith (1994), the educational researchers have found that there is a strong correlation between reading and academic success. In other words, a person who is a good reader is more likely to do well in school and pass exams than a student who is a weak reader. It is because good readers can understand the individual sentences and the organizational structure of a piece of writing. They can comprehend ideas, follow arguments, and detect implications. They know most of the words in the text already, but they can also determine the meaning of many of the unfamiliar words from the context - failing this, they can use their dictionary effectively to do so. In summary, good readers can extract from the writing what is important for the particular task they are employed in. And they can do it quickly. Educational researchers have also found a strong correlation between reading and vocabulary knowledge (Smith, 1994). In other words, people who have a large vocabulary are usually good readers. This is not very surprising, since the best way to acquire a large vocabulary is to read extensively, and if we read extensively we are likely to be or become a good reader! Thus, reading is more important today than it ever was — it is crucial to being an informed citizen, to succeed in one's chosen career, and to personal fulfillment. As the world becomes more complex, reading is increasingly important for people trying to find their place in it. Now we see how important reading is but do we really know what reading means to us.
What is Reading? Reading is the process of retrieving and comprehending some forms of stored information or ideas (Barnett, 1988). These ideas are usually some sorts of representation of language, such as symbols to be examined by sight, or by touch (for example Braille). Other types of reading may not be language-based, such as music notation, signs, or pictograms. (Alderson, 1984) Reading is a significant aid in brain
3
development and provides opportunities for physical development as well (Jennifer, 1997). Simply turning the pages of a book aids in fine tuning motor skills. It stimulates the muscles of the eyes and affects chemistry of the body, too, by utilizing the brain. It also has an effect on senses such as sight, sound, touch, and smell. Reading is composed of two main processes: decoding and comprehension. These two processes are independent of one another, but both are necessary for literacy (Greenwood, 1988). Decoding involves being able to connect letter strings to the corresponding units of speech that they represent in order to make sense of print. Comprehension involves higher-order cognitive and linguistic reasoning, including intelligence, vocabulary, and syntax, which allow readers to gain meaning from what they read. When we read our destination is text comprehension that is the process of understanding and constructing meaning from a piece of text. Reading comprehension disabilities become most apparent when the reader is unable to grasp the meaning from a text passage. Reading comprehension may be affected by the difficulty of the text, the vocabulary words used in the text, and the reader's familiarity with the subject matter, among other factors. (Grow, 1996)
Nature of Reading Reading is often considered a passive activity, one which doesn’t require much action. However, reading can be a complex and very active process (Gildrie, 2005). It is complex because there are various types of reading. We should change the way we read according to our purpose for reading. If reading for pleasure, we may thumb through a book briefly and then start reading without stopping much to think about what is being read. There is no great need to remember what is read if we are just passing time. Some people read rapidly to get the gist of a story or the main points of an argument. Some read out loud, enjoying the sound of words. If reading to retain information, perhaps in a textbook for a class, we may look through the book more
4
thoroughly, read and frequently think about what is read. We may ask questions, stop and look up unfamiliar words, and take notes and if we are reading to evaluate someone’s writing, the process is even more complicated. Besides reading thoroughly as we do when study reading, a person who is evaluating must stop frequently to check sources or reread sections of an argument. He or she may think about alternative opinions or ways of approaching the topic discussed. Although all forms of reading have processes in common, they vary in the thoroughness of those processes and the depth of thought applied while reading. The complexity is present in those acts of thinking, researching, and taking notes. Reading is also complex because of the knowledge base it utilizes and the mental activities are employs. Most people think immediately of the importance of vocabulary knowledge in the reading process. If one can not pronounce numerous words (or doesn’t know their meaning) in a passage, reading becomes very difficult (Fries, 1962). Written material often contains references or allusions to information, the writer expects the reader to already know. Lack of that expected knowledge complicates reading and limits comprehension. If a person is not familiar with formal forms of writing, that lack of knowledge makes reading more complex. The reader does not recognize the clues that the writer imbeds in the structure or form of his or her writing to make reading easier. Knowledge of reading strategies or reading processes can help a reader achieve his or her reading purposes more easily. Lack of knowledge of those strategies or processes make reading more complex (Goodman, 1968). This book may help you increase your knowledge of words, of structure, of reading processes, and general information so you will have greater control of the complexity of reading and can make it a more active process through your mental as well as physical responses to what you read.
5
Types of Reading Skills There are different types of reading skills that used quite naturally when reading texts. People tend to employ some styles of reading skills. They are 1) skimming - reading rapidly for the main points 2) scanning - reading rapidly to find a specific piece of information, 3) extensive - reading a longer text, often for pleasure with emphasis on overall meaning and 4) intensive reading - reading a short text for detailed information. Their details are as follows. 1. Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. When we read the newspaper, we're probably not reading it word-by-word, instead we're scanning the text. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading ( Smith, 1994). People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. We use skimming when we want to see if an article may be of our interest. There are many techniques that can be used when skimming. Some people read the first and last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the page or screen. We might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when we're seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts. 2. Scanning is a technique we often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. We search for key words or ideas. In most cases, we know what we're looking for, so we're concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving our eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when we first find a resource to determine whether it
6
will answer our questions. Once we've scanned the document, we might go back and skim it (Bruce, 2005). When scanning, look for the author's use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or color. Sometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin. 3. Extensive Reading is reading for the pleasure of reading, not focusing on every single detail in the text. There is a large body of research on extensive reading, called "pleasure reading," (Krashen, 1985, Krashen, 1988; Vaughan, 1982). Extensive reading is reading; a) of large quantities of material or long texts; b) for global or general understanding; c) with the intention of obtaining pleasure from the text. Further, because d) reading is individualized, with people choosing the books they want to read, e) the books are not discussed in class. (Bamford, 1984a, Bamford, 1987; Barnett, 1989, Brumfit, 1984, Dawes, 1979, Dubin & Olshtain, 1977, Eskey, 1973, Grellet, 1981, Hedge, 1985, Krashen, 1982, Krashen & Terrell, 1983, Norris, 1975, Olshtain,1976, Rivers, 1981, Thompson, 1984) and there are some writers see extensive reading as just another reading sub-skills such as skimming or scanning (Field, 1985, Munby, 1979). 4. Intensive Reading is reading in detail for a complete understanding of every part of the text. Intensive reading is not a careful, single reading, but is a method based on a variety of techniques like scanning, the surveying technique of planning our purpose, and others (Smith, 1994).
The Reading Process Reading is an interactive-constructive process in which readers comprehend, interpret, and respond to text according to what they already know. Effective readers
7
"have personal expectations about what they will get from a selection, and they bring those expectations to bear as they read by predicting and testing their predictions. They actively create meaning by constructing, or generating, relationships between what is within the text and what they already know" (Lee, 1988). See Figure 1.
Reader What the reader bring to a text prior knowledge with life, language, and literature
Meaning The meaning a reader constructs with a text at a particular time and place
Author/Text What the author brings to a text ideas, vocabulary, syntax, style and form
Figure 1 Process of Reading Some researchers describe the reading act as a "transaction", in which meaning emerges from a continuing give-and-take relationship between the reader and the print on a page, each shaping and shaped by the other (Livingston, 1996). The reciprocal interaction between readers and the text allows readers to construct their own meaning according to their background knowledge and experience. In any reading transaction readers takes positions along the cognitive-affective continuum, depending upon their purposes. From the cognitive position, the reader's purpose is mainly to construct meaning that is to be remembered following the reading (e.g., actions to be performed, conclusions to be drawn, and concepts to be applied). From the affective position, the reader's purpose is mainly to experience personal feelings and ideas called to mind during reading. For example, if we are reading primarily for entertainment we will likely choose the affective position. On the other
8
hand, if we are reading to understand how to construct an expository paragraph we will choose the cognitive position. However, cognitive and affective reading are not opposites; most reading consists of a combination of both. During the reading process meaning is constructed from text by 1) using reading strategies flexibly and independently--sampling, predicting and inferencing, and confirming and correcting, 2) selecting from the language cues--graphophonic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic. Proficient readers sample text, rather than focus on every detail. They make predictions and inferences and the meaning they make will be based upon the sampling, the reader's prior knowledge, and the specific context/situation. Readers then confirm or correct their predictions by further sampling the text, rereading if necessary, checking context, or reading ahead. Readers bring meaning to the text by using a developing and constantly adaptable set of expectations about what they will find as they read. As well, proficient readers access their knowledge of the language cueing systems to help them understand what they read. In both the cognitive and affective positions, many factors affect the meaning that readers make of the text. Reading comprehension is influenced by 1) the reader's world knowledge, 2) linguistic knowledge, text structure knowledge, and 3) metacognitive knowledge. (Jennifer, 1997) 1. World Knowledge Readers construct meaning before, during, and after a reading transaction depending upon their interest in and prior knowledge about the following: 1.1 facts related to the topic 1.2 concepts and related vocabulary 1.3 underlying principles and generalizations. Readers have schemas, or organized networks of prior knowledge and experiences about topics, which create expectations when reading about those topics.
9
When readers are involved in a reading transaction, they add to or adjust their schemas and their schemas influence and aid their comprehension of what they read. Using their existing schemas, readers make predictions and inferences about what they read (Halpern, 1996). 2. Linguistic Knowledge The reader's knowledge of the way that language works (e.g., the position of words in a sentence, punctuation marks, and word relationships within sentences) contributes to successful comprehension of text. Through the use of context clues provided by the cueing systems--graphophonic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic-readers make sense of what they read. Proficient readers are concerned with meaning first. They use the continuous formulation of meaning to determine how much attention needs to be given to the print in confirming or correcting predictions, and also in making further predictions. Readers need to continue to develop a balanced use of the interacting language cueing systems to access meaning from text. As readers become proficient, they internalize the language cues and use them automatically to help them make sense of what they read. When it is necessary for us to review any of the language cueing systems, it is done most effectively in the context of what we are reading and it will be achieved most appropriately on an individual basis of ours. 2.1 Readers use graphophonic cues. The correspondence of patterns of sounds (phonemes) to the patterns of letters (graphemes) at the word level is an important decoding tool for all readers. For example, when decoding the word apprehend, readers see nine letters and hear three phonemes--/ap/+/pre/+/hend/. The readers should use these skills automatically.
10
2.2 Readers use syntactic cues. The knowledge of word order rules used to make meaningful phrases and sentences--syntax--assists the comprehension process. Readers can predict the possible meaning of a word by determining its grammatical use in a sentence. In the following example, some readers may have difficulty with the word rambunctious. The rambunctious children raced around the yard nonstop. We will be aware that the word The precedes a noun or that it is a noun marker, and that the word children is a noun; therefore, as rambunctious describes the noun, children, it is likely an adjective. We can then see that if the children raced around the yard, they must be full of energy. Thus, through the syntax, they will be able to arrive at a meaning for the unknown word. 2.3 Readers use semantic cues. The meaning of the words surrounding the unknown word in the same or nearby sentences can help us determine if our interpretation of the unknown word makes sense in the sentence and in the text as a whole. In the following example, the phrase on his head is supplied by the writer to help us understand the meaning of the more unusual or difficult word beret. The man wore a beret on his head. 2.4 Readers use pragmatic cues. Readers' knowledge about the social appropriateness and conventions of language in particular contexts contributes to their understanding of what they read. For example, slang may be acceptable in casual dialogue (e.g., between characters in a story), but would not be used in formal contexts (e.g., magazine article). 3. Text Structure Knowledge The readers' knowledge about text patterns and the structure of various genres, and their abilities to use such structural understandings and elements effectively,
11
contributes to the construction of meaning. For instance, a poem may rhyme or have a repeating pattern; an expository passage develops logically; a short story or novel includes such elements as setting and characters; headings indicate major sections of text; and summaries review main points. When readers are aware of the structure of text, they will understand better what they read and remember it for a longer time period. Readers use their knowledge of text structure to differentiate between narrative and expository reading materials, and they adapt their reading strategies accordingly. As well, when readers recognize paragraph patterns (e.g., simple listing, cause and effect, contrast and compare, time order) and the signal words within the paragraphs (e.g., for example, in particular, however, but, on the other hand, in addition, secondly), they develop a sense of text organization that helps them to make meaning of what they read. 4. Metacognitive Knowledge Metacognitive knowledge refers to the readers' awareness of how they make meaning and how they knowingly monitor their own understanding as they read. Effective readers use a variety of comprehension strategies as they read; they often raise and answer questions in their minds by visualizing, predicting, and summarizing to themselves and rereading as necessary. Metacognitive readers recognize when something does not make sense and they take appropriate action to do something about it. Examining their own thinking allows readers to understand how they arrived at a particular meaning and offers them the option of revising their understanding.
Reading Models A reading model is a graphic attempt “to depict how an individual perceives a word, processes a clause, and comprehends a text.” (Singer and Robert, 1985).
12
Here are some kinds of reading models. Although there are many models of reading, reading researchers tend to classify them into three kinds; 1) Top-down, 2) Bottom-up and 3) Interactive. All details are as follows:
1. Top – down reading models This models emphasizes what the reader brings to the text, such as prior knowledge and experiences . The comprehension begins in the mind of the reader, who already has some ideas about the meaning of the text. The process proceeds from whole to part. For instance, reader uses prior knowledge to semantic cues to syntactic cues and to other more specific information. Look at figure 2.
Figure 2 Top-down reading model Source: Reongrudee, 2005 From Figure 2 shows that the top-down reading model suggests that processing of a text begin in the mind of the readers with meaning - driven processes, or an assumption about the meaning of a text. From this perspective, readers identify letters and words only to confirm their assumptions about the meaning of the text (Dechant 1991). The proponents generally agree that comprehension is the basis for decoding skills, not a singular result, and meaning is brought to print, not derived from print.
13
Smith (1994), a reading researcher mentioned that reading is not decoding written language to spoken language. Reading does not involve the processing of each letter and each word and reading is a matter of bringing meaning to print, not extracting meaning from print (McCormick, 1988). Besides, Goodman (1981), reading specialist at the University of Arizona opined that the goal of reading is constructing meaning in response to text. It requires interactive use of phonic, syntactic and semantic cues to construct meaning that is congruent with Goodman who opined that the top-down approach is also interactive. Gove (1983) introduced some features of a top-down approach to reading. They are: 1) readers can comprehend a selection even though they do not recognize each word, 2) readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify unrecognized words, 3) reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading rather than mastery of letters, letter/sound relationships, and words and 4) reading requires the use of meaning activities rather than the mastery of a series of word-recognition skills. The primary focus should be the reading of sentences, paragraphs, and whole selections. The most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of information gained through reading.
2. Bottom-up reading model With this model the comprehension begins by processing the smallest linguistic unit (phoneme), and working toward larger units (syllables, words, phrases, sentences). The process proceeds from part to whole. For example, phoneme to syllable then to word and to sentence. Take a look Figure 3.
14
Figure 3 Bottom – up reading model Source: Reongrudee, 2005. From Figure 3 we can assume that a bottom-up reading model emphasizes a single-direction, part-to-whole processing of a text. In the beginning stages it gives little emphasis to the influences of the reader's world knowledge, contextual information, and other higher-order processing strategies (Dechant 1991). Bloomfield and Barnhart (1961) gave some views about the bottom-up reading model that the first task of reading is learning the code or the alphabetic principle by which “written marks...conventionally represent...phonemes.” and the meaning of the text is expected to come naturally as the code is broken based on the reader's prior knowledge of words, their meanings, and the syntactical patterns of his/her language (McCormick, 1988) and writing is merely a device for recording speech (Bloomfield and Barnhart 1961). Hyland (1990) also mentioned that Bottom-up models operate on the principle that the written text is hierarchically organized (i.e., on the phonic, phonemic, syllabic, morphemic, word, and sentence levels) and that the reader first processes the smallest linguistic unit, gradually compiling the smaller units to decipher and comprehend the higher units (e.g., sentence syntax).
15
Moreover, Fries(1962) viewed that 1) the reader must learn to transfer from the auditory signs for language signals; to a set of visual signs for the same signals, 2) the reader must learn to automatically respond to the visual patterns, 3) the cumulative comprehension of the meanings signaled then enable the reader to supply those portions of the signals which are not in the graphic representations themselves and 4) learning to read that means developing a considerable range of habitual responses to a specific set of patterns of graphic shapes. Bottom-up advocates believe the reader needs to identify letter features, link these features to recognize letters, combine letters to recognize spelling patterns, link spelling patterns to recognize words, and then proceed to sentence, paragraph and textlevel processing.
3. Interactive reading model This model recognizes the interaction of bottom-up and top-down processes simultaneously throughout the reading process. Thus, this model attempts to combine the valid insights of bottom-up and top-down models. It attempts to take into account the strong points of the bottom-up and top-down models, and tries to avoid the criticisms leveled against each, making it one of the most promising approaches to the theory of reading today. (McCormick, 1988). Dechant (1991) mentioned that the interactive model suggests that the reader constructs meaning by the selective use of information from all sources of meaning (graphemic, phonemic, morphemic, syntax, semantics) without adherence to any one set order. The reader simultaneously uses all levels of processing even though one source of meaning can be primary at a given time. Goodman (1981) also said that an interactive model is one which uses print as input and has meaning as output. But the reader provides input, too, and the reader, interacting with the text, is selective in using just as little of the cues from text as
16
necessary to construct meaning and Rumelhart (1985) mentioned that reading is at once a perceptual and a cognitive process. It is a process that bridges and blurs these two traditional distinctions. Moreover, a skilled reader must be able to make use of sensory, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic information to accomplish the task. These various sources of information appear to interact in many complex ways during the process of reading.
How to Be a Good Reader Good readers are active readers. From the outset they have clear goals in mind for their reading. They constantly evaluate whether the text, and their reading of it, is meeting their goals (Jennifer, 1997). Good readers typically look over the text before they read, noting such things as the structure of the text and text sections that might be most relevant to their reading goals. As they read, good readers frequently make predictions about what is to come. They read selectively, continually making decisions about their reading -- what to read carefully, what to read quickly, what not to read, what to re-read, and so on. Good readers construct, revise, and question the meanings they make as they read. They draw upon, compare, and integrate their prior knowledge with material in the text. They think about the authors of the text, their style, beliefs, intentions, historical milieu, and so on. They monitor their understanding of the text, making adjustments in their reading as necessary. Good readers try to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words and concepts in the text, and deal with inconsistencies or gaps as needed. They evaluate the text’s quality and value, and react to the text in a range of ways, both intellectual and emotional. Good readers read different kinds of text differently. For example, when reading narrative, good readers attend closely to the setting and characters; when reading expository text these readers frequently construct and revise summaries of what they have read. For good readers, text processing occurs not only during ‘reading’ as we have traditionally defined it, but also
17
during short breaks taken during reading, and even after the ‘reading’ itself has commenced. Comprehension is a consuming and complex activity, but one that, for good readers, is typically both satisfying and productive. The followings may lead you to be a good reader. 1. To be active reader As aforementioned that reading is often considered as a passive activity, one which doesn’t require much action. Reading actively actually means a series of things. Perhaps most importantly is that active reading means reading with an awareness of a purpose for reading. Far too often people read aimlessly, hoping that the key ideas will somehow "sink in" and then eventually "surface" when they need to. Having a purpose is another way of saying that we have set goals for our readings. In many textbooks, we may find chapters that begin with a brief note on learning goals, but we may find that we pass over these goals in the rush to get to the end of the chapter. We can use goals to focus our attention on specific aspects of a chapter that we are about to read. Without setting goals we are, by default, saying that everything has the same value and that we want to learn it all in the same depth and in the same detail. This can sound like an admirable way to approach reading, but in practice this often leads to frustration when we forget large portions of the text soon after reading. We may find that the information seems to resist structure and logical organization because we have overloaded our mind with new information. In addition to setting goals and purposes for reading, active reading may involve using the structure of our reading to construct an overview for our reading which we use to select a focus. The structures of the reading materials vary almost as much as the readings themselves, but there are some common features associated with various kinds of readings that readers can make effective use of. Textbooks, for example, usually contain chapter titles, introductions, headings, sub-headings, bold
18
face or italicized type, and conclusions. They may also contain chapter learning objectives, review questions, summary sections, application sections, and notes and key words in the margins. Clearly these are meant to be used and can go a long way to assisting us in understanding and working with the information there. Even if a text has few headings, we can rely on the structures of the paragraphs contained in the text to access the same kind of information that the more prominent markers indicate: that is, the main divisions of ideas and how the ideas are elaborated. Novels and journal articles are bound by different structures, but an awareness of these can assist in an intelligent approach to the reading of these differently organized texts. The academic introduction to novels can provide a number of guidelines for how to read the novel, for example, and the abstract of a journal article serves the function of summarizing the contents of the article for the reader in simplified language. All of these structures assist us in developing an overview of what is about to be read and this allows us to guide ourselves through the text with a focus in mind. Active reading also certainly means reading with a view to understand and relate the information to other readings, ideas and themes from lectures, and to the goals of our course and our learning (Barnitz, 1985). As well, in the manner we talked about becoming conscious of our approach to reading, active reading involves checking our understanding, monitoring for difficulties, and checking for ways to correct difficulties. It should be clear from these aspects of active reading that active reading is brain intensive; that is, it involves thinking as we read and directing that thinking to achieve certain reading goals. Some readers make the mistake of assuming that this means that active reading will be time intensive too and then use that as an argument against doing the work of learning effectively through reading. It is important to know that in fact, active reading has been shown to save time. It does take time to adjust to this new approach to learning, but active reading helps to eliminate the wasteful and often mindless repetition that is necessitated by forgetting what we
19
have read. As well, an active approach to reading involves selecting information relevant to a purpose, which may mean that we are reading only a percentage of what others might be mindlessly reading and that we are reading with better results. In conclusion, active reading involves using strategies or approaches to texts to meet certain goals and is thinking intensive to facilitate learning. What else is implied by the term active reading? Certainly active reading involves thinking about what is read rather than simply trying to memorize it. Often this thinking is aimed at mentally constructing a comprehension of the text by finding information related to our goals. Active reading can also apply to that time just after a reading has been done, during which time we should be asking analytical and critical questions about what we have read because these questions enable us to think beyond simply summarizing and repeating what an author has said. If we haven't read well enough to summarize we won't be able to think about the reading -- active reading is a way of approaching reading which goes beyond the bare minimum and engages us in the material in way which perks our interest and drives our curiosity. In short, active reading assists us in reading what we read and how to read -- think deeply about issues of importance to us in the text. To be an active reader, remind ourselves that it is important to remain flexible in our approach to reading, for different kinds of information as well as for different purposes. In this way we will allow ourselves to approach readings in the ways most suited to those readings and it is probably not necessary to do every strategy listed all of the time but the end result should be that we become a more active, flexible and effective reader. 2. To be strategic reader In the new view, readers are far more active and unpredictable. They make decisions about what to read, how to read it, how to think about what they read, what to remember, what other information to remember it with. They bring context,
20
approach, bias, and personal experiences to what they read. They interpret, they skip, they misread, they misunderstand, they understand in their own way. Their reading is not reactive but strategic; they read with purpose, meaning, and goals. Readers are said to use two levels of strategies; 1) cognitive strategies enable the reader to understand written text and 2) metacognitive strategies govern the use of cognitive strategies-enabling one to manage the process of reading (Jennifer, 1997). It is under the heading of "metacognition" that discussed on motivation, focusing attention, managing time, deciding what to read, along with methods for reading such as reading the conclusion first, looking for key words and summaries, reading for main ideas, identifying the structure of text, self-questioning, and reading to remember. In practice, the two levels of strategy work together. Studies have demonstrated that better readers and learners go about the task more strategically than others do, which means they have greater conscious control over what and how they read. In cognitive theory, there is nothing passive about reading, and the activity of reading goes far beyond the "decoding" step. Vaughn (1982) epitomized this view with his statement: "Reading is thinking stimulated by print." Readers engage nearly every kind of thought process during reading. Reading have included categorizing, previewing, comparing and connecting and organizing ideas, filling blanks in their knowledge structures, evaluating evidence, arguing with what they read, passing and withholding judgment, summarizing, hypothesis testing and modification, predicting, clarifying, generating questions, agreeing, disagreeing, anticipating, learning new concepts, deciding what is important , skipping, problem-solving, making unexpected connections, reflecting, reviewing, comparing, analyzing, synthesizing, looping back, strategies for comprehending words, sentences, segments of text and conventions of writing and organization (Robert, 1993). The strategic activities of readers are not only highly active and interpretive, they are recursive and non-linear (Scheid, 1993). Although there are surely times when
21
readers start with the first word of a piece and read through sequentially, researchers have emphasized the extent to which readers (especially of non-fiction) scan, select, skip, pause, loop back, and do a considerable amount of rooting around the page. Indeed, readers not only adopt strategies toward what they read, they test and modify those strategies as they go. Readers make ready use of nonverbal cues with they read. They interpret pictures, graphics, color, charts, symbols, decorations, cartoons, typography, rules (lines and boxes), spatial relationships, recurring positions and patterns, and other spatial cues. Davine (1987) argued that readers carry on different modes of thinking simultaneously, at least including visual and linguistic modes of thought. A person's knowledge structure is sure to contain spatial modes of organization. What looks from one perspective like words on a page becomes (when it enters the life of a reader) an integral part of a rich, multimodal, imaginatively elaborated inner world. And because every reader translates the written message into such a world, we can never know information as information alone, but only as it is reflected in a particular, lived system of meaning. In cognitive theory, then, readers are selective, active, and strategic. They understand what they read in terms of what they already know -- though what they read may modify what they know. Readers activate strategies for managing their approach to a text, along with schemas for interpreting it. Readers may modify the strategy of reading and shift the context of interpretation as they go. New information becomes meaningful only as it is interconnected with meaningful patterns that the reader already knows. When new information is interconnected with the old in meaningful patterns, it becomes knowledge--and it can then be recalled, reasoned with, extended by inference, and used to filter new perceptions.
22
Reading effectively needs the readers who are strategic. That means the readers who know how and when to use an appropriate reading strategy for text comprehension. Strategic readers actively construct meaning as they read, interacting with the text. They set purposes for reading, select methods of accomplishing these purposes, monitor and repair their own comprehension as they read, and evaluate the completed task. A strategic reader constructs, examines, and extends meaning before, during, and after reading for a variety of texts (Barnett, 1988 ). There are a number of differences between strategic readers and poor readers during all phases of the reading process that Irvin (1996), Jennifer (1997) mentioned. They can be concluded as Table 1. Table 1.1 How Strategic and proficient Readers Differ from Ineffective and Poor Readers Strategic and Proficient Readers
Ineffective and Poor Readers
Before Reading •
• •
•
•
Build up their own background knowledge about reading and the topic Set purposes for reading Determine methods for reading, according to their purposes. Understand that reading is a sense-making process Use their prior topical and linguistic knowledge as they read
•
•
•
•
Start reading without thinking about the process of reading, the topic, the language, or the structure of the text. Do not know why they are reading but merely view the task as "ground to cover." Think of reading as decoding--one word at a time Do not expect reading to make sense
23
Table 1.1 (Continued) Strategic and Proficient Readers
Ineffective and Poor Readers
During Reading •
•
•
•
•
• • • •
•
Give their complete attention to the reading task Check their own understanding constantly Monitor their reading comprehension and do it so often that it becomes automatic Stop to use a fix-up strategy when they do not understand Use semantic, syntactic, to construct meanings of unfamiliar words Synthesize during reading Ask questions Talk to themselves during reading Adjust their reading rate to match purpose and reading material Can match their reading strategies to a variety of reading materials
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Do not eliminate distractions from reading Do not know whether they understand Do not recognize when comprehension has broken down Seldom use fix-up strategies to improve comprehension Skip or ignore meanings of unfamiliar but crucial words Do not integrate text with prior knowledge Read without reflecting on meaning or text organization. Do not understand the concept of varying reading rates Do not monitor their own comprehension
24
Table 1.1 (Continued) After Reading •
•
• •
•
•
• • •
•
•
•
Decide if they have achieved their goals for reading Evaluate their understanding of what was read Summarize the major ideas Seek additional information from outside sources Distinguish between relevant and irrelevant ideas Paraphrase the text what they have learned. Reflect on and personalize the text Critically examine the text Integrate new understandings and prior knowledge. Use study strategies to retain new knowledge. Respond personally and critically to what they read Seek additional information from outside sources
• •
•
•
•
•
Do not know what they have read Do not follow reading with comprehension self-check Rely exclusively on the author's words Do not go beyond a surface examination of the text. Apply no conscious strategies to help them remember Are unable to respond critically to what they have read, although they may have a limited personal response
Below is suggested ways from some readers’ experiences including the writer’s experience on reading that may help you become “a strategic reader.”
25
1. Decide whether or not you are interested in the material and adjust your attitude accordingly. If you can become interested, do it. If you can't, decide to live with it. 2. Some textbooks have a "guide to reading" section at the beginning of each chapter. These guides are there to tell you what the main ideas are and what to look for as you read. 3. Take time to skim the assignment for headings, bold print, and other clues to what will be discussed. Use these clues to help you see the important parts of the reading. 4. Decide whether you need to know all the details you read or just some of them then plan on spending the time and effort to get the right amount of information from the reading. 5. Pause frequently as you read to make sure you are understanding the material. Write down the main ideas as you read them. If you didn't understand the last sentence or paragraph, go back and figure it out. 6. Try to distinguish key concepts from supporting or unimportant information. Learn the key concepts. Write them down! 7. Organize your reading notes in an outline or use some other method to make sure you can find and study important information again. Moreover, when you read you should infer and predict by looking for important information, looking at illustrations, thinking about what you know, thinking about what you will learn, thinking about what will happen next. Then monitoring or clarifying by asking yourself “Does this make sense?”, trying “fix ups” like: reread, read ahead, se a dictionary and ask for help. Next summarizing by retelling the story in your own words, thinking about story elements, thinking about main ideas and details. The last thing you should do is evaluating by asking yourself how you feel about what
26
you read, if you agree or disagree. These may help you to be an active reader and lead you to comprehend most of texts you read.
Suggested principals of reading Dechant, 1991 and Sarig, 1987 mentioned that overview, purpose, questions, reading, summarize, test, understanding and getting rid of bad reading habits are the eight procedures that cover the method, for very effective reading for detailed comprehension and long retention 1. Overview: Two methods used to obtain an overview -- surveying or skimming. Both are concerned with reading only the more important parts. With either we would start with the summary, if one existed. We would next read the headings. When headings are missing or inadequate, or where unfamiliar material demands a more complete overview, we would resort to skimming with its greater attention to topic and summary sentences, and other cues within the paragraphs. As you get an overview of a long section, you may only survey part and skim the sections that are hard to understand. From this you should get the general theme and main ideas and the important topics and questions discussed, and the major conclusions. The principle to guide you is to spend the least amount of time. 2. Planning purposes: Planning your purpose means to take a few seconds before you begin your reading to formalize or clearly state to yourself what you wish to get from the reading. This will give us the most useful "mental set" for getting the information we need. Question yourself what information you need, how detailed the comprehension should be and whether the emphasis should be placed on ideas. How long you need to retain this information, sequence, specific facts, etc. 3. Questions: A good time to record questions is after your overview and planning purpose. The questions should be in the same sequence as they appear in the
27
material, if possible. This does not prevent adding new questions, but it does prevent forgetting about an important question that occurs to you during the overview. Ideally, the headings can be converted into questions which will provide a suitable outline of the important information in the selection. When this is not the case, the basic interrogatives of who, what, when, where, why and how, frequently supply aid in suggesting important concepts in almost all reading selections. You have to respond to learn. 4. Reading: The techniques and the reading skills will be employed for reading carefully and thoughtfully. Reading here means not only the familiar line-byline reading, but reading that is guided by our purpose and questions. Also be sure and read the material you covered while obtaining an overview. 5. Summarizing: An important part of summarizing is organizing the ideas and supporting points. This organizing should begin in the reading but should be finalized and expressed in the notes. Generally, each paragraph will have one or two ideas. It is important to state in your own words, aloud, the points you wish to remember. The most effective type of summarizing, which lends itself to both organizing and testing, is an outline of questions reflecting major ideas and concepts. The subpoints are indented to show clearly that they are related to the main point in a supporting role. By using questions as headings, the outline can be started before reading on the basis of the overview. It allows the answers to the questions to guide the reading, rather than be automatically summarized as a few brief points. A topic that does not lend itself to the question style can be included as a statement. There are other techniques you may use. One is underlining. However, its faults tend to outweigh its value. If you must underline, restrict yourself to clear, concise definitions or statements. Another technique is marginal notes and questions. You may (with practice and discretion) elaborate, raise questions, and relate and organize certain important concepts or points in this manner.
28
6. Testing: The next step is testing yourself. It is vital that you recall rather just recognize the answers. This means that you test yourself with an essay or a fill-inthe-blank type of test. This simply means you must "produce" the answer; just as you often have to in class. This testing seems to "set" or "fix" the information more firmly in your mind so that you will retain it better. Re-reading and other forms of recognition do not produce as high a level of retention. This testing may occur after paragraphs, or after sections, or at the end of the selection. The rule to follow is to deal with closely related thoughts that are not too many for you to consider at one time. 7. Understanding: The end product of the steps in reading is to be sure that you understand every important question. If you omit a point, or answer a question incorrectly, you should go back and review that point immediately. You may do this by reviewing your summarizing notes, or by re-reading parts of the selection that are not clear, or where the information is scattered, by scanning to locate the forgotten parts. 8. Getting rid of bad reading habits: To really get rid of a bad habit, you should replace it with a good one. You have to get rid of the bad habits, and you must practice and work at it in order to change. The following are some of the bad habits which tend to cause people to read slowly. Ask yourself whether you are guilty of any of the following: 8.1 Moving your lips when you read: Moving your lips slows you to a fast talking rate, about 150 words per minute. Put your fingers on your lips to stop the motion. 8.2 Vocalizing: Vocalizing means that you are pronouncing words in the voice box of the throat without making sounds. This also slows your reading rate to that of speaking. To check, rest your fingertips lightly against the vocal cord area of your throat. If you feel a vibration, or if you find that your tongue is moving, you are vocalizing.
29
8.3 Reading everything at the same speed: When reading, set your rate according to your purpose for reading and the difficulty level of the material. Practice adjusting your rate to suit your material. The more difficult the material, the slower the rate. 8.4 Regressing out of habit: Regressing means rereading a word, phrase, or sentence out of habit and not because of need. Sometimes, it is necessary to reread something, especially in a difficult passage. But habitual, unnecessary regressing really slows you down. Use a card or paper to cover the text after you read it to prevent regressing. 8.5 Reading one word at a time: Do you think one word at a time, or in phrases? Slow readers tend to see only one word at a time. Good readers will see several words at a time and their eyes will stop only three or four times as they move across a page. Reading in idea-phrases speeds your reading and improves your understanding of what you have read. Mark the phrases in the sentences of a passage, then practice seeing more than one word at a time. The best way to read faster is to practice reading just a little faster than is comfortable. Changing reading habits is not easy, after all you have been reading that way for many years. It takes several weeks of conscious effort in order to change bad reading habits.
Conclusion Reading is more than the decoding of written words into sound. Reading is a complex communication process which requires thought and individual construction of meaning (Livingston, 1996). It is not an easy task for all people, even though we have to use it all in our life. It is a basic skill for living happily in a period of globalization that is no boundary of information and knowledge. If we don’t read, we may become
30
out of date or selfish person. That means we ignore what news in our world and this will affect our living both on academic and profession fields. Consequently, practicing reading is still the most important for our living. Start to love reading is a crucial way for improving our life in the modern time. The rest of this book provides you some interactive approaches to English reading and practices to help you improve your reading skills. It is included how to get the meaning of unfamiliar words, how to make inference, how to refer and the use of connectives, how to find topics and main ideas and how to analyze writer’s opinions and attitudes.
