Chapter 3 INSTRUMENT DRAWING, FREEHAND SKETCHING, AND LETTERING TECHNIQUES OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES

GSK03-038-082 7/1/02 8:38 AM Page 38 Chapter 3 O INSTRUMENT DRAWING, FREEHAND SKETCHING, AND LETTERING TECHNIQUES OVERVIEW OBJECTIVES The tradi...
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Chapter 3

O INSTRUMENT DRAWING, FREEHAND SKETCHING, AND LETTERING TECHNIQUES OVERVIEW

OBJECTIVES

The traditional method of creating technical drawings is with drawing instruments. Since the eighteenth century, precision instruments have been the tools of drafters. Today, CAD software is another tool used by many drafters. The basic concepts of drawing and measuring lines and circles is the same for traditional and CAD drawing.The alphabet of lines and the meaning of line types is the same for traditional and CAD drawings. By understanding the basic principles of drawing, the properly trained drafter can create and modify any type of drawing. While some students may think that CAD software can replace the knowledge required to construct a drawing, this is not so. While CAD makes drawing easier, it does not replace the basic knowledge that enables a skilled drafter to manipulate either a pencil or CAD software. Sketching technique is one of the most important skills for engineering visualization. Sketching is a quick way to communicate ideas with other members of the design team. A picture is often worth a thousand words (or 1K words, as it were). Sketching is a time-efficient way to plan out the drawing processes needed to create a complex object. Sketches act like a road map for the completion of a final paper or CAD drawing. When you sketch basic ideas ahead of time, you can often complete a drawing sooner and with fewer errors. Legible hand lettering is used on the sketch to specify important information.

After studying the material in this chapter, you should be able to: 1.

Identify the basic tools used by the drafter.

2.

List the four objectives of drafting.

3.

Describe the difference between the T-square, parallel rule, and drawing machine.

4.

Identify various types of lines and how they are used.

5.

Draw lines, arcs, and circles of specific size using drawing instruments.

6.

Draw lines at specific angles.

7.

Read and measure with the architect’s scale, engineer’s scale, and metric scale.

8.

Draw irregular curves.

9.

Identify several drawing media and standard sheet sizes.

10.

Create freehand sketches using the correct sketching techniques.

11.

Sketch parallel, perpendicular, and evenly spaced lines.

12.

Sketch a circle and an arc of a given diameter.

13.

Use techniques to keep your sketch proportionate.

14.

Enlarge an object using grid paper.

15.

Sketch various line types.

16.

Add lettering to a sketch.

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3.1 Typical Drawing Equipment 39

INSTRUMENT DRAWING

2. T-square (24", transparent edge), drafting machine, or parallel-ruling edge (§§3.4, 3.49, and 3.50)

3.1 ■ TYPICAL DRAWING EQUIPMENT

3. Set of instruments (§§3.28 and 3.29)

For many years the essential equipment for students in technical schools and for engineers and designers in professional practice remained unchanged.This equipment included a drawing board, T-square, triangles, an architects’ or engineers’ scale, and a professional-quality set of drawing instruments. Now, however, other equipment has come into general use, including the drafting machine, parallel-ruling straightedge, technical fountain pen, and, of course, the computer. The basic items of drawing equipment are shown in Fig. 3.1. For best results, the drawing equipment you use should be of high grade. When you are ready to buy drawing instruments (item 3), you should talk to an experienced drafter or designer, or reliable dealer, about your purchase because it is difficult for beginners to distinguish high-grade instruments from inferior instruments.

4. 45 triangle (8" sides) (§3.11)

1. Drawing board (approximately 20"  24"), drafting table, or desk. ■

FIGURE 3.1



5. 30  60 triangle (10" long side) (§3.11) 6. Ames Lettering Guide or lettering triangle 7. Architects’ triangular scale (§3.24) 8. Engineers’ triangular scale (§3.22) 9. Metric triangular scale (§3.20) 10. Irregular curve (§3.46) 11. Protractor (§3.13) 12. Mechanical pencils and/or thin-lead mechanical pencils and HB, F, 2H, and 4H to 6H leads, or drawing pencils (§3.7) 13. Lead pointer and sandpaper pad 14. Pencil eraser 15. Plastic drafting eraser or Artgum cleaning eraser 16. Erasing shield 17. Dusting brush

Principal Items of Equipment.

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18. Drawing paper, tracing paper, tracing cloth, or films as required;backing sheet (drawing paper—white,cream, or light green) to be used under drawings and tracings 19. Drafting tape 20. Technical fountain pens 21. Drawing ink 22. Templates 23. Calculator

3.2 ■ OBJECTIVES IN DRAWING The following pages explain the correct methods for instrumental drawing. Students who practice and learn correct manipulation of their drawing instruments will eventually be able to draw correctly by habit and will be able to give their full attention to the problems at hand. The following are the important objectives students should strive to attain: 1. Accuracy. No drawing is of maximum usefulness if it is not accurate. The engineer or designer cannot achieve success in professional employment if the habit of accuracy is not acquired. 2. Speed. Time is money in industry, and there is no demand for a slow drafter, technician, or engineer. However, speed is not attained by hurrying; it is an unsought byproduct of intelligent and continuous work. It comes with study and practice. 3. Legibility. Drafters, technicians, and engineers must remember that a drawing is a means of communication to others, and that it must be clear and legible to serve its purpose well. Care should be given to details, especially to lettering (discussed further at the end of this chapter). 4. Neatness. If a drawing is to be accurate and legible, it must also be clean. Untidy drawings are the result of sloppy and careless methods and will be unacceptable to an instructor or employer.

3.3 ■ DRAWING BOARDS If the left edge of the drawing table top has a true straightedge and if the surface is hard and smooth (such as Masonite™), a drawing board is unnecessary, provided that drafting tape is used to fasten the drawings. It is recommended that a backing sheet of heavy drawing paper be placed between the drawing and the table top. In most cases a drawing board will be needed. Boards vary from 9"*12" (for sketching and field work) up to 48"*72" or larger.The recommended size for students is 20"*24", which will accommodate the largest sheet likely to be used.





FIGURE 3.3



FIGURE 3.2



The T-square.

Testing the Working Edge of the Drawing Board.

Drafters using drafting tape to hold paper in place, which in turn permits surfaces such as hardwood or other materials to be used for drawing boards. For right-handed people, the left-hand edge of the board is the working edge because the T-square head slides against it (Fig. 3.2). (Left-handers: Place the head of the T-square on the right.) This edge must be straight, and you should test the edge with a T-square blade that has been tested and found straight (Fig. 3.3). If the edge of the board is not true, it should be replaced.

3.4 ■ T-SQUARES The T-square is made of a long strip, called the blade, fastened rigidly at right angles to a shorter piece called the head (Fig. 3.2). The upper edge of the blade and the inner edge of the head are working edges and must be straight.The working edge of the head must not be convex, or the T-square will rock when the head is placed against the board. The blade should have transparent plastic edges and should be free of nicks along the working edge.Transparent edges are recommended, because

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3.7 Drawing Pencils 41



FIGURE 3.4



Testing the T-square.



FIGURE 3.5



Placing Paper on Drawing Board.

they allow the drafter to see the drawing in the vicinity of the lines being drawn. Do not use the T-square for any rough purpose. Never cut paper along its working edge, as the plastic is easily cut and even a slight nick will ruin the T-square.

3.5 ■ TESTING AND CORRECTING T-SQUARES To test the working edge of the head, see if the T-square rocks when the head is placed against a straightedge, such as a drawing board working edge that has already been tested and found true. If the working edge of the head is not straight, the T-square should be replaced. To test the working edge of the blade, draw a sharp line very carefully with a hard pencil along the entire length of the working edge; then turn the T-square over and draw the line again along the same edge (Fig. 3.4). If the edge is straight, the two lines will coincide; otherwise, the space between the lines will be twice the error of the blade. It is difficult to correct a crooked T-square blade, and if the error is considerable, it may be necessary to discard the T-square and obtain another.



FIGURE 3.6



Positions of Drafting Tape.

right hand until the top edge coincides with the upper edge of the T-square. Then move the T-square to the position shown and fasten the upper left corner, then the lower right corner, and finally the remaining corners (Fig. 3.6). Large sheets may require additional fastening, whereas small sheets may require fastening only at the two upper corners. Tracing paper should not be fastened directly to the board because small imperfections in the surface of the board will interfere with the line work. Always fasten a larger backing sheet of heavy drawing paper on the board first; then fasten the tracing paper over this sheet.

3.7 ■ DRAWING PENCILS 3.6 ■ FASTENING PAPER TO THE BOARD The drawing paper should be placed close enough to the working edge of the board to reduce to a minimum any error resulting from a slight “give,” or bending, of the blade of the T-square. The paper should also be close enough to the upper edge of the board to permit space at the bottom of the sheet for using the T-square and supporting the arm while drawing (Fig. 3.5). Drafting tape is preferred for fastening the drawing to the board because it does not damage the board and it will not damage the paper if it is removed by pulling it off slowly toward the edge of the paper. To fasten the paper in place, press the T-square head firmly against the working edge of the drawing board with the left hand, while the paper is adjusted with the

High-quality drawing pencils should be used in technical drawing never ordinary writing pencils (Fig. 3.7a). Many makes of mechanical pencils are also available, together with refill leads of conventional size in all grades (Fig. 3.7b). Choose a holder that feels comfortable in your hand and that grips the lead firmly without slipping. Mechanical pencils have the advantages of maintaining a constant length of lead while permitting the use of a lead practically to the end, of being easily refilled with new leads, of affording a ready source for compass leads, of having no wood to be sharpened, and of easy sharpening of the lead by various mechanical pencil pointers. Thin-lead mechanical pencils are available with 0.3-, 0.5-, 0.7-, or 0.9-mm-diameter drafting leads in several

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42 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques



FIGURE 3.7



In the selection of a grade of lead, the first consideration is the type of line work required. For light construction lines, guide lines for lettering, and accurate geometrical constructions or work in which accuracy is of prime importance, use a hard lead, such as 4H to 6H. For mechanical drawings on drawing paper or tracing paper, the lines should be black, particularly for drawings to be reproduced.The lead chosen must be soft enough to produce jet black lines, but hard enough not to smudge too easily or permit the point to crumble under normal pressure. The same comparatively soft lead is preferred for lettering and arrowheads. This lead will vary from F to 2H, depending on the paper and weather conditions. If the paper is hard, it will generally be necessary to use harder leads. For softer surfaces, softer leads can be used. On humid days, paper

grades (Fig. 3.7c). These thin leads produce uniform width lines without sharpening, providing both a time savings and a cost benefit. Mechanical pencils are recommended as they are less expensive in the long run. Drawing pencils are made of graphite with the addition of either a polymer binder or kaolin (clay) in varying amounts to make 18 grades from 9H, the hardest, to 7B, the softest. The uses of these different grades are described in Fig. 3.8. Note that small-diameter leads are used for the harder grades, whereas large-diameter leads are used to give more strength to the softer grades. Therefore, the degree of hardness in a wood pencil can be roughly judged by a comparison of diameters. Specifically formulated leads of carbon black particles in a polymer binder are also available in several grades for use on the polyester films now used quite extensively in industry (see §3.54). ■

Hard The hard leads in this group (left) are used where extreme accuracy is required, as on graphical computations and charts and diagrams. The softer leads in this group (right) are sometimes used for line work on engineering drawings, but their use is restricted because the lines are apt to be too light.

FIGURE 3.8

Drawing Pencils.



Lead Grade Chart.

Medium These grades are for general purpose work in technical drawing. The softer grades (right) are used for technical sketching, for lettering, arrowheads, and other freehand work on mechanical drawings. The harder leads (left) are used for line work on machine drawings and architectural drawings. The H and 2H leads are widely used on pencil tracings for reproduction.

Soft These leads are too soft to be useful in mechanical drafting.Their use for such work results in smudged, rough lines that are hard to erase, and the lead must be sharpened continually. These grades are used for art work of various kinds, and for full-size details in architectural drawing.

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3.8 Alphabet of Lines 43

absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and becomes soft. This can be recognized because the paper expands and becomes wrinkled. It is necessary to select softer leads to offset the softening of the paper. If you have been using a 2H lead, for example, change to an F until the weather becomes drier.



FIGURE 3.9



3.8 ■ ALPHABET OF LINES Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning and is drawn in a certain way. The line conventions endorsed by the American National Standards Institute, ANSI Y14.2M–1992, are presented in Fig. 3.9, together with illustrations of various applications.

Alphabet of Lines (Full Size).

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44 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques



FIGURE 3.10



Line Gage. Courtesy of Koh-I-Noor Rapidograph, Inc.

Two widths of lines are recommended for use on drawings. The ratio of line widths should be approximately two-to-one. It is recommended the thin line width be 0.3 mm minimum, and the thick line width be 0.6 mm minimum. All required lines should be clean-cut, dark, uniform throughout the drawing, and properly spaced for legible reproduction by all commonly used methods. Spacing between parallel lines may be exaggerated to a maximum of 3 mm .120 so there is no fill-in when the drawing is reproduced.The size and style of the drawing and the smallest size to which it is to be reduced govern the actual width of each line. The contrast between the two widths of lines should be distinct. Pencil leads should be hard enough to prevent smudging, but soft enough to produce the dense black lines necessary for quality reproduction. When photoreduction and blowback are not necessary, as is the case for most drafting laboratory assignments, three weights of lines may improve the appearance and legibility of the drawing. The “thin lines” may be made in two widths regular thin lines for hidden lines, and stitch lines, and a somewhat thinner version for the other secondary lines (such as center lines, extension ■

FIGURE 3.11



lines, dimension lines, leaders, section lines, phantom lines, and long-break lines). For the “thick lines” visible, cutting plane, and short break use a relatively soft lead, such as F or H. All thin lines should be made with a sharp medium-grade lead, such as H or 2H. All lines (except construction lines) must be sharp and dark. Make construction lines with a sharp 4H or 6H lead so thin that they can barely be seen at arm’s length and need not be erased. In Fig. 3.9, the ideal lengths of all dashes are indicated.You would do well to measure the first few hidden dashes and center-line dashes you make and thereafter to estimate the lengths carefully by eye. The line gage (Fig. 3.10) is a convenient reference for lines of various widths.

3.9 ■ DRAWING HORIZONTAL LINES To draw a horizontal line, press the head of the T-square firmly against the working edge of the board with your left hand; then slide your hand to the position shown in Fig. 3.11a so that the blade is pressed tightly

Drawing a Horizontal Line.

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3.11 Triangles 45

against the paper. Lean the pencil in the direction of the line at an angle of approximately 60° with the paper, and draw the line from left to right (Fig. 3.11b). Keep the pencil in a vertical plane; otherwise, the line may not be straight (Fig. 3.11c). While drawing the line, let the little finger of the hand holding the pencil glide lightly on the blade of the T-square, and rotate the pencil slowly, except for the thin-lead pencils, between your thumb and forefinger to distribute the wear uniformly on the lead and maintain a symmetrical point. Thinlead pencils should be held nearly vertical to the paper and not rotated. Also, pushing the thin-lead pencil from left to right, rather than pulling it, tends to minimize lead breakage. When great accuracy is required, the pencil may be “toed in” to produce a perfectly straight line (Fig. 3.11d). (Left-handers: In general, reverse the procedure just outlined. Place the T-square head against the right edge of the board, and with the pencil in the left hand, draw the line from right to left.)

3.10 ■ DRAWING VERTICAL LINES Use either the 45° triangle or the 30°*60° triangle to draw vertical lines. Place the triangle on the T-square with the vertical edge on the left, as shown in Fig. 3.12a. With the left hand, press the head of the T-square against the board; then slide the hand to the position shown where it holds both the T-square and the triangle firmly in position. Draw the line upward, rotating the pencil slowly between the thumb and forefinger. (The only time it is advisable for right-handers to turn the triangle so that the vertical edge is on the right is when drawing a vertical line near the right end of the T-square. In this case, the line would be drawn downward.) Lean the pencil in the direction of the line at an angle of approximately 60° with the paper and in a vertical plane (Fig. 3.12b). Meanwhile, the upper part of the body should be twisted to the right (Fig. 3.12c). (Lefthanders: In general, reverse the foregoing procedure. Place the T-square head on the right and the vertical edge of the triangle on the right; then, with the right hand, hold the T-square and triangle firmly together, and with the left hand draw the line upward.)



FIGURE 3.12



Drawing a Vertical Line.

3.11 ■ TRIANGLES Most inclined lines in mechanical drawing are drawn at standard angles with the 45° triangle and the 30°*60° triangle (Fig. 3.13). The triangles are made of transparent plastic so that lines of the drawing can be seen through



FIGURE 3.13



Triangles.

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them. A good combination of triangles is the 30°*60° triangle with a long side of 10" and a 45° triangle with each side 8" long.

by the arrows, and that all lines in the left half are drawn toward the center, while those in the right half are drawn away from the center.

3.12 ■ DRAWING INCLINED LINES

3.13 ■ PROTRACTORS

The positions of the triangles for drawing lines at all of the possible angles are shown in Fig. 3.14. In the figure it is understood that the triangles in each case are resting on the blade of the T-square. Thus, it is possible to divide 360° into twenty-four 15° sectors with the triangles used singly or in combination. Note carefully the directions for drawing the lines, as indicated

For measuring or setting off angles other than those obtainable with the triangles, the protractor is used.The best protractors, which produce the most accurate measurements, are made of nickel silver (Fig. 3.15a). For ordinary work, a plastic protractor is satisfactory and much cheaper (Fig. 3.15b).To set off angles with greater accuracy, use one of the methods presented in §4.19.



FIGURE 3.14



The Triangle Wheel.

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3.16 Drawing Parallel Lines 47



FIGURE 3.15

3.14 ■ DRAFTING ANGLES There are a variety of devices that combine the protractor with triangles to produce great versatility of use. One such device is shown in Fig. 3.16.

3.15 ■ DRAWING A LINE THROUGH TWO POINTS To draw a line through two points, place the pencil vertically at one of the points (Fig. 3.17), and move the straight-



FIGURE 3.16



FIGURE 3.18



Protractors.

edge about the pencil point as a pivot until it lines up with the other point; then draw the line along the edge.

3.16 ■ DRAWING PARALLEL LINES To draw a line parallel to a given line, move the triangle and T-square as a unit until the hypotenuse of the triangle lines up with the given line (Fig. 3.18a); then, holding the T-square firmly in position, slide the triangle away from the line, and draw the required line along the hypotenuse (Figs. 3.18b and 3.18c).



Adjustable Triangle.





FIGURE 3.17



To Draw a Pencil Line Through Two Points.

To Draw a Line Parallel to a Given Line.

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FIGURE 3.19



To Draw a Line Perpendicular to a Given Line.

Obviously, any straightedge, such as one of the triangles, may be substituted for the T-square in this operation, as shown in Fig. 3.18a.

3.17 ■ DRAWING PERPENDICULAR LINES To draw a line perpendicular to a given line, move the T-square and triangle as a unit until one edge of the triangle lines up with the given line (Fig. 3.19a); then slide the triangle across the line and draws the required line (Figs. 3.19b and 3.19c). To draw perpendicular lines when one of the lines makes 15° with horizontal, arrange the triangles as shown in Fig. 3.20.

3.18 ■ DRAWING LINES AT 30°, 60°, OR 45° WITH A GIVEN LINE To draw a line making 30° with a given line, arrange the triangle as shown in Fig. 3.21.Angles of 60° and 45° may be drawn in a similar manner. ■

FIGURE 3.20



Perpendicular Lines.

3.19 ■ SCALES A drawing of an object may be the same size as the object (full size), or it may be larger or smaller than the object. The ratio of reduction or enlargement depends on the relative sizes of the object and of the sheet of paper on which the drawing is to be made. For example, a machine part may be half size; a building may be drawn 1 1 48 size; a map may be drawn 1200 size; or a printed circuit board, may be drawn four times its size. Scales are instruments used in making technical drawings full size at a given enlargement or reduction. Figure 3.22 shows various types of scales, including (a) the metric scale, (b) the engineers’ scale, (c) the decimal scale, (d) the mechanical engineers’ scale, and (e) the architects’ scale. A full-divided scale is one in which the basic units are subdivided throughout the length of the scale. The architects’ scale is an open divided scale, one in which only the end unit is subdivided. Scales are usually made of plastic or boxwood. The better wood scales have white plastic edges. Scales are either triangular or flat. The triangular scales have the advantage of combining many scales on one stick, but the user will waste much time looking for the required scale if a scale guard (Fig. 3.23) is not used. The scale guard marks the scale that is being used. Flat scales are almost universally used by professional drafters because of their convenience, but several flat scales are necessary to replace one triangular scale, and the total cost is greater.

3.20 ■ METRIC SYSTEM AND METRIC SCALES ■

FIGURE 3.21



Line at 30° with Given Line.

The metric system is an international standard of measurement that, despite modifications over the past 200 years, has been the foundation of science and industry and is clearly defined. The modern form of the metric system is the International System of Units, commonly referred to as SI (from the French name, Le Système International d’Unités). The SI system was established in 1960 by international agreement and is now the international standard of measurement.

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3.20 Metric System and Metric Scales 49



FIGURE 3.22





FIGURE 3.23

Types of Scales.



Scale Guard.

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The metric scale is used when the meter is the standard for linear measurement.The meter was established by the French in 1791 with a length of one ten-millionth of the distance from the Earth’s equator to the pole.The meter is equal to 39.37 inches or approximately 1.1 yards. The metric system for linear measurement is a decimal system similar to our system of counting money. For example, 1 1 mm  1 millimeter (1000 of a meter) 1 1 cm  1 centimeter (100 of a meter)  10 mm 1 dm  1 decimeter (101 of a meter)  10 cm  100 mm 1 m  1 meter  100 cm  1000 mm 1 km  1 kilometer  1000 m  100,000 cm  1,000,000 mm

The primary unit of measurement for engineering drawings and design in the mechanical industries is the millimeter (mm). Secondary units of measure are the meter (m) and the kilometer (km).The centimeter (cm) and the decimeter (dm) are rarely used. In recent years, automotive and other industries have used a dual dimensioning system of millimeters and inches. Manufacturers of large agricultural machinery use all metric dimensions with the inch equivalents given in a table on the drawing. Many of the dimensions in the illustrations and the problems in this text are given in metric units. Dimensions that are given in the customary units (inches and feet, either decimal or fractional) may be converted easily to metric values. In accordance with standard practice, the ratio 1 in.=25.4 mm is used. Decimal equivalents tables can be found inside the front cover, and conversion tables are given in Appendix 31. Metric scales are available in flat and triangular styles with a variety of scale graduations.The triangular scale illustrated in Fig. 3.34 has one full-size scale and five reduced-size scales, all full divided. By means of these scales a drawing can be made full size, enlarged sized, or reduced sized. To specify the scale on a drawing see §3.26. The 1:1 scale (Fig. 3.24a) is full size, and each division is actually 1 mm in width with the numbering of the calibrations at 10-mm intervals.The same scale is also convenient for ratios of 1:10, 1:100, 1:1000, and so on. FULL SIZE

The 1:2 scale (Fig. 3.24a) is one-half size, and each division equals 2 mm with the calibration num-

HALF SIZE



FIGURE 3.24



Decimal Dimensions.

bering at 20-unit intervals. This scale is also convenient for ratios of 1:20, 1:200, 1:2000, and so on. The remaining four scales on this triangular metric scale include the typical scale ratios of 1:5, 1:25, 1:33 13, and 1:75 (Figs. 3.24a and 3.24b). These ratios may also be enlarged or reduced as desired by multiplying or dividing by a factor of 10. Metric scales are also available with other scale ratios for specific drawing purposes. The metric scale is used in map drawing and in drawing force diagrams or other graphical constructions that involve such scales as 1 mm=1 kg and 1 mm = 500 kg.

3.21 ■ INCH-FOOT SCALES Several scales that are based on the inch-foot system of measurement continue in domestic use today along with the metric system of measurement, which is accepted worldwide for science, technology, and international trade.

3.22 ■ ENGINEERS’ SCALES The engineers’ scale is graduated in the decimal system. It is also frequently called the civil engineers’ scale because it was originally used mainly in civil engineering. The name chain scale also persists because it was derived from the surveyors’ chain composed of 100 links, used for land measurements. The engineers’ scale is graduated in units of 1 in.divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 parts. Thus, the engineers’

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3.24 Architects’ Scales 51



FIGURE 3.25

scale is convenient in machine drawing to set off dimensions expressed in decimals. For example, to set off 1.650" full size, use the 10-scale and simply set off one main division plus 6 12 subdivisions (Fig. 3.25a). To set off the same dimension half size, use the 20-scale, since the 20-scale is exactly half the size of the 10-scale (Fig. 3.25b). Similarly, to set off a dimension quarter size, use the 40-scale. The engineers’ scale is also used in drawing maps to scales of 1"=50', 1"=500', 1"=5 miles, and so on and in drawing stress diagrams or other graphical constructions to such scales as 1"=20 lb and 1"=4000 lb.

3.23 ■ DECIMAL SCALES The increasing use of decimal dimensions has brought about the development of a scale specifically for that



Metric Scales.

use. On the full-size scale, each inch is divided into fiftieths of an inch, or .02" (Fig. 3.25c), and on the half- and quarter-size scales, the inches are compressed to half size or quarter size and then are divided into 10 parts, so that each subdivision stands for .1". The complete decimal system of dimensioning in which this scale is used is described in §12.10.

3.24 ■ ARCHITECTS’ SCALES The architects’ scale is intended primarily for drawings of buildings, piping systems, and other large structures that must be drawn to a reduced scale to fit on a sheet of paper.The full-size scale is also useful in drawing relatively small objects, and for that reason the architects’ scale has rather general usage.

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The architects’ scale has one full-size scale and ten overlapping reduced-sized scales. By means of these scales a drawing may be made to various sizes from full 1 size to 128 size. Note that, in all the reduced scales the major divisions represent feet, and their subdivisions represent inches and fractions thereof. Thus, the scale marked 34 means 34 inch=1 foot, not 34 inch=1 inch; that is, one-sixteenth size, not three-fourths size.And the scale marked 12 means 12 inch+1 foot, not 12 inch=1 inch, (that is, one twenty-fourth-size, not half size). 1 All the scales, from full size to 128 size, are shown in Fig. 3.26. Some are upside down, just as they may occur in use. These scales are described as follows.

ters, eighths, and finally sixteenths, the dividing lines diminishing in length with each subdivision. To set off 321 ", estimate visually one half of 161 "; to set off 641 ", estimate one fourth of 161 ". HALF SIZE Use the full-size scale, and divide every dimension mentally by two. (Do not use the 12 " scale, which is intended for drawing to a scale of 12 "=1', or onetwenty-fourth size.) To set off 1", measure 14 "; to set off 1 2", measure 1"; to set off 6.5 16 ", measure 1 2 " (half of 30"), 13 1 1 then 8 " (half of 4 "); to set off 2-16" (see Fig. 3.26), meas13 6.5 ure 1" then 13 32 " ( 16 " or half of 16 ").

Use the 3" scale in which 3"=1' (Fig. 3.26b).The subdivided portion to the left of zero, which represents 1 foot, is divided into inches, half inches,

QUARTER SIZE

Each division in the full-size scale is 161 " (Fig. 3.26a). Each inch is divided first into halves, then quar-

FULL SIZE



FIGURE 3.26



Architects’ Scales.

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3.27 Accurate Measurements 53

quarter inches, and eighth inches. The entire portion representing 1 foot actually measures 3 inches; therefore, 3"=1'. To set off anything less than 12", start at zero and measure to the left. To set off 10 18", read off 9" from zero to the left and add 1 18" and set off the total 10 18", as shown. To set off more than 12" for example, 1'–389 " (see your scale) find the 1' mark to the right of zero and the 9 38" mark to the left of zero; the required distance is the distance between these marks and represents 1'–9 38". Use the 1 12" scale in which 1 12"=1' (Fig. 3.26b).The subdivided portion of the right of zero represents 1' and is divided into inches, then half inches, and finally quarter inches. The entire portion, representing 1', actually is 1 12"; therefore, 1 12"=1'.To set off anything less than 12", start at zero and measure to the right.

EIGHT SIZE

Use the full-size scale, and multiply every dimension mentally by 2. To set off 1", measure 2"; to set off 3 14", measure 6 12"; and so on.The double-size scale is occasionally used to represent small objects. In such cases, a small actual-size outline view may be shown near the bottom of the sheet to help the shop worker visualized the actual size of the object.

DOUBLE SIZE

OTHER SIZE The scales besides those just described are used chiefly by architects. Machine drawings are customarily made only double size, full size, half size, onefourth size, or one-eighth size.

mechanical engineer’s scale marked half size,which is graduated so that every 21 " represents 1".Thus, the half-size scale is simply a full-size scale compressed to one-half size. These scales are also very useful in dividing dimensions. For example, to draw a 3 11 16 " diameter circle full size, we need half of 3 11 " to use as radius. Instead of using 16 arithmetic to find half of 3 11 ", it is easier to set off 3 11 16 16" on the half-size scale. Triangular combination scales are available that include the full- and half-size mechanical engineers’ scales, several architects’ scales, and an engineer’s scale.

3.26 ■ SPECIFYING THE SCALE ON A DRAWING For machine drawings, the scale indicates the ratio of the size of the drawn object to its actual size, irrespective of the unit of measurement used. The recommended practice is to letter FULL SIZE or 1:1; HALF SIZE or 1:2; and similarly for other reductions. Expansion or enlargement scales are given as 2:1 or 2:3; 3:1 or 3:3; 5:1 or 5:3; 10:1 or 10 3; and so on. The various scale calibrations available on the metric scale and the engineers’ scale provide almost unlimited scale ratios.The preferred metric scale ratios appear to be 1:1; 1:2; 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, and 1:200. Map scales are indicated in terms of frac1 , or graphically, such as tions, such as Scale 62500 .

3.27 ■ ACCURATE MEASUREMENTS 3.25



MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SCALES

The objects represented in machine drawing vary in size from small parts, an inch or smaller in size, to equipment or parts of large dimensions. By drawing these objects full size, half size, quarter size, or eighth size, the drawings will readily come within the limits of the standard-size sheets. For this reason the mechanical engineers’ scales are divided into units representing inches to full size, half size, quarter size, or eighth size (Fig. 3.26c). To make a drawing of an object to a scale of one-half size, for example, use the ■

FIGURE 3.27



Accurate drafting depends considerably on the correct use of the scale in setting off distances. Do not take measurements directly off the scale with the dividers or compass, as damage will result to the scale. Place the scale on the drawing with the edge parallel to the line on which the measurement is to be made and, with a sharp pencil having a conical point, make a short dash at right angles to the scale and opposite the correct graduation mark, as shown in Fig. 3.27a. If extreme accuracy is required, a tiny prick mark may be made at the required Accurate Measurements.

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54 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

point with the needle point or stylus, (Fig. 3.27b),or with one leg of the dividers. Avoid cumulative errors in the use of the scale. If a number of distances are to be set off end-to-end, all should be set off at one setting of the scale by adding each successive measurement to the preceding one, if possible. Avoid setting off the distances individually by moving the scale to a new position each time, since slight errors in the measurements may accumulate and give rise to a large error.



FIGURE 3.28



Giant Bow Set. Courtesy of Frank Oppenheimer.

3.28 ■ DRAWING INSTRUMENTS In technical drawing, accuracy, neatness, and speed are essential, §3.2. These objectives are not likely to be obtained with cheap or inferior drawing instruments. For the student or the professional drafter, it is advisable, and in the end more economical, to purchase the best instruments that can be afforded. Good instruments will satisfy the most rigid requirements, and the satisfaction, saving in time, and improved quality of work that good instruments can produce will more than justify the higher price. Unfortunately, the qualities of high-grade instruments are not likely to be recognized by the beginner, who is not familiar with the performance characteristics required and who is apt to be attracted by elaborate sets containing a large number of shiny, low-quality instruments. Therefore, the student should obtain the advice of the drafting instructor, an experienced drafter, or a reliable dealer.

3.29 ■ GIANT BOW SETS Giant bow sets contain various combinations of instruments, but all feature a large bow compass in place of the traditional large compass (Fig. 3.28). Most of the large bows are of the center-wheel type (Fig. 3.29a). Several manufacturers now offer different varieties of quickacting bows. The large bow compass shown at (b) can be adjusted to the approximate setting by simply opening or closing the legs in the same manner as for the other bow-style compass.



(a) CENTER-WHEEL

FIGURE 3.29



3.30 ■ COMPASSES The compass, with pencil and inking attachments, is used for drawing circles of approximately 25 mm (10) radius or larger. The giant bow compass (Figs. 3.28–3.30) has a socket joint in one leg that permits the insertion of either pencil or pen attachments. A lengthening bar or a beam attachment is often provided to increase the radius. Most of the large bows are of the center-wheel type (Fig. 3.29a). Several manufacturers now offer different varieties of quick-acting bows. The large bow compass shown in Fig. 3.29b can be adjusted to the approximate setting by simply opening or closing the legs in the same manner as for the other bow-style compass. For production drafting, in which it is necessary to make dense black lines to secure clear legible reproductions, the giant bow or an appropriate template is preferred.The large bow instrument is much sturdier than the traditional compass and is capable of taking the heavy pressure necessary to produce dense black lines without losing the setting.

3.31 ■ USING COMPASSES The following instructions apply generally both to old style and giant bow compasses. Most compass needle points have a plain end for use when the compass is converted into dividers and a shoulder end for use as a compass.Adjust the needle point with the shoulder end out and so that the small point extends slightly farther than the pencil lead or pen nib (Fig. 3.32d).

Giant Bow Compass.

(b) QUICK ACTING

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FIGURE 3.30



Using the Giant Bow Compass.

To draw a penciled circle, (1) set off the required radius on one of the center lines, (2) place the needle point at the exact interse`ction of the center lines, (3) adjust the compass to the required radius (25 mm or more), and (4) lean the compass forward and draw the circle clockwise while rotating the handle between the thumb and forefinger.To obtain sufficient weight of line, it may be necessary to repeat the movement several times. Any error in radius will result in a doubled error in diameter; so it is best to draw a trial circle first on scrap



FIGURE 3.31



paper or on the backing sheet and then check the diameter with the scale. On drawings that have circular arcs and tangent straight lines, draw the arcs first, whether in pencil or in ink, as it is much easier to connect a straight line to an arc than the reverse. For very large circles, a beam compass (discussed later in this section) is preferred, or use the lengthening bar to increase the compass radius. Use both hands, as shown in Fig. 3.31, but be careful not to jar the instrument and thus change the adjustment. When using the compass to draw construction lines, use a 4H to 6H lead so that the lines will be very dim. For required lines, the arcs and circles must be black, and softer leads must be used. However, since heavy pressure cannot be exerted on the compass as it can on a pencil, it is usually necessary to use a compass lead that is one or two grades softer than the pencil used for the corresponding line work. For example, if an H lead is used for visible lines drawn with a pencil, then an F lead might be found suitable for the compass work. The hard leads supplied with the compass are usually unsatisfactory for most line work except construction lines. In summary, use leads in the compass that will produce arcs and circles that match the straight pencil lines. It is necessary to exert pressure on the compass to produce heavy “reproducible" circles, and this tends to enlarge the compass center hole in the paper, especially if there are a number of concentric circles. In such cases, use a horn center, or center tack, in the hole, and place the needle point of the compass in the center of the tack.

Drawing a Circle of Large Radius with the Beam Compass.

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FIGURE 3.32



3.32 ■ SHARPENING THE COMPASS LEAD Various forms of compass lead points are illustrated in Fig. 3.32. In Fig. 3.32a, a single elliptical face has been formed by rubbing on the sandpaper pad, as shown in Fig. 3.33. In Fig. 3.32b, the point is narrowed by small side cuts. In Fig. 3.32c, two long cuts and two small side ■

FIGURE 3.33



Sharpening Compass Lead.

Compass Lead Points.

cuts have been made to produce a point similar to that on a screwdriver. In Fig. 3.32d, the cone point is prepared by chucking the lead in a mechanical pencil and shaping it in a pencil pointer.Avoid using leads that are too short to be exposed as shown. In using the compass, never use the plain end of the needle point. Instead, use the shoulder end, as shown in Fig. 3.32d, adjusted so that the tiny needlepoint extends about halfway into the paper when the compass lead just touches the paper.

3.33 ■ BEAM COMPASSES The beam compass, or trammel (Fig. 3.34), is used for drawing arcs or circles larger than can be drawn with the regular compass and for transferring distances too great for the regular dividers. Besides steel points, pencil and pen attachments are provided. The beams may be made

(a)



FIGURE 3.34



Beam Compass Sets.

(a) Courtesy of Frank Oppenheimer; (b) Courtesy of Tacro, Div. of A&T Importers, Inc.

(b)

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FIGURE 3.35



Adjusting the Dividers.

of nickel silver, steel, aluminum, or wood and are procurable in various lengths.A square nickel silver beam compass set is shown in Fig. 3.34a, and a set with the beam graduated in millimeters and inches is shown in Fig. 3.34b.

3.34 ■ DIVIDERS Dividers, as the name implies, are used for dividing distances into a number of equal parts. They are also used for transferring distances or for setting off a series of equal distances. Dividers are similar to compasses in construction and are made in square, flat, and round forms. The friction adjustment for the pivot joint should be loose enough to permit easy manipulation with one hand, as shown in Fig. 3.35. If the pivot joint is too tight, the legs of the divider tend to spring back instead of stopping at the desired point when the pressure of the fingers is released.To adjust tension, use a small screwdriver. Many dividers are made with a spring and thumbscrew in one leg so that minute adjustments in the setting can be made by turning the small thumbscrew (Fig. 3.36).

3.35 ■ USING DIVIDERS Dividers are used for spaces of approximately 25 mm (10) or more. For spaces less than 25 mm, use the bow dividers (Fig. 3.39a). Never use the large dividers for small spaces when the bow dividers can be used; the latter are more accurate. Dividing a given distance into a number of equal parts is a matter of trial and error (Fig. 3.35). Adjust the dividers with the fingers of the hand that holds them, to the approximate unit of division, estimated by eye.



FIGURE 3.36



Using the Dividers.

Rotate the dividers counterclockwise through 180°, and so on, until the desired number of units has been stepped off. If the last prick of the dividers falls short of the end of the line to be divided, increase the distance between the divider points proportionately. For example, to divide the line AB into three equal parts, the dividers are set by eye to approximately one-third the length AB. When it is found that the trial radius is too small, the distance between the divider points is increased by one-third the remaining distance. If the last prick of the dividers is beyond the end of the line, a similar decreasing adjustment is made. Cumulative errors may result when dividers are used to set off a series of distances end to end. To set off a large number of equal divisions say, 15 first set off three equal large divisions and then divide each of these into five equal parts.Wherever possible in such cases, use the scale instead of the dividers (§3.27), or set off the total and then divide into the parts by means of the parallelline method (§4.13).

3.36 ■ PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS For enlarging or reducing a drawing, proportional dividers are convenient (Fig. 3.37). They may also be used for dividing distances into a number of equal parts, or for obtaining a percentage reduction of a distance. For this purpose, points of division are marked on the



FIGURE 3.37



Proportional Dividers.

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FIGURE 3.38



Combination Pen and Pencil Bow. Courtesy of Frank



FIGURE 3.40



Using the Bow Instruments.

Oppenheimer.

instrument to secure the required subdivisions readily. Some instruments are calibrated to obtain special ratios, such as 1:square root of 2, the diameter of a circle to the side of an equal square, and feet to meters.

3.37 ■ BOW INSTRUMENTS The bow instruments are classified as the bow dividers, bow pen, and bow pencil. A combination pen and pencil bow, usually with center-wheel adjustment, and separate instruments, with either side-wheel or center-wheel adjustment, are available (Figs. 3.38 and 3.39).The choice is a matter of personal preference.

3.38 ■ USING BOW INSTRUMENTS Bow pencils and bow pens are used for drawing circles of approximately 25 mm (10) radius or smaller. Bow ■

FIGURE 3.39



Bow Instruments with Side Wheel.

dividers are used for the same purpose as the large dividers, but they are used for smaller (approximately 25 mm or less) spaces and more accurate work. Whether a center-wheel or side-wheel instrument is used, the adjustment should be made with the thumb and finger of the hand that holds the instrument (Fig. 3.40a). The instrument is manipulated by twirling the head between the thumb and fingers (Fig. 3.40b). The lead is sharpened in the same manner as for the large compass except that for small radii, the inclined cut may be turned inside if preferred (Fig. 3.41a). For general use, the lead should be turned on to the outside, as shown in Fig. 3.41b. In either case, always keep the compass lead sharpened. Avoid stubby compass leads, which cannot be properly sharpened. At least 6 mm (0) of lead should extend from the compass at all times. ■

FIGURE 3.41



Compass-Lead Points.

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3.40 To Lay Out a Sheet 59

In adjusting the needle point of the bow pencil or bow pen, be sure to have the needle extending slightly longer than the pen or the lead (Fig. 3.41b), the same as for the large compass. In drawing small circles, greater care is necessary in sharpening and adjusting the lead and the needle point, and especially in accurately setting the desired radius. If a 6.35 mm (0) diameter circle is to be drawn, and if the radius is “off” only 0.8 mm (0), the total error on diameter is approximately 25%, which is far too much. Appropriate templates may also be used for drawing small circles.

I

3.39 ■ DROP SPRING BOW PENCILS AND PENS Drop spring bow pencils and pens (Fig. 3.42) are designed for drawing multiple identical small circles, such as drill holes or rivet heads. A central pin is made to move easily up and down through a tube to which the pen or pencil unit is attached. To use the instrument, hold the knurled head of the tube between your thumb and second finger, placing your first finger on top of the knurled head of the pin. Place the point of the pin at the desired center, lower the pen or pencil until it touches the paper, and twirl the instrument clockwise with your thumb and second finger. Then lift the tube independently of the pin, and finally lift the entire instrument.

II

III

3.40 ■ TO LAY OUT A SHEET After the sheet has been attached to the board, as explained in §3.6, proceed as shown in Fig. 3.43 (see also Layout A-2, inside front cover). 1. Using the T-square, draw a horizontal trim line near the lower edge of the paper and then, using the triangle, draw a vertical trim line near the left edge of the paper. Both should be light construction lines. ■

FIGURE 3.42



IV

Drop Spring Bow Instruments.

V

VI ■

FIGURE 3.43 cover.



To Lay Out a Sheet. Layout A–2; see inside front

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60 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques



FIGURE 3.44



Technique of Lines (Enlarged).

2. Place the scale along the lower trim line with the full-size scale up. Draw short and light dashes perpendicular to the scale at the required distances (see Fig. 3.27a). 3. Place the scale along the left trim line with the fullsize scale to the left, and mark the required distances with short and light dashes perpendicular to the scale. 4. Draw horizontal construction lines with the aid of the T-square through the marks at the left of the sheet. 5. Draw vertical construction lines from the bottom upward along the edge of the triangle through the marks at the bottom of the sheet. 6. Retrace the border and the title strip to make them heavier. Notice that the layout is made independently of the edges of the paper.*

3.41 ■ TECHNIQUE OF PENCIL DRAWING Most commercial drafting is executed in pencil. Most prints or photocopies are made from pencil tracings, and all ink tracings must be preceded by pencil drawings. It should therefore be evident that skill in drafting chiefly implies skill in pencil drawing. Technique is a style or quality of drawing imparted by the individual drafter to the work. It is characterized by crisp black line work and lettering. Technique in lettering is discussed later in this chapter.

DARK ACCENTED LINES The pencil lines of a finished pencil drawing or tracing should be very dark (Fig. 3.44). Dark crisp lines are necessary to give punch or snap to the drawing. (a) The ends of lines should be accented by a little extra pressure on the pencil. (b) Curves should be as dark as other lines. (c) and (d) Hidden-line dashes and center-line dashes should be carefully estimated as to length and spacing and should be of uniform width throughout their length. Dimension lines, extension lines, section lines, and center lines also should be dark.The difference between these lines and visible lines is mostly in width there is very little difference, if any, in blackness. A simple way to determine whether your lines on tracing paper or cloth are dense black is to hold the tracing up to the light. Lines that are not opaque black will not print clearly by most reproduction processes. Construction lines should be made with a sharp, hard lead and should be so light that need not be erased when drawing is completed.

Contrast in pencil lines, like that in ink lines, should be mostly in widths of the lines, with little if any difference in the degree of darkness (Fig. 3.45). The visible lines should contrast strongly with the thin lines of the drawing. If necessary, draw over a visible line several times to get the desired thickness and darkness. A short retracing stroke backward (to the left), producing a jabbing action, results in a darker line.

CONTRAST IN LINES

3.42 ■ PENCIL TRACING * In industrial drafting rooms the sheets are available, cut to standard sizes, with border and title strips already printed. Drafting supply houses can supply such papers, printed to order, to schools for little extra cost.

While some pencil tracings are made of a drawing placed underneath the tracing paper (usually when a great deal of erasing and changing is necessary on the original

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3.43 Technical Fountain Pens 61





FIGURE 3.46



FIGURE 3.45



Contrast of Lines (Enlarged).

Technical Fountain Pen and Pen Set. Courtesy of Koh-I-Nor Rapidograph, Inc.

drawing), most drawings today are made directly in pencil on tracing paper, pencil tracing cloth, films, or vellum. These are not tracings but pencil drawings, and the methods and technique are the same as previously described for pencil drawing. In making a drawing directly on a tracing medium, a smooth sheet of heavy white drawing paper, a backing sheet, should be placed underneath. The whiteness of the backing sheet improves the visibility of the lines, and the hardness of the surface makes it possible to exert pressure on the pencil and produce dense black lines without excessive grooving of the paper.

All lines must be dark and cleanly drawn when drawings are to be reproduced.

3.43 ■ TECHNICAL FOUNTAIN PENS Technical fountain pens (Fig. 3.46), with tube and needle point are available in several line widths. Many people prefer this type of pen because the line widths are fixed and it is suitable for freehand or mechanical lettering and line work. The pen requires an occasional filling and a minimum of skill to use. For uniform line work, the pen should be used perpendicular to the

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62 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques



FIGURE 3.47



Using the Technical Fountain Pen.

paper (Fig. 3.47). For best results, follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for operation and cleaning.

3.44 ■ DRAWING INK Drawing ink is composed chiefly of carbon in colloidal suspension and gum.The fine particles of carbon give the deep, black luster to the ink, and the gum makes it waterproof and quick to dry. The ink bottle should not be left uncovered, as evaporation will cause the ink to thicken. Special drawing ink is available for use on acetate and polyester films. Such inks should not be used in technical fountain pens unless the pens are specifically made for acetate-based inks. For removing dried waterproof drawing ink from pens or instruments, pen-cleaning fluids are available at dealers.

3.45 ■ TECHNIQUE OF INKING The various widths of lines used for inked drawings or tracings are shown in Fig. 3.48. In inking a drawing or tracing (Fig. 3.49), proceed in the following order: 1. (a) Mark all tangent points in pencil directly on the drawing or tracing. (b) Indent all compass centers (with pricker or divider point). (c) Ink visible circles and arcs. (d) Ink hidden circles and arcs. (e) Ink irregular curves, if any.



FIGURE 3.48



Alphabet of Ink Lines (Full Size).

2. In (a) through (c), ink horizontal lines first, vertical lines second, and inclined lines last: (a) Ink invisible straight lines. (b) Ink hidden straight lines. (c) Ink center lines, extension lines, dimension lines, leader lines, and section lines (if any). 3. (a) Ink arrowheads and dimension figures (b) Ink notes, titles, etc. (Pencil guide lines directly on the drawing or tracing.) Some drafters prefer to ink center lines before indenting the compass centers because ink can go through the holes and cause blots on the back of the sheet. When an ink blot is made, the excess ink should be taken up with a blotter, paper towel or tissue, and not allowed to soak into the paper. When the spot is thoroughly dry, the remaining ink can be erased easily. For cleaning untidy drawings or for removing the original pencil lines from an inked drawing, a Pink Pearl or the Mars-Plastic eraser is suitable if used lightly. When a gap in a thick ink line is made by erasing, the gap should be filled in with a series of fine lines

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3.47 Using Irregular Curves 63

that are allowed to run together. A single heavy line is difficult to match and is more likely to run and cause a blot.

3.46 ■ IRREGULAR CURVES Drawing mechanical curves other than circles or circular arcs generally requires the use of an irregular or French curve. An irregular curve is a device for the mechanical drawing of curved lines and should not be applied directly to the points or used for purposes of producing an initial curve. Many different forms and sizes of curves are manufactured (Fig. 3.50). The curves are composed largely of successive segments of the geometric curves, such as the ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, and involute. The best curves are made of transparent plastic. Among the many special types of curves available are hyperbolas, parabolas, ellipses, logarithmic spirals, ship curves, and railroad curves. Adjustable curves are also available. Figure 3.51a consists of a core of lead, enclosed by a coil spring attached to a flexible strip. Figure 3.51b consists of a spline to which “ducks" (weights) are attached. The spline can be bent to form any desired curve, limited only by the elasticity of the material. An ordinary piece of solder wire can be used very successfully by bending the wire to the desired curve.

3.47 ■ USING IRREGULAR CURVES



FIGURE 3.49



Order of Inking.

The proper use of the irregular curve requires skill, especially when the lines are to be drawn in ink (Fig. 3.52). After points have been plotted through which the curve is to pass, a light pencil line should be sketched freehand smoothly through the points. To draw a mechanical line over the freehand line with an irregular curve, you match the various segments of the irregular curve with successive portions of the freehand curve and draw the line with pencil or ruling pen along the edge of the curve (Fig. 3.53). The irregular curve must match the sketched curve for some distance at each end beyond the segment to be drawn for any one setting of the curve so that successive sections of the curve will be tangent to each other, without any abrupt change in the curvature of the line (Fig. 3.53). In placing the irregular curve, the short-radius end of the curve should be turned toward the short-radius part of the curve to be drawn; that is, the portion of the irregular curve used should have the same curvilinear

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64 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques







FIGURE 3.53

FIGURE 3.51





FIGURE 3.50

Adjustable Curves.

Settings of Irregular Curve.



Irregular or French Curves.



FIGURE 3.52



Using the Irregular Curves.

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3.48 Templates 65



FIGURE 3.54



Symmetrical Figures.

tendency as the portion of the curve to be drawn. This will prevent abrupt changes in direction. The drafter should change the position of the drawing when necessary to avoid working on the lower side of the curve. When plotting points to establish the path of a curve, it is desirable to plot more points, and closer together, where sharp turns in the curve occur. Free curves may also be drawn with the compass, as shown in Fig. 4.42. For symmetrical curves, such as an ellipse, use the same segment of the irregular curve in two or more opposite places (Fig. 3.54). For example, in Fig. 3.54a the irregular curve is matched to the curve and the line drawn from 1 to 2. Light pencil dashes are then drawn directly on the irregular curve at these points. (The curve will take



FIGURE 3.55

pencil marks well if it is lightly “frosted” by rubbing with a hard pencil eraser.) In Fig. 3.54b the irregular curve is turned over and matched so that the line may be drawn from 2 to 1. In similar manner, the same segment is used again in Figs. 3.54c and 3.54d.The ellipse is completed by filling in the gaps at the ends by using the irregular curve, or if desired, a compass.

3.48 ■ TEMPLATES Templates are available for a great variety of specialized needs (Fig. 3.55). A template may be found for drawing almost any ordinary drafting symbols or repetitive features.The engineers’ triangle (Fig. 3.55a) is useful for drawing hexagons or for bolt heads and nuts; the draftsquare (Fig. 3.55b) is convenient for drawing the curves on



Templates.

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66 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

bolt heads and nuts, for drawing circles, thread forms, and so forth; and the chemistry stencil (Fig. 3.55c) is useful for drawing chemical apparatus in schematic form. Ellipse templates (§4.53), are perhaps more widely used than any other type. Circle templates are useful for drawing small circles quickly and for drawing fillets and rounds: such templates are used extensively in tool and die drawings.

3.49 ■ DRAFTING MACHINES The drafting machine is an ingenious device that replaces the T-square, triangles, scales, and protractor (Figs. 3.56 and 3.57).The links, or bands, are arranged so that the controlling head is always in any desired fixed position regardless of where it is placed on the board; thus, the horizontal straightedge will remain horizontal if so set. The controlling head is graduated in degrees (including a vernier on certain machines), which allows the straightedges, or scales, to be set and locked at any angle.There are automatic stops at the more frequently used angles, such as 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, and 90°. The chief advantage of the drafting machine is that it speeds up drafting. Since its parts are made of metal, their accurate relationships are not subject to change, whereas T-squares, triangles, and working edges of drawing boards must be checked and corrected frequently. Drafting machines for left-handers are available from the manufacturers.

3.50 ■ PARALLEL-RULING STRAIGHTEDGE For large drawings, the long T-square becomes unwieldy, and considerable inaccuracy may result from the “give" or swing of the blade. In such a case the parallel-ruling



FIGURE 3.56



Drafting Machine. Courtesy of VEMCO Corporation.



FIGURE 3.57 ■ Adjustable Drafting Table with Track Drafting Machine. Courtesy of Keuffel & Esser Co.

straightedge is recommended (Fig. 3.58). The ends of the straightedge are controlled by a system of cords and pulleys that permit the straightedge to be moved up or down on the board while maintaining a horizontal ■ FIGURE 3.58 ■ Parallel-Ruling Straightedge. position.

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3.55 Standard Sheets 67

3.51 ■ DRAWING PAPERS Drawing paper, or detail paper, is used whenever a drawing is to be made in pencil but not for reproduction. From working drawings and for general use, the preferred paper is light cream or buff in color, and it is available in rolls of widths 24" and 36" and in cut sheets of standard sizes, such as 8.5"*11", 11"*17", 17"*22", and so on. Most industrial drafting rooms use standard sheets with printed borders and title strips (§3.55). Since the cost for printing adds so little to the price per sheet, many schools have also adopted printed sheets. The best drawing papers have up to 100% pure rag stock; they have strong fibers that afford superior erasing qualities, folding strength, and toughness; and they will not discolor or grow brittle with age. The paper should have a fine grain or tooth that will pick up the graphite and produce clean, dense black lines. However, if the paper is too rough, it will wear down the pencil excessively and will produce ragged, grainy lines. The paper should have a hard surface so that it will not groove too easily when pressure is applied to the pencil. For ink work, as for catalog and book illustrations, white papers are used.The better papers, such as Bristol Board and Strathmore, come in several thicknesses, such as 2-ply, 3-ply, and 4-ply.

directly on this cloth, dispensing entirely with the preliminary pencil drawing on detail paper, thus saving a great deal of time.These cloths generally have a surface that will produce dense black lines when hard pencils are used. Hence, these drawings do not easily smudge and will stand up well to handling.

3.54 ■ POLYESTER FILMS AND COATED SHEETS Polyester film is a superior drafting material available in rolls and sheets of standard size. It is made by bonding a matte surface to one or both sides of a clear polyester sheet. The transparency and printing qualities are very good, the matte drawing surface is excellent for pencil or ink, erasures leave no ghost marks, and the film has high dimensional stability. Its resistance to cracking, bending, and tearing makes it virtually indestructible, if given reasonable care. The film has rapidly replaced cloth and is competing with vellum in some applications. Some companies have found it more economical to make their drawings directly in ink on the film. Large coated sheets of aluminum (which provides a good dimensional stability) are often used in the aircraft and auto industry for full-scale layouts that are scribed into the coating with a steel point rather than a pencil.The layouts are reproduced from the sheets photographically.

3.52 ■ TRACING PAPERS

3.55 ■ STANDARD SHEETS

Tracing paper is a thin transparent paper on which drawings are made for the purpose of reproducing by blueprinting or by other similar processes. Tracings are usually made in pencil but may also be made in ink. Most tracing papers will take pencil or ink, but some are especially suited to one or to the other. Tracing papers called vellums have been treaded with oils, waxes, or similar substances to render them more transparent; other tracing papers are not so treated, but may be quite transparent due to the high quality of the raw materials and the methods of manufacture. Some treated papers deteriorate rapidly with age, becoming brittle within a few months, but some excellent vellums are available. Untreated papers made entirely of good rag stock will last indefinitely and will remain tough.

Two systems of sheet sizes, together with length, width, and letter designations, are listed by ANSI, as shown in the accompanying table. The use of the basic sheet size, 8.5"*11.0" or 210 mm*297 mm, and multiples thereof permits filing of small tracings and of folded prints in standard files with or without correspondence. These sizes can be cut without waste from the standard rolls of paper, cloth, or film. For layout designations, title blocks, revision blocks, and a list of materials blocks (see inside the front cover of this book). Nearest International Size a (millimeter)

Standard U.S. Size a (inch)

A4 210  297

A 8.5  11.0

A3 297  420

B 11.0  17.0

A2 420  594

C 17.0  22.0

A1 594  841

D 22.0  34.0

A0 841  1189

E 34.0  44.0

3.53 ■ TRACING CLOTH Tracing cloth is a thin transparent muslin fabric (cotton, not linen as commonly supposed) sizes with a starch compound or plastic to provide a good working surface for pencil or ink. It is much more expensive than tracing paper.Tracing cloth is available in rolls of standard widths, such as 30", 36", and 42", and also in sheets of standard sizes, with or without printed borders and title forms. For pencil tracings, special pencil tracing cloths are available. Many concerns make their drawings in pencil

a

ANSI Y14.1m-1992.

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FIGURE 3.59



A Drawing Created Using CAD. Courtesy of Zura Sports, Inc.

3.56 ■ THE COMPUTER AS A DRAFTING TOOL Many of you will be using a CAD system as your drafting tool. Drawings created using a computer are basically the same as drawings created by hand. Accuracy, speed, and the ability to understand spatial and visual information, are equally important in instrumental drawing and in using a CAD system. Drawings created using a CAD system should follow the proper drafting standards so that they can be easily interpreted. Most CAD drawings are plotted on standard sheet sizes and to similar scales as hand prepared instrumental drawings.You still need to master the concepts and standards for orthographic and pictorial projections in order to use a CAD system effectively to create models and drawings. An advantage of using CAD is that the system contains commands for easily drawing perfectly straight uniform lines and other geometric elements.Also the various styles of lines can be quickly represented by the CAD system (Fig. 3.59). Though it will take you some time to learn the command structure of your CAD system, you would take as long to learn instrumental drawing techniques for preparing neat accurate drawings. Keeping

your drawing files organized and following conventions for naming the drawings so that you can find them on the CAD system is also an important consideration. Even when using a CAD system, skill in freehand sketching is still necessary to quickly get your ideas down on paper.

FREEHAND SKETCHING* 3.57 ■ TECHNICAL SKETCHING Freehand sketches are a helpful way to organize your thoughts and record ideas. They provide a quick, lowcost way to explore various solutions to a problem so that the best choice can be made. Investing too much time in doing a scaled layout before exploring your options through sketches can be a costly mistake. Sketches are also used to clarify information about changes in design or provide information on repairing existing equipment. The degree of precision needed in a given sketch depends on its use. Quick sketches to supplement verbal descriptions may be rough and incomplete. Sketches

* Freehand sketching is discussed again, at length, in detail in Chapter 5 within the discussion on “Technical Sketching Shape Description.”

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FIGURE 3.60 ■ Great Ideas Often Start as Freehand Sketches Made on Scratch Paper. Courtesy of ANATech, Inc.

that are supposed to convey important and precise information should be drawn as carefully and accurately as possible. The term freehand sketch does not mean a sloppy drawing.As shown in Figure 3.60, a freehand sketch shows attention to proportion, clarity, and correct line widths.

3.58 ■ SKETCHING MATERIALS One advantage of freehand sketching is that it requires only pencil, paper, and eraser. Small notebooks or sketch pads are useful in the field (when working at a site) or when an accurate record is needed. Graph paper can be helpful in making neat sketches like the one in Figure 3.61. Paper with 4, 5, 8, or 10 squares per inch is convenient for maintaining correct proportions. ■

FIGURE 3.61



Sketch on Graph Paper.

Find a style of pencil that suits your use. Figure 3.7 (see page 42) shows three styles which are all good for preparing sketches. Automatic mechanical pencils (shown as C in the illustration) come in .3-mm, .5-mm, .7-mm, and .9-mm leads that advance automatically and are easy to use.The .5-mm lead is a good general size, or you can use a .7-mm lead for thick lines and .3-mm for thin lines. The lead holder shown as part B requires a special sharpener, so it is not usually suitable for work in the field. Plain wooden pencils work great. They are inexpensive and make it easy to produce thick or thin lines by the amount you sharpen them. A sketch pad of plain paper with a master grid sheet showing through underneath works well as a substitute for grid paper. You can create your own master grid sheets for different sketching purposes using CAD. Specially ruled isometric paper is available for isometric sketching. Figure 3.8 (see page 42) shows the grades of lead and their uses. Use soft pencils, such as HB or F, for freehand sketching. Soft vinyl erasers are recommended.

3.59 ■ TYPES OF SKETCHES Technical sketches of 3-D objects are usually one of four standard types of projection, shown in Figure 3.62: • • • •

Multiview projection Axonometric (isometric) projection Oblique projection Perspective sketches

Multiview projection shows one or more necessary views. You will learn multiview projection in Chapter 6. Axonometric, oblique, and perspective sketches are



FIGURE 3.62



Types of Projection.

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FIGURE 3.63



Technique of Lines (Enlarged).

methods of showing the object pictorially in a single view. They will be discussed in Chapters 16, 17, and 18.

3.60 ■ SCALE Sketches are not usually made to a specific scale. Sketch objects in their correct proportions as accurately as possible by eye. Grid paper helps you sketch the correct proportions by providing a ready-made scale (by counting squares).The size of the sketch is up to you, depending on the complexity of the object and the size of the paper available. Sketch small objects oversize to show the details clearly.

3.61 ■ TECHNIQUE OF LINES The main difference between an instrument drawing and a freehand sketch is in the style or technique of the lines. A good freehand line is not expected to be precisely straight or exactly uniform, as is a CAD or instrumentdrawn line. Freehand lines show freedom and variety. Freehand construction lines are very light, rough lines. All other lines should be dark and clean. ■

FIGURE 3.64



3.62 ■ STYLES OF LINES Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning. Drawings use two different line widths thick and thin and different line styles indicate the meaning of the line. A person reading a drawing depends on line styles to communicate whether a line is visible or hidden, if it represents a center axis, or if its purpose is to convey dimension information.Without making these distinctions, drawings would become a confusing jumble of lines.To make your drawings clear and easy to read, make the contrast between the two widths of lines distinct.Thick lines such as visible lines and cutting plane lines should be twice as thick as thin lines. Thin lines are used for construction lines, hidden lines, dimension lines, extension lines, center lines, and phantom lines. Figure 3.9 (see page 43) shows the different styles of lines that you will be using.All lines except for construction lines should be sharp and dark. Construction lines should be very light so that they are not visible (or are barely visible) in the completed drawing. Figures 3.63 and 3.64 show examples of technique for sketching using different line patterns.

Contrast of Lines (Enlarged).

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3.66 Lettering Standards 71



FIGURE 3.65



Circle Viewed as an Ellipse.

3.63 ■ SKETCHING CIRCLES, ARCS, AND ELLIPSES Small circles and arcs can be sketched in one or two strokes without any preliminary blocking in. Sketching arcs is similar to sketching circles. In general, it is easier to sketch arcs by holding your pencil on the inside of the curve. In sketching arcs, look closely at the actual geometric constructions and carefully approximate all points of tangency so that the arc touches a line or other entity at the right point. Circle templates also make it easy to sketch accurate circles of various sizes. If a circle is tipped away from your view, it appears as an ellipse. Figure 3.65 shows a coin viewed so that it appears as an ellipse. You can learn to sketch small ellipses with a free arm movement similar to the way you sketch circles, or you can use ellipse templates to help you easily sketch ellipses.These templates are usually grouped according to the amount a circular shape the would be rotated to form the ellipse.They provide a number of sizes of ellipses on each template, but usually only one or a couple typical rotations.

3.64 ■ MAINTAINING PROPORTIONS The most important rule in freehand sketching is to keep the sketch in proportion. No matter how brilliant the technique or how well-drawn the small details, if the proportions are bad, the sketch will be of little use. To keep your sketch in proportion, first determine the relative proportions of the height to the width and lightly block them in.Then lightly block in the medium-size areas and the small details. ■

FIGURE 3.66



Compare each new estimated distance with alreadyestablished distances. One way to estimate distances is to mark an arbitrary unit on the edge of a card or strip of paper. Then see how many units wide and how many units high the object is. To sketch an object with many curves to a different scale, use the squares method. On the original picture, rule accurate grid lines to form squares of any convenient size. It is best to use a scale and some convenient spacing, such as 21 inch or 10 mm. On the new sheet, rule a similar grid, marking the spacing of the lines proportional to the original, but reduced or enlarged as needed. Draw the object’s contours in and across the new grid lines to match the original as closely as you can by eye.

LETTERING Lettered text is often necessary to completely describe an object or to provide detailed specifications. Lettering should be legible, be easy to create, and use styles acceptable for traditional drawing and CAD drawing. 3.65 ■ FREEHAND LETTERING Most engineering lettering is single-stroke Gothic font. A font is the name for a particular shape of letters. Figure 3.66 shows some common fonts. Most hand-drawn notes are lettered 18 " high and are drawn within light horizontal guidelines. CAD notes are typed from the keyboard and sized according to the plotted size of the drawing.

3.66 ■ LETTERING STANDARDS The modern styles of letters were derived from the design of Roman capital letters, whose origins date all the way back to Egyptian hieroglyphics. The term Roman refers to any letter that has wide downward strokes, thin connecting strokes, and ends terminating in spurs called serifs. In the late 19th century, the development of technical

Serif and Sans-Serif Lettering.

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drawing created a need for a simplified, legible alphabet that could be drawn quickly with an ordinary pen. Singlestroke Gothic sans-serif (meaning without serifs or spurs) letters are used today because they are very legible.

3.67 ■ COMPUTER LETTERING Lettering is a standard feature available in computer graphics programs. Using CAD software, you can add titles, notes, and dimensioning information to a drawing. Several fonts and a variety of sizes may be selected. When modifications are required, it is easy to make appropriate lettering changes on the drawing by editing existing text. CAD drawings typically use a Gothic style of lettering, but often use a Roman style of lettering for titles. When adding lettering to a CAD drawing, a good rule of thumb is not to use more than two fonts within the same drawing.You may want to use one font for the titles and a different one for notes and other text. However, you may have a couple different sizes of lettering in the drawing and perhaps some slanted lettering all using the same font. It is sometimes tempting to use many different fonts in a drawing because of the wide variety available on CAD systems, but drawings that use too many different fonts have been jokingly referred to as having a ransom note style of lettering.

3.68 ■ LETTERING TECHNIQUE Lettering is more similar to freehand drawing than it is to writing, so the six fundamental drawing strokes and their directions are basic to lettering. Horizontal strokes are drawn left to right. Vertical, inclined, and curved strokes are drawn downward. If you are left-handed, you can use a system of strokes similar to the sketching strokes that work for you. Lettering ability has little relationship to writing ability. You can learn to letter neatly even if you have terrible handwriting. There are three necessary aspects of learning to letter: • Proportions and forms of the letters (to make good letters, you need to have a clear mental image of their correct shape) • Composition the spacing of letters and words • Practice

3.69 ■ VERTICAL LETTERS AND NUMERALS The proportions of vertical capital letters and numerals are shown in Figure 3.67 in a grid six units high. Numbered arrows indicate the order and direction of strokes.

The widths of the letters can be easily remembered:The letter l and the numeral 1 are only a pencil width.The W is eight grid units wide (1 13 times its height) and is the widest letter in the alphabet. All the other letters or numerals are either five or six grid units wide, and it is easy to remember the six-unit letters because when assembled they spell TOM Q. VAXY. This means that most letters are as wide as they are tall, which is probably wider than your usual writing. All numerals except the 1 are five units wide. Lowercase letters are rarely used in engineering sketches except for lettering large volumes of notes.Vertical lowercase letters are used on map drawings, but very seldom on machine drawings. Lowercase letters are shown in Figure 3.68.The lower part of the letter is usually two-thirds the height of the capital letter.

3.70 ■ INCLINED LETTERS AND NUMERALS Inclined capital letters and numerals, shown in Figure 3.69, are similar to vertical characters, except for the slope. The slope of the letters is about 68° from the horizontal. While you may practice drawing slanted handlettering at approximately this angle, it is important in CAD drawings to always set the amount of incline for the letters at the same value within a drawing so that the lettering is consistent. Inclined lowercase letters, shown in Figure 3.70, are similar to vertical lowercase letters.

3.71 ■ GUIDELINES Use extremely light horizontal guidelines to keep letter height uniform, as is shown in Figure 3.71 (see Page 75). Capital letters are commonly made 18 " (3.2 mm) high, with the space between lines of lettering being from three-fifths to full height of the letters. Lettering size may vary depending on the size of the sheet. Do not use vertical guidelines to space the letters this should be done by eye while lettering. Use a vertical guideline at the beginning of a row of text to help you line up the left edges of the following rows, or use randomly spaced vertical guidelines to help you maintain the correct slant. A simple method of spacing horizontal guidelines is to use a scale and set off a series of 81 " spaces, making both the letters and the spaces between lines of letters 1 8 " high. Another quick method of creating guidelines is to use a guideline template like the Berol Rapidesign 925 shown in Figure 3.72 (see page 75). When large and small capitals are used in combination, the small capitals should be three-fifths to twothirds as high as the large capitals.

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3.71 Guidelines 73



FIGURE 3.67





Vertical Capital Letters and Numerals.

FIGURE 3.68



Vertical Lowercase Letters.

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FIGURE 3.69





Inclined Capital Letters and Numerals.

FIGURE 3.70



Inclined Lowercase Letters.

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3.72 Guidelines for Whole Numbers and Fractions 75



FIGURE 3.71



Pencil Lettering (Full Size).

REVERSE WITH INKING PEN

3 — 36

1 — 4

5 — 32

3 — 16

1 — 8

5 — 32

3 — 32

1 — 8 Berol.RapiDesign. R-925 LETTERING AID

3.72 ■ GUIDELINES FOR WHOLE NUMBERS AND FRACTIONS

FIGURE 3.73



FIGURE 3.72 ■ The Berol Rapidesign 925 Template is Used to Quickly Create Guidelines for Lettering.

numbers. Make the numerator and the denominator each about three-fourths as high as the whole number to allow enough space between them and the fraction bar. For dimensioning, the most commonly used height for whole numbers is 18 " (3.2 mm), and for fractions 14 " (6.4 mm), as shown in the figure. Some of the most common errors in lettering fractions are shown in Figure 3.74.To make fractions appear correctly:

Beginners should use guidelines for whole numbers and fractions. Draw five equally spaced guidelines for whole numbers and fractions, as shown in Figure 3.73. Fractions are twice the height of the corresponding whole





Guide Lines for Dimension Figures.

• Never let numerals touch the fraction bar. • Center the denominator under the numerator. • Never use an inclined fraction bar, except when lettering in a narrow space, as in a parts list. • Make the fraction bar slightly longer than the widest part of the fraction. ■

FIGURE 3.74



Common Errors.

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FIGURE 3.75



Centering Title in Title Box.

3.73 ■ SPACING OF LETTERS AND WORDS Uniform spacing of letters is a matter of equalizing spaces by eye. The background areas between letters, not the distances between them, should be approximately equal. Equal distances from letter to letter causes the letters to appear unequally spaced. Equal background areas between letters results in an even and pleasing spacing. Some combinations, such as LT and VA, may even have to be slightly overlapped to secure good spacing. In some cases the width of a letter may be decreased. For example, the lower stroke of the L may be shortened when followed by A. These pairs of letters that need to be spaced extra closely to appear correctly are called kerned pairs in typesetting. Space words well apart, but space letters closely within words. Make each word a compact unit well separated from adjacent words. For either uppercase or lowercase lettering, make the spaces between words approximately equal to a capital O. Be sure to have space between rows of letters, usually equal to the letter height. Rows spaced too closely are hard to read. Rows that are too far apart do not appear related.

FIGURE 3.76



Balanced Machine-Drawing Title.

3.74 ■ TITLES In most cases, the title and related information are lettered in title boxes or title strips, which may be printed directly on the drawing paper or polyester film, as shown in Figure 3.75. The main drawing title is usually centered in a rectangular space, which is easy to do in CAD. When lettering by hand, arrange the title symmetrically about an imaginary centerline, as shown in Figure 3.76. In any kind of title, the most important words are given most prominence by making the lettering larger, heavier, or both. Other data, such as scale and date, can be smaller.

3.75 ■ WEB SITES FOR FURTHER INFORMATION Check the sites below for engineering graphics supplies and equipment: • http://www.reprint-draphix.com/ • http://www.eclipse.net/~essco/draft/draft.htm • http://www.seventen.com/art_eng/index.html These sites feature typography information: • http://www.graphic-design.com/type/ • http://www.webcom.com/cadware/letease2.html To find other sites like these, use keywords like reprographic supplies or engineering type fonts.

KEY WORDS CAD

IRREGULAR CURVE

OBLIQUE

SERIF

SCALE

LINE TYPE

GRID PAPER

INCLINED

ALPHABET OF LINES

HORIZONTAL

HIDDEN LINES

STABILITY

PARALLEL

DIAMETER

CENTERLINES

SPACING

VERTICAL

TEMPLATE

SHADING

GUIDELINES

RADIUS

COMPASS

SKETCH

TITLE BLOCK

DRAWING MEDIA

DIVIDERS

PROPORTIONS

KERNED PAIRS

PROTRACTOR

PERPENDICULAR

LETTERING

TRIANGLE

FREEHAND SKETCH

GOTHIC

T-SQUARE

CONSTRUCTION LINES

ROMAN

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Review Questions 77

CHAPTER SUMMARY ■ ■











An understanding of the basic principles of drawing is required to draw with either a pencil or with CAD software. The line weight (thickness) and type (dashed or solid) has specific meaning in all technical drawings. This is called the alphabet of lines and is essential knowledge for every drafter. Both CAD and traditional drawing have specific methods for drawing lines, arcs, and circles. Proper understanding of the elements of this basic geometry is essential for both mechanical and CAD drawing. Every drawing tool, including every CAD software program, requires careful study of the tools and procedures for using the tools. Proper use of each tool facilitates the creation of neat, accurate drawings. Improper use of a tool creates sloppy, inaccurate drawings. The proper sizing of a drawing requires complete understanding of the use of scales. Paper drawings are scaled before they are drawn. CAD drawings are scaled when they are printed. Complex circles and arcs are difficult to draw using either CAD software or a mechanical compass. The prescribed techniques for either tool require understanding of the proper technique and practice with the appropriate tool. There are many drawing and printing media used in the creation of traditional drawings and the printing of CAD drawings. Each media type has specific advantages. Drawing and printing media are chosen based on the cost, durability, image quality, and reproduction capability.



Sketching is a quick way of visualizing and solving a drawing problem. It is an effective way of communicating with all members of the design team.



There are special techniques for sketching lines, circles, and arcs. These techniques should be practiced so they become second nature.



Moving your thumb up or down the length of a pencil at arms length is an easy method for estimating proportional size.



Using a grid makes sketching in proportion an easy task. Grid paper comes in a variety of types, including square grid and isometric grid.



You can sketch circles by constructing a square and locating the four tangent points where the circle touches the square.



A sketched line does not need to look like a mechanical line. The main distinction between instrumental drawing and freehand sketching is the character or technique of the line work.



Freehand sketches are made to proportion, but not necessarily to a particular scale.



Notes and dimensions are added to sketches using uppercase letters drawn by hand.



The standard shapes of letters used in engineering drawing have been developed to be legible and quick to produce.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What tools are used to draw straight lines? 2. What tools are used to draw arcs and circles? 3. Draw the alphabet of lines and label each line. 4. Describe the proper technique for erasing a line using an erasing shield. 5. Why is the pencil pulled and never pushed when drawing lines? 6. Which architect’s scale represents a size ratio of 1:24? Which metric scale represents a half size? Which engineering scale would be used for full size? 7. Which scale type is the only one to use fractions of an inch? 8. Is the bevel of a compass lead sharpened on the inside or outside surface? 9. What are the minimum number of points that you should connect when using an irregular curve?

10. What are the main advantages of polyester film as a drawing media? 11. What are the four standard types of projections? 12. What are the advantages of using grid paper for sketching? 13. What is the correct technique for sketching a circle or an arc? 14. Sketch the alphabet of lines.Which lines are thick? Which are thin? Which are very light and should not reproduce when copied? 15. What is the advantage of sketching an object first before drawing it using CAD? 16. What is the difference between proportion and scale? 17. What font provides the shape of standard engineering lettering? 18. Describe the characteristics of good freehand lettering. 19. Why must guidelines always be used for lettering? 20. How are sketches used in the design process?

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DRAWING PROBLEMS The constructions in Figs. 3.77 to 3.87 are to be drawn in pencil on Layout A–2 (see the inside front cover of this book). The steps in drawing this layout are shown in Fig. 3.43. Draw all construction lines lightly, using a hard lead (4H to 6H), and all required lines dense black with a softer lead (F to H). If construction lines are drawn properly—that is, lightly—they need not be erased in the final drawing. If the layout is to be made on the A4 size sheet, width dimensions for title-strip forms will need to be adjusted to fit the available space. The pencil drawings of Figs. 3.82 to 3.87 should be done on tracing paper or vellum; then prints should be made to show the effectiveness of the student’s technique. If ink tracings are required, the originals may be drawn on film or on detail paper and then traced on vellum or tracing cloth. For any assigned problem, the instructor may require that all dimensions and notes be lettered to afford further lettering practice. Since many of the problems in this chapter are of a general nature, they can also be solved on most computer graphic systems. If a system if available, the instructor may choose to assign specific problems to be completed by this method. Prob. 3.1 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), divide working space into six equal rectangles and draw visible lines, as shown in Fig. 3.77. Draw construction lines AB through centers C at right angles to required lines; then along each construction line, set off 0.50 spaces and draw required visible lines. Omit dimensions and instructional notes. Prob. 3.2 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), divide working space into six equal rectangles and draw lines as shown in Fig. 3.78. In the first two spaces, draw conventional lines to match those in Fig. 3.9. In remaining spaces, locate centers C by diagonals, and then work constructions out from them. Omit the metric dimensions and instructional notes.



FIGURE 3.77 ■ Using Layout A-2 or A4-2 (adjusted), divide working space into six equal rectangles and draw visible lines as shown. Draw construction lines AB through centers C at right angles to required lines; then along each construction line, set off 0.50" spaces and draw required visible lines. Omit dimensions and instructional notes.

Prob. 3.3 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views in pencil, as shown in Fig. 3.79. Omit all dimensions. Prob. 3.4 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw figures in pencil, as shown in Fig. 3.80. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles within it radius range. Omit all dimensions. Prob. 3.5 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views in pencil, as shown in Fig. 3.81. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles within its radius range. Omit all dimensions. Prob. 3.6 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil the friction plate in Fig. 3.82. Omit dimensions and notes. Prob. 3.7 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views in pencil of the seal cover in Fig. 3.83. Omit dimensions and notes. Prob. 3.8 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil the Geneva cam in Fig. 3.84. Omit dimensions and notes. Prob. 3.9 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw accurately in pencil the shear plate in Fig. 3.85. Give length of KA. Omit other dimensions and notes. Prob. 3.10 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil the ratchet wheel in Fig. 3.86. Omit dimensions and notes. Prob. 3.11 Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil the latch plate in Fig. 3.87. Omit dimensions and notes.

Problems in convenient form for solution may be found in Technical Drawing Problems, Series 1, by Giesecke, Mitchell, Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; Technical Drawing Problems, Series 2, by Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; and Technical Drawing Problems, Series 3, by Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; all designed to accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall.

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Drawing Problems 79



FIGURE 3.78 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–3 (adjusted), divide working space into six equal rectangles, and draw lines as shown. In first two spaces, draw conventional lines to match those in Fig. 3.9. In remaining spaces, locate centers C by diagonals, and then work constructions out from them. Omit the metric dimensions and instructional notes.



FIGURE 3.79 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views in pencil as shown. Omit all dimensions.



FIGURE 3.80 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–3 (adjusted), draw figures in pencil as shown. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles within its radius range. Omit all dimensions.

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80 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques

■ FIGURE 3.81 ■ Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw views in pencil as shown. Use bow pencil for all arcs and circles within its radius range. Omit all dimensions.

■ FIGURE 3.82 ■ Friction Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

■ FIGURE 3.83 ■ Seal Cover. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

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Lettering Problems 81



FIGURE 3.84 ■ Geneva Cam. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.







FIGURE 3.86 ■ Shear Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw accurately in pencil. Give length of KA. Omit other dimensions and notes.

FIGURE 3.85 ■ Ratchet Wheel. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

FIGURE 3.87 ■ Latch Plate. Using Layout A–2 or A4–2 (adjusted), draw in pencil. Omit dimensions and notes.

LETTERING PROBLEMS Layouts for lettering problems are given in Figs. 3.88 through 3.91. Draw complete horizontal and vertical or inclined guide lines very lightly. Draw the vertical or inclined guide lines through the full height of the lettered area of the sheet. For practice in ink lettering, the last two lines and the title strip on each sheet may be lettered in ink, if assigned by the instructor. Omit all dimensions. Prob. 3.12 As shown in Fig. 3.88, lay out sheet, add vertical or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital letters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millimeter equivalents of given dimensions, see table inside of back cover. Prob. 3.13 As shown in Fig. 3.89, lay out sheet, add vertical or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital letters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millimeter equivalents of given dimensions, see table inside of back cover.

Prob. 3.14 As shown in Fig. 3.90, lay out sheet, add vertical or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital letters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millimeter equivalents of given dimensions, see table inside of back cover. Prob. 3.15 As shown in Fig. 3.91, lay out sheet, add vertical or inclined guide lines, and fill in vertical or inclined capital letters as assigned. For decimal-inch and millimeter equivalents of given dimensions, see table inside of back cover.

Lettering sheets in convenient form for lettering practice may be found in Engineering Drawing Problems, Series 1, by Giesecke, Mitchell, Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; Engineering Drawing Problems, Series 2, by Spencer, Hill, Dygdon, and Novak; and Engineering Drawing Problems, Series 3 by Davis and Juneau; all designed to accompany this text and published by Prentice Hall.

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82 Chapter 3 Instrument Drawing, Freehand Sketching, and Lettering Techniques



FIGURE 3.88



Prob. 3.12.



FIGURE 3.89



Prob. 3.13.



FIGURE 3.90



Prob. 3.14.



FIGURE 3.91



Prob. 3.15.