Chapter 25 Domestic Dreams and Atomic Nightmares, 1953–1963 Learning Objectives: After reading Chapter 25, you should be able to: 1. Detail the reasons behind the expansion of suburbs, highways, and shopping malls. 2. Explain how consumer spending fit in with the suburban ideal. 3. Understand how the 1950s impacted white Americans differently than people of color. 4. Discuss how and why white attitudes towards racial integration began to shift. 5. Analyze how the nuclear family ideal of the 1950s was a giant step backward for women. 6. Explain the significance of Brown v. the Board of Education decision. 7. Detail the white resistance to racial desegregation in the South. 8. Discuss how President Eisenhower responded to racial conflict at home. 9. Detail the major events of the African American civil rights movement, 1953-1963. 10. Comprehend the importance of President Eisenhower’s pro-business agenda. 11. Understand United States policy towards liberation movements in the colonial world. 12. Discuss how sex and rock ‘n’ roll among American youth began to change morals. 13. Analyze how peace and environmental groups tried to mobilize support. 14. Discuss the meaning of the 1960 presidential election. 15. Explain how President Kennedy both changed and continued American foreign policy. 16. Discuss the impact of Martin Luther King, Jr. and his march on Washington.

Time Line 1952 Dwight D. Eisenhower elected president 1953 Earl Warren appointed as Chief Justice of Supreme Court 1954 Elected government of Guatemala overthrown by CIA 1955 Emmett Till murdered in Mississippi Montgomery bus boycott

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1956 Eisenhower reelected president Interstate Highway Act passed 1957 Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1959 Fidel Castro overthrows U.S.-supported dictator in Cuba 1960 U-2 spy plane shot down by Soviet Union John F. Kennedy elected president 1961 Berlin Wall erected Freedom Rides organized by CORE Women Strike for Peace stages protest against nuclear weapons U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba fails 1962 Silent Spring published 1963 250,00 march on Washington for jobs and civil rights President Kennedy assassinated in Dallas, Texas

I. Cold War, Warm Hearth A. Consumer Spending and the Suburban Ideal The postwar years saw a huge increase in personal income and a doubling of the suburban population, although 20 percent of families remained poor. Religious affiliation reached an alltime high and the nuclear families who settled in the suburbs provided the customer base for family-oriented amusement parks like Disneyland. In only four years, the 1 million American homes with television in 1949 climbed to 20 million. The Interstate Highway Act of 1956 provided $100 billion to pay for 90 percent of 41,000 miles of highways. President Eisenhower stressed that these new highways would allow evacuation of cities in case of war but a major reason for their construction was the lobbying of the American Road Builders Association. 139

B. Race, Class and Domesticity While many think of the 1950s as a age of economic prosperity, people of color found it difficult to move to the suburbs, as most suburban developments excluded nonwhites. Banks refused to loan money to racial minorities seeking to purchase homes in white areas. Still, racial segregation did not prevail everywhere, as was shown by examples of consciously integrated communities like Shaker Heights, Ohio. White attitudes towards racial integration began to change only slightly, since most whites thought it acceptable for a property owner not to sell to blacks and well over 90% approved of laws banning interracial marriage. Urban renewal accelerated the decay of inner cities as once viable ethnic communities were bulldozed for new office buildings or housing for the well-off. In the rural areas, many people were also badly off, and many farm families lacked electricity or running water. The mechanization of farms forced many rural people to move north in search of jobs. C. Women: Back to the Future The American family ideal of a full-time wife and mother supported by the breadwinning husband was a major reversal for women. A number of possibilities for white working-class and middle-class women were now closed off, ranging from occupational training to professional education. Even college-educated women often worked as clericals in positions which did not make use of their skills. For women of color, clerical work, despite its low pay and lack of opportunity for advancement, was seen as preferable to migrant labor, factory work, or cleaning the homes of the rich. Despite the expectation that women should devote themselves to homemaking and family, some women were able to pursue careers. As many white women dropped out of college to get married, black women knew that a college degree could make the difference between working as a maid or as a secretary, nurse, or teacher.

II. The Civil Rights Movement A. Brown v. Board of Education The 1954 Supreme Court decision was the first major victory over the Jim Crow system in the South. NAACP lawyers, led by Thurgood Marshall, argued, and the court later agreed, that separate educational facilities were inherently unequal. Led by newly appointed justice Earl Warren, the court ordered the desegregation of American schools.

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B. White Resistance, Black Persistence Despite the outcome of Brown case, school segregation continued as political leaders dragged their feet and the Supreme Court failed to set a clear timetable. President Eisenhower had opposed the court decision and refused to publicly support it. When Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy was murdered for allegedly whistling at a white woman, the president was silent as the killers were released by an all-white jury. By the end of the Eisenhower administration, only 49 school districts remained desegregated out of 712 after the Brown decision. C. Boycotts and Sit-Ins On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, riding on a segregated Montgomery, Alabama bus, refused to give up her seat to a white man. Parks was arrested and a boycott of the bus system began. For 381 days, more than 90 percent of the African American community refused to ride the now allbut-empty buses. Martin Luther King, Jr. became the leader of the boycott and soon the most powerful voice for civil rights. King and other leaders formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to unite black ministers in the cause of civil rights. Inspired by the bus boycott, four African American college students in Greensboro, North Carolina sat at the lunch counter of a Woolworth store and refused to leave. Physically removed, they returned the next day with 23 classmates. By the end of the week, more than a thousand students had joined the protest. In May 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized the Freedom Rides, in which black and white civil rights workers attempted to ride interstate buses to challenge segregation at facilities used in interstate travel. Although white mobs attacked and beat the riders who were also arrested by local police, their example helped inspire others to join the movement.

III. The Eisenhower Years A. The Middle of the Road Hero of the D-Day invasion of France, Dwight D. Eisenhower easily won the presidency against Democrat Adlai E. Stevenson in 1952. As president, Eisenhower pushed pro-business policies and pleased conservatives while extending many of the policies of the New Deal to placate liberals. Eisenhower worked to reduce defense spending by cutting expensive convention forces while improving the air force and advancing nuclear weapons. His plan were derailed on October 4, 1957 when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the first artificial earth satellite. Forced to increase military spending, Eisenhower also called for overall improvements in science and math education. Eisenhower signed the National Defense Education Act in 1958, which gave more than $1 billion to education.

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B. “What’s Good for General Motors” Eisenhower’s pro-business policies had a devastating impact on the environment. Businesses were allowed to expand with little regulation and little concern for the increasing pollution of the air, water, and land. Eisenhower’s support for the interstate highway system was a boon to the auto, trucking, oil, concrete, and tire industries. This led to the decline of the passenger train system public transportation as well as contributing to suburban sprawl, air pollution, and traffic jams. C. Eisenhower’s Foreign Policy Confrontations between the Soviet Union and the United States gave way to more subtle conflicts over the unaligned nations in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Latin America. After the death of Stalin in 1953, the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev agreed to limit nuclear tests and moved towards greater cooperation. Meanwhile, both nations were facing challenges from within their spheres of influence. The Soviets faced armed revolts in Poland and Hungary in 1956, for example. As third world countries tried to organize themselves, the United States helped overthrow democratically elected leaders and prop up corrupt and brutal dictatorships. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) had 15,000 operatives working around the globe by the end of the 1950s. The CIA helped overthrow the elected government in Iran as well as the elected government of Guatemala in 1954. American policy in support of dictators in Latin America was so unpopular that Vice President Richard Nixon was nearly killed in Caracas, Venezuela when protesters attacked his motorcade in 1958. In 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew Cuba’s U.S.-backed dictator and took control of foreign-owned companies. Faced with American hostility, Castro turned to the Soviet union for support, which only further enraged Washington, which launched an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba in 1961. The CIA helped overthrow and assassinate the left-leaning Patrice Lumumba, the first post-colonial leader of the Republic of Congo. In Egypt, the Eisenhower administration cut off aid when President Nasser opened trade with the Soviet bloc and recognized communist China. The U.S. rarely distinguished between nationalist movements and those truly pro-Soviet, even sending 14,000 marines to Lebanon to set up a anti-Nasser government there.

IV. Outsiders and Opposition A. Youth, Sex and Rock ‘n’ Roll Life in America was not necessarily quiet, and many thought that American youth were out of control. Although sexual mores were rigid, they were widely violated. A sexual double standard encouraged young men toward sexual conquest while condemning women who had sex before 142

marriage. Youth of the 1950s turned to rock ‘n’ roll, a new music with raw sexuality and a celebration of rebelliousness. Many of these impulses would take political form in the 1960s. B. Rebellious Men Forced into boring jobs, some men turned to alternative visions of the good life as represented by Hugh Hefner’s Playboy magazine. Hefner promoted the joys of sex without commitment, while Beat poets, writers, and artists celebrated freedom from conformity. Most men only indulged in these fantasies in their dreams. C. Mobilizing for Peace and the Environment Some women did not wait for the feminist movement to become politically vocal. Rachel Carson, for instance, wrote powerfully about her belief that manufactured chemicals were destroying the environment. In 1962, her book Silent Spring pointed out the worldwide problem of pesticide poisoning. Women also led the movement to stop atomic bomb testing and restrict the number of nations who possessed nuclear weapons. Women Strike for Peace lobbied government officials to “End the Arms Race—Not the Human Race.”

V. The Kennedy Era A. Domestic Policy After becoming president by a slim margin, John F. Kennedy continued many of the probusiness policies of Eisenhower, although he did support some issues of importance to the working class such as increasing the minimum wage. In his first two years, he tried to avoid division at home while waging the Cold War forcefully abroad. B. Foreign Policy Unlike previous presidents, Kennedy understood the legitimacy of national self-determination movements. He tried to support movements to end colonial rule but if a movement was thought too friendly to the Soviet Union, Kennedy would fight against it. The new president formed the Peace Corps and worked to establish the Organization of American States (OAS). In Vietnam, he followed Eisenhower and Truman in fighting against the National Liberation Front of Ho Chi Minh. Ever more hostile to Cuba’s new government, Kennedy continued covert operations even after the failed Bay of Pigs invasion and ordered the CIA to assassinate Fidel Castro. When the Berlin Wall was built to prevent East Germans from moving to the West, Kennedy promised to defend West Berlin. In 1962, the Cuban missile crisis took place when the Soviet Union sent nuclear missiles to Cuba to help defend Castro’s government. After a great deal of tension, Kennedy and Khrushchev resolved the crisis and the Soviets pulled their weapons out of 143

Cuba, in return for which the United States removed Jupiter missiles from Russia’s neighbor, Turkey. C. A Year of Turning Points In 1963, a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women documented widespread discrimination against women in many areas of American society. Kennedy ordered the federal government to hire “without regard to sex” and supported the passage of the Equal Pay Act. When Martin Luther King, Jr. led a peaceful march that was attacked by Birmingham police, Kennedy pressured Alabama officials to allow black students to attend the University of Alabama. Finally, Kennedy declared himself on the side of civil rights. A few months later, a quarter of a million people marched on Washington for civil rights and jobs. At the final rally, Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. Visiting Dallas in the fall, Kennedy hoped to mobilize support but was assassinated. Police arrested Lee Harvey Oswald, who claimed innocence but was killed before he could come to trial. Despite the official verdict of the commission appointed by President Lyndon Johnson that Oswald acted alone, many people then and now believe that Kennedy’s death was the result of a conspiracy.

Identification Explain the significance of each of the following: 1. American Road Builders’ Association:

2. Interstate Highway Act (1956):

3. Federal Housing Authority (FHA):

4. Shaker Heights, Ohio:

5. The Feminine Mystique:

6. Ebony magazine:

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7. Brown v. Board of Education (1954):

8. Emmett Till:

9. Martin Luther King, Jr.:

10. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE):

11. “Military-Industrial Complex”:

12. Sputnik:

13. U-2 spy plane:

14. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA):

15. Dr. Tom Dooley:

16. Patrice Lumumba:

17. Gamal Abdul Nasser:

18. James Dean:

19. Catcher in the Rye:

20. Hugh Hefner:

21. Women Strike for Peace (WSP): 145

22. Silent Spring:

23. “Viva Kennedy” clubs:

24. Peace Corps:

25. “Ich bin ein Berliner”:

Multiple Choice Questions: 1.

Between 1950 and 1970, the population of U.S. suburbs A. more than doubled. B. remained stable. C. grew, but at a slower rate than major cities. D. declined as population moved to the countryside. E. none of the above.

2.

Most American suburbs were known for all of the following EXCEPT A. increased ownership and use of the automobile. B. a high level of religious affiliation. C. single-family homes. D. an open attitude towards Americans of color. E. increased gender differences within a nuclear family.

3.

Urban renewal, although intended to revitalize cities, actually A. worsened conditions for urban poor. B. accelerated the decay of inner cities. C. enabled suburbanites to commute to the city. D. all of the above. E. none of the above

4.

Brown v. the Board of Education was notable for the Supreme Court ruling that A. schools may be separate but must be equal. B. Congress had no power to force integration on the state level. C. separate schools were inherently unequal. D. integration was unconstitutional. E. none of the above. 146

5.

The Montgomery bus boycott began in 1955 because A. African Americans were charged higher fares than white Americans. B. it was part of a Communist Party plan to cause social unrest. C. the city transit company discriminated against female bus drivers. D. African Americans demanded to ride for free. E. none of the above.

6.

The purpose of the 1961 Freedom Rides was to A. promote interracial marriage. B. challenge segregation at interstate travel facilities. C. support the Montgomery bus boycott. D. protest discrimination against Mexican Americans on passenger railroads. E. none of the above.

7.

President Eisenhower followed policies which were able to A. please conservatives because they were pro-business. B. placate liberals by extending some New Deal policies. C. appear middle-of-the-road. D. all of the above. E. none of the above.

8.

In 1957, when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, A. plans to reduce defense spending were derailed. B. the United States was still far ahead in the space race. C. Eisenhower’s popularity climbed 20 percent. D. the Eisenhower administration cut educational funding. E. all of the above.

9.

The Interstate Highway Act of 1956 was A. an attempt to expand the nation’s passenger railroad system. B. intended to limit highway expansion. C. a boon to the auto, trucking, oil, concrete and tire industries. D. vetoed by President Eisenhower as “too expensive for our economy.” E. none of the above.

10.

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) helped overthrow elected governments in A. Iran. B. Guatemala. C. Republic of the Congo. D. all of the above. E. none of the above. 147

11.

How best to describe sexual mores in the 1950s? A. rigid and widely violated B. more permissive than during World War II C. more liberal, as shown by more legal abortions D. more liberal in the South, more rigid in the North. E. none of the above

12.

Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring to warn against the A. threat of a Communist takeover. B. impact of chemicals on the environment. C. danger of ignoring the hearing impaired. D. dangers of sex outside marriage. E. possibility of a nuclear war.

13.

John F. Kennedy was elected president in 1960 A. by a slim margin. B. and became the first Roman Catholic president. C. as a Northern Democrat. D. with much African American support. E. all of the above.

14.

Which was the greatest foreign policy crisis of the Kennedy years? A. collapse of the Berlin Wall. B. war in Korea C. Cuban missile crisis D. triumph of Communists in China E. U-2 Spy plane incident.

15.

The 1963 March on Washington drew 250,000 people protesting for A. jobs as well as freedom. B. an end to the war in Vietnam. C. the release of Martin Luther King, Jr. from jail D. all of the above. E. none of the above.

MAP QUESTION: After looking at Map 25.2, evaluate the relative strengths of both sides in the Cold War. What type of nation seems most likely to be part of neither side?

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CONNECTING HISTORY Explain how and why anti-communism became such a prominent ideology in the United States. How did the Cold War move it into the mainstream? What interests profited from the acceptance of anti-communism by most Americans?

INTERPRETING HISTORY Silent Spring appeared in 1962. How have the events and discoveries since then proved or disproved Rachel Carson’s fears? Give examples.

Answers to Multiple Choice Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

A D D C E B D A C D A B E C A

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