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Carbon capture and storage

Carbon capture and storage

State of play, challenges and opportunities for the GCC countries Vijo Varkey Theeyattuparampil

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Siemens Oil and Gas, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Othman Adnan Zarzour Msheireb Properties, Doha, Qatar

Nikolaos Koukouzas The Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Athens, Greece

Georgeta Vidican German Development Institute, Bonn, Germany

Yasser Al-Saleh INSEAD, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, and

Ismini Katsimpardi The Centre for Research and Technology Hellas, Athens, Greece Abstract Purpose – The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have consistently ranked high in per capita carbon emissions, not to mention the fact that a lifestyle with a high ecological footprint in a fragile ecosystem can affect the regional environment, prosperity and social stability. The adoption of carbon capture and storage (CCS) in the GCC countries has been consistently gaining attention, as it is widely seen as a suitable mitigation measure, particularly in a region where heavy industry and geological exploitation have led to wealth and prosperity. Additionally, making captured CO2 available for enhanced oil recovery is expected to create significant economic value. However, the lack of a coordinated environmental regulation regime to cap future carbon emissions is posing significant risks for further CCS development. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – This paper reviews the state of play with regard to CCS in the GCC region and investigate the opportunities and challenges facing CCS development in the UAE by use of the interview technique. Findings – This paper finds that the lack of CCS-related regulations, absence of CCS policy at a national level and limited human capital resources are impeding the development of CCS in the UAE. Findings from this study can offer GCC policy-makers relevant insights into how best to develop CCS projects for the GCC region. Originality/value – This is an original research, that has not been conducted before. This is first of a kind assessment for the GCC region. Keywords Carbon capture and storage, Enhanced oil recovery, Innovations system, CO2 mitigation, Abu Dhabi, UAE, GCC, Carbon, United Arab Emirates Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries – including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Qatar – are some of world’s largest oil and gas

International Journal of Energy Sector Management Vol. 7 No. 2, 2013 pp. 223-242 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1750-6220 DOI 10.1108/IJESM-04-2013-0010

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Table I. Comparison of total emissions (CO2 million metric tons)

producers (BP, 2011) and have established themselves as major carbon emitters (Table I). Fast economic growth fueled by oil and gas revenues has led to an energy-intensive lifestyle that has resulted in high levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. As a result, the GCC countries are beginning to undertake steps and measures to reduce their carbon footprint (Flamos, 2013). Abu Dhabi is the largest and richest emirate in the UAE and has embarked on an ambitious sustainable growth agenda, and further committed itself to the development and deployment of low-carbon technologies. Alongside renewable and nuclear technologies, carbon capture and storage (CCS) has been getting considerable attention. The CCS process involves the capture of CO2 from stationary sources which is then transported via pipelines or ships for injection into suitable deep rock formations for long-term storage (Freund et al., 2005). Alternatively, the captured CO2 can be used to enhance oil production, thereby replacing existing natural gas and water injection techniques. Given the potential opportunity to sustain future oil production and lower carbon emissions from point sources, CCS is seen as an attractive option for both the UAE and the wider GCC region (Al-Saleh et al., 2012). In the UAE, it is estimated that employing CO2-enhanced oil recovery (EOR) can help replace a substantial portion of the natural gas currently used in oil production operations. Al-Yafei (2011) indicates that about 40 per cent of total production (which is 5 billion cubic feet per day) can be freed and be utilised for power generation. When examining prospects for the successful emergence of new industrial clusters (in this case CCS), scholars focus on addressing “systemic failures” to arrive at suitable policy actions (Al-Saleh, 2010). The OECD (1998) defines systemic failures as “mismatches between the components of an innovation system”. Systemic failures could include institutional and regulatory deficiencies which can lead to suboptimal investment in knowledge creation and other innovative activities (Cruysen and Hollanders, 2008). Therefore, to assess the performance of the UAE’s emerging CCS sector, identifying systemic failures can help identify any barriers and opportunities facing the CCS development in Abu Dhabi. As a useful outcome, policy-makers in the UAE (and the other GCC countries) could benefit from a better understanding of the baseline conditions and successfully strategize and steer the development of CCS. The paper is organised as follows: the next section provides information on the current energy status in the GCC region. Sections 3-5 provide a summary of the key issues from literature that has influenced CCS development worldwide. Section 6 details the process of data collection and in Section 7, we discuss the research findings. Finally, in Section 8, the potential policy recommendation emerging from this are outlined as is the scope for future research stemming from this study.

Ranking at worldwide level

Country

3rd 5th 7th 13th 14th

UAE Bahrain Kuwait Saudi Arabia Oman

Source: Qader (2008)

Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), metric tons of CO2 per capita 34.6 29.0 26.3 17.2 16.4

2. The energy status in GCC countries Globally, the driving force behind research and development activities in CCS technologies as a carbon mitigation solution has been the intense exploitation of coal reserves. The GCC countries have low coal reserves (Cooper and Alley, 2002). Even so, the application of CCS for sustainable exploitation of oil and gas reserves through CO2 storage and EOR has led to continued interest in the region. Energy production in the GCC countries is almost entirely based on oil and gas. Demand for electricity in these countries has increased three times the global average over the last few years MEED (2008) and a number of reasons have been identified for this anomalous behavior. The main reasons are due to higher than average economic growth rates led by policies that have encouraged large-scale development projects, both in the domestic service and infrastructure sectors. Additionally, the geo-climatic conditions have had a major impact on the rise of electricity demand and consumption patterns. In 2008, each person in the GCC countries consumed on average 9.650 TWh of electricity against a global average of 2.782 TWh, while the Middle East average was estimated to be 3.384 TWh (Deloitte, 2011). This consumption pattern has been mainly driven by residential use, i.e. this commands 47 per cent of the energy consumption in the Middle East as compared to a global average of 25 per cent. Energy demands in the GCC countries are set to rise in subsequent years and governmental policy of providing electricity at below market-price rates has encouraged increased electricity consumption. At present, Kuwait and Qatar offer electricity for free to their citizens, while in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Oman they pay relatively lower prices for electricity (Raouf, 2008). The future demand for electricity in the GCC is anticipated to be some 80 per cent higher in 2015 than at 2009 levels (Qader, 2009). In the UAE, electricity capacity has increased by 60 per cent and Abu Dhabi’s electricity demand is expected to double during the period between 2008 and 2013. Meanwhile, Dubai is also expected to see an increase in potential demand as growth per year rises to 12-14 per cent. Dubai’s electricity capacity is expected to triple in size to 16,000 MW while desalination of water is expected to increase to 800 million gallons/day by 2015 (MEED, 2008). Hence, CO2 emissions resulting from the UAE are also expected to rise rapidly. With rising energy demand forecasted for the GCC countries, CO2 emissions are expected to rise proportionally. For example, when comparing other fast developing countries with the GCC countries, the latter are found to be high CO2 emitters. Malaysia and Singapore are developing countries with similar economic growth levels when compared to Saudi Arabia and the UAE. However, both Saudi Arabia and UAE have shown sharper levels of increase in CO2 emissions even though they have populations comparable to that of Malaysia and Singapore (Qader, 2009). While Malaysia showed a decline in its emissions after 2004, Saudi Arabia has shown a sharp increase. Figure 1 lists the CO2 emissions for the four countries. It can be seen that CO2 emissions are set to rapidly rise in the GCC countries in the next few years. With the exception of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (who have mostly relied on crude oil for power generation), the GCC countries are entirely dependent on natural gas. The carbon intensity of natural gas-based power is approximately 60 per cent lower than that of coal-based power, while crude and other petroleum products have a higher carbon intensity (which is still 30-40 per cent lower than that of coal-based power generation plants) (Qader, 2009). Furthermore, natural gas accounts for more than

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226

450.00

350.00

KSA

300.00

UAE

250.00

Singapore

200.00

Malaysia

150.00 100.00 50.00

Figure 1. CO2 emissions (tonnes) per capita

0.00 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Year

Source: US Department of Energy (2008)

55 per cent of power generation in the GCC region, with the rest being dependent on petroleum products (Table II). All in all, the GCC countries emit considerable amounts of CO2 by burning fossil-fuels for the energy sector which includes both the energy extraction and energy conversion sectors. The forecast for electricity demand in the GCC region by 2015 shows an 80 per cent increase with respect to the currently installed generator base (Qader, 2009), which will create both opportunities and challenges for the development and deployment of CCS-based EOR to promote cleaner approaches to power generation. 3. Environmental impact Oil and gas revenues in the GCC countries have led to fast development and the rise of the GCC countries on a global level. Yet, the World Economic Forum predicts that the GCC countries will be among those most affected by climate change (Elasha, 2010). Environmental challenges like desertification, biodiversity loss, pollution in marine and coastal areas, scarce water resources and arable land, as well as rising air pollution and an increased likelihood of flooding of coastal areas are the likely consequences of

Table II. Cumulative GCC power generation by fuel types in GCC countries (in million tons of oil equivalent)

Oil Natural gas Coal Nuclear energy Hydro-electricity Total Source: BP (2011)

Mtoe Mtoe Mtoe Mtoe Mtoe Mtoe

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

– – – – – 357.3

– – – – – 371

208.8 171.3 8.1 0 1.2 389.2

223.6 188.6 8.1 0 1.2 421.5

247.7 187.4 0 0 0.7 435.7

263.1 200.9 0 0 0.9 464.8

climate change for the GCC countries. Additionally, harsh weather conditions, energy intensive living conditions and the presence of a heavy duty industrial base that primarily serves petrochemical products for the rest of the world have driven CO2 emissions to new levels. The ecological footprint can be a good indicator to understand the severity of these problems. Presently, the UAE is ranked as the highest contributor of per capita carbon emissions on the planet. Compared to the world average total ecological footprint (TEF) of 1.8 global ha/person, the TEF for the UAE has been recorded as 11.0 global ha/person (WWF, 2010). Both Qatar and Kuwait are also major contributors to the global carbon footprint. The economic impact in the Gulf countries can also be severe, as the region thrives mainly on oil and gas revenues (Flamos et al., 2013). If the world was to gradually shift towards low-carbon energy solutions, this would have huge economic implications on the Gulf region. This statement strengthens the view that the development and deployment of CCS in the GCC countries can help them to contribute to their own long-term economic situation and make oil production more sustainable. The GCC countries have a major responsibility to lower their CO2 emissions and seek ways to diversify their energy mix while adopting carbon abatement technologies. As such, there is a direct need to incorporate CCS development into environmental legislation for the GCC countries, as an abundance of long-term fossil reserves with low carbon intensity cannot be ignored when assessing CCS policy drivers for the region. Furthermore, only recently some GCC countries have tentatively began adopting targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as a result of the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol (Alnaser and Alnaser, 2011; Doukas et al., 2006). They are heavily dependent on fossil-fuel production and commerce, to such an extent that they are vulnerable to potential economic implications stemming from any climate-change response measures (such as climate change threats and opportunities). 4. Cost of CO2 avoided Mitigating CO2 emissions is the main reason for undertaking CCS investment. Hence, an appropriate metric to compare technologies is the cost of avoiding CO2. The cost of CO2 avoided identifies the cost of reducing emissions through the displacement of unabated fossil-fuel production. This is expressed in dollars per ton of CO2. However, the main concern in separating CO2 from emission sources and involving the transportation of CO2 to the storage site has been the cost. The cost of such operation at an early commercial stage has been estimated to be around 35-50e per metric ton of CO2 (McKinsey, 2008) meaning that the total project cost could amount to millions of Euros. The degree of CO2 emission reduction to the atmosphere depends on the type of fossil fuels plant displaced or retired as a result of investment in low-carbon technology (Global CCS Institute, 2009). A detailed estimation of the cost of CO2 avoided requires information on the CO2 emission intensity of the plants under evaluation, as well as their levelised costs. Efficiently managing the risks of climate change implies that the marginal cost of abatement incurred in each sector of the economy is the same. If the cost of abating an additional ton of CO2 differs across economic activities or inputs, savings to reach particular emissions reduction target could be achieved by increasing abatement in the lower cost activity and reducing abatement in the more expensive activity. For CCS technologies, the level of avoided emissions is less than 100 per cent because both capture and storage consume additional energy. Unlike the abatement cost

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calculations for intermittent technologies, this less than 100 per cent capture of CO2 by CCS technologies is explicitly accounted for in cost calculations for these technologies. Compared to the cost estimates for first-of-a-kind CCS plants, mature technologies – such as onshore wind power and nuclear – have lower costs for mitigating emissions but are limited in availability due to resource constraints or challenges with managing radioactive waste, respectively. Thus, CCS application in coal or gas fired power plants can be an opportunity to take into account the number and carbon intensity of these plants worldwide. Combining CCS with EOR can provide additional benefits by further reducing the cost of oil produced (Global CCS Institute, 2009). There is also general agreement that the cost of addressing climate change will be lower if CCS is included in the suite of mitigation strategies. If CCS is not included in the mix, then other potentially more expensive technologies will have to be utilised to reduce CO2 emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that in the long term, including CCS in the range of mitigation strategies will reduce the cost of stabilising CO2 by more than 30 per cent (IPCC, 2007). While there is no real consensus about the costs of the separate components of CCS, it is widely anticipated that those costs will decrease over time (Rubin et al., 2006). Capture costs, currently by far the most expensive component of the CCS process (Al-Saleh et al., 2012), will experience the greatest decrease as the technology matures. The costs of transport and storage are less likely to fall dramatically because of the maturity of these technologies. One way to offset these costs would be through emissions trading, which allows other industrialised countries to comply with their carbon reduction obligations under the Kyoto protocol. The adoption of an emission trading mechanism would provide to the GCC countries a triple advantage, in terms of economic, environmental and technological additionality (Raouf, 2008). Gulf countries are also studying the cost benefits of utilising captured CO2 for EOR, which would bring in new revenues to help offset the costs of CCS. 5. Legislation and regulation In the GCC countries, state-owned oil companies dominate oil and gas production and, to a large extent, the refining and petrochemical industries. Typically, these companies possess know-how and technical capabilities that exceed those of the state regulators. Oil companies in the GCC countries generally comply with the highest industry performance standards relating to risk management and quality health, safety and environment matters which are related to their operation and development activities. Accordingly, the state-owned companies are to a large extent self-regulated on the matters that represent some of the most challenging regulatory aspects for the CCS value-chain worldwide. However, the nature and role of public acceptance in the development of legislation and regulation in the GCC is different, when compared with European countries. For example, in the GCC, levels of public awareness and positivity towards key CCS processes such as pipeline transportation of high pressure CO2 and CO2 injection and storage, may be assumed to be more favourable than those in the European countries. This is mainly attributable to public confidence in the safety and robustness of existing similar practices in the oil and gas industry, such as high pressure natural gas transportation and acid gas injection. Hence, we see that the drive for the GCC countries towards developing CCS projects has been largely attributed to the viable business case that can arise from

implementing CO2-EOR and the ability of sustaining oil production by use of otherwise wasted CO2. In doing so, CO2 obtained from industrial sources is utilised as a useful commodity and this supports CO2 emission reduction to the atmosphere. In terms of capturing relevant insights into CCS development in Abu Dhabi, below we detail the methodology and data obtained describing recent CCS developments there. 6. Methodology Given the lack of literature with regard to CCS application in the GCC region, it was deemed to be more appropriate to adopt “inductive” reasoning as opposed to a “deductive” approach. Whilst the latter is mainly concerned with testing hypotheses, the former supports an open-ended explorative type of investigation. Additionally, this research paper takes the form of a case study (i.e. the case of the GCC region). This research methodology is suitable for investigating explorative research questions related to the “how?”, as well as the “why?” and the “what?” Furthermore, a case study seems appropriate in instances where the researcher has no control over events and is not able to manipulate relevant behaviour (Ragin and Becker, 1992; Yin, 2003). As is the case with almost all research techniques, however, a case study approach has certain limitations. Among the usual criticisms levied against case studies is a perceived lack of generalisation (Stake, 1995). Although this article presents an original approach to understanding how CCS industries could be established from the perspective of the GCC countries, it is likely it will fall short of claiming that the findings can be readily replicated in all oil-producing countries. Nonetheless, drawing from the context of innovation studies, Robertson et al. (2009) argue that while the representative nature of a case study cannot be guaranteed, there is also no reason to believe that most experiences are accurately reflected by averages derived from statistical findings. Data to assess the CCS project in the UAE has been collected primarily through semi-structured interviews and the rather limited secondary resources on the subject including professional journals and policy reports. Cooper and Schindler (2001) suggest that when an exploratory study is conducted, in-depth interviews are likely to be included in the research approach. Semi-structured interviews were opted for because they ensure a focused approach whilst offering more flexibility in allowing one to modify the questions in order to explore new ideas raised by interviewees who come from different backgrounds. In essence, a judgmental sampling strategy (i.e. non-probability sampling) was used. This sampling strategy is usually used for qualitatively based explorative studies, especially when there are a limited number of people involved in the area being researched (Saunders et al., 2007). Between November 2010 and January 2011, a total of 12 interviews were conducted with CCS professionals and policy-makers in the UAE (Table III) for the purposes of the current research.

Organization Government agencies Research institutes/universities Private firms Off-takers Total

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No. of interviews 3 3 2 4 12

Table III. Split of interviews conducted across various sectors

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The interview questions were generated after a thorough background study on the emerging CCS developments in the UAE, supported by cross-consultation with stakeholders working across the policy, financial and technical spectrums in the CCS domain. During the interview process, the interviewees were asked a series of open-ended questions under the following main themes: key stakeholders and their respective roles in executing the UAE’s CCS agenda; existing policy measures and the process of decision-making driving and impeding these plans; technical and economic constraints’ facing the development of CCS in the UAE. To ensure that relevant questions were included, two pilot interviews were carried out, after which the interview protocol was revised and finalised. The interviews were then transcribed and the collected data was systematically classified as per systems of innovation-based framework that has recently been put forward in innovation studies literature (Al-Saleh, 2010; Malerba, 2004). This framework stipulates that there are five structural components that are considered as being both important and relevant when evaluating the prospects for an emerging innovation system. These components are stakeholders (i.e. actors), institutions, networks, knowledge and technologies. 7. CCS in the UAE In this section, we detail key data obtained from the interviewees categorized as stakeholders, institution, network, knowledge or technologies. 7.1 Stakeholders Stakeholders are said to include firms and organisations that are involved in the production and sale of products along with the generation, adoption and use of new technologies (Malerba, 2004). Firms can consist of users and suppliers that could affect the innovation and productivity of a given sector. Relevant non-firm actors include universities, financial organisations, government agencies and local authorities that have an influence over the activities of the sector under consideration. In the UAE, the stakeholders participating in the CCS project implementation are government agencies and private companies, research institutes and universities, CO2 emitters and oil and gas operating companies (Table IV). The government has the highest authority with regard to decision-making. Masdar is a public joint-stock company whose sole stakeholder is the Government of Abu Dhabi through the Mubadala Development Company. Masdar focuses on long-term, capital-intensive projects for the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in the area of renewable and alternativee energy technologies, as part of the Emirates’ aim to diversify its energy portfolio. Masdar is comprised of five business units which include Masdar Capital, Masdar City, Masdar Carbon, the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology and Masdar Power. The main role of Masdar Carbon is to develop flagship carbon reduction projects. CO2-EOR projects have been identified as one of the important strategic programmes launched by Abu Dhabi, leading to a reduction in its carbon footprint (Nader, 2009). Their role includes coordinating with other stakeholders in matters related to the technical, policy and business development of CCS. For instance, Masdar Carbon has joined a variety of local and international partners, including the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) and its group of companies (the off-takers, in CCS terminology) and local industrial and power generation facilities (the emitters) to match CO2 supplied from sources (e.g. industries)

Category

Organisations/firms

Governmental agencies

Government of Abu Dhabi SPC DED Environmental Agency-Abu Dhabi The executive affairs authority ADWEA Mubadala Masdar Carbon Management Unit Masdar Institute of Science and Technology Petroleum Institute UAE University University of Oslo Norway Institute of Air Research US Department of Energy MIT Herriot Watt-University Rice University Stanford University University of Texas at Austin National Energy and Water Research Center Siemens Statoil Praxair Industrial Gases LLC Mustang Engineering J C Penny Emirates Steel Industries Taweelah Asia Power Company Emirates aluminum HPAD ADNOC Takreer refinery ADCO Abu Dhabi Gas Industries Ltd Habshan oil field

Research institutes/universities

Private firms

CO2 emitters

Oil and gas operating companies Off-takers

Source: Semi-structured interviews with stakeholders involved in the emerging CCS sector in the UAE

with sinks (e.g. oilfields). “Off-takers” here refer to the end-users of CO2 in the CCS value chain who are responsible for injecting it into oilfields with the intention of enhancing oil production through EOR. It is essential that trace contaminants like water be removed in order to transport and inject pure CO2 because water can corrode pipeline transportation systems and lower the miscibility of CO2 with oil. The first CCS project under Masdar is expected to capture 870,000 tons of CO2/day from the Emirates Steel Industry (ESI) – located in the emirate of Abu Dhabi – by 2015. A 500 km pipeline network has also been designed with a total capacity of 20 million tons of carbon per annum, of which 50 km will be realised in the first phase. Other emitters that Masdar is targeting for carbon capture are the Emirates Aluminum plant as well as a planned hydrogen power plant currently being developed in cooperation with BP.

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Table IV. Current stakeholders in the development of CCS sector

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The hydrogen power project is a joint venture between the UAE’s low-carbon energy initiative Masdar and BP. The plant will gasify natural gas with air or pure O2 to produce syngas which is then separated into CO2 and hydrogen. The hydrogen is to fire a 500 MW power plant, while the CO2 can be injected into oilfields. The plant itself would consume around 100 MW leaving 400 MW to be sold to the UAE’s power grid. The injection of the gas under an oilfield would simultaneously store the greenhouse gas and help boost oil output by maintaining underground pressure. This project will be the first of its type-separating CO2 before combustion, producing power with low carbon emissions, and capturing carbon. It is planned that about 1.7 million tons of CO2 will be captured per year. Table V lists the sources planned to be part of the CCS project in Abu Dhabi which include the steel facility (located at Mussafah in Abu Dhabi) called the ESI, an aluminum smelter called Emirates Aluminum and a power-generation facility, the Taweelah Asia Power Company. “Hydrogen Power Abu Dhabi” (HPAD) is yet to receive sufficient governmental support in order to be deployed. Therefore, the technology type application that will be adopted at HPAD is yet to be finalised. ADNOC, through its subsidiary Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore oil operations (ADCO), is responsible for acquiring the CO2 from Masdar Carbon and injecting it into mature oil reservoirs for EOR operations. The role of ADCO in CO2-EOR is to address the key technical risks and business uncertainties associated with CO2 injection into onshore oil reservoirs. Our research findings indicate that in the early developmental stages of CCS in Abu Dhabi, the Government of Abu Dhabi through the Supreme Petroleum Council (SPC) is the entity responsible for executing critical decisions involving the CO2-EOR pilot-project. The SPC is a government entity that has the highest authority in matters related to petroleum affairs for the emirate of Abu Dhabi. The Department of Economic Development (DED) is a governmental agency leading Abu Dhabi’s economic agenda towards a balanced, diversified and sustainable knowledge-based economy. This agency is responsible for setting up strategic partnerships with foreign governments for furthering CCS related activities, such as knowledge-transfer, in CCS. The Environmental Agency Abu Dhabi is a governmental agency committed to protecting and managing biodiversity and providing a clean environment. The agency has set rules and regulations for safeguarding the environment, whilst also setting up rules and regulations that need to be adhered to when setting up CCS facilities. Furthermore, the National Energy and Water Research Centre (NEWRC) is leading the

Emitter plant

Table V. Sites from where CO2 will be captured during Phase 1 of the CCS project

Type

Volume (MMcfd CO2/year) Technology

Taweela Asia Power Boiler-based generation Company ESI Iron Reduction plant

38

Emirates Aluminum

132

HPAD

Combined cycle gas turbinesbased power Yet to receive governmental approval

Source: Al-Lamki (2010); Nader (2009); Salma et al. (2010)

90

90

Post combustion chemical absorption No CO2 capture required. Dehydration Post combustion chemical absorption Pre-Combustion

Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority’s (ADWEA) efforts to secure energy and water for the future through research, development and deployment programmes. Its primary research focus is on renewable energy, water innovative technologies and water efficiency. Discussions between NEWRC and ADWEA include capture of CO2 from ADWEA facilities aimed at reducing CO2 emissions from ADWEA’s facilities. As part of the ADNOC group of companies, the Takreer Refinery and Abu Dhabi Gas Industries Ltd (GASCO) are involved in employing carbon reduction techniques. The Takreer refinery aims to capture previously flared gas streams at the Ruwais refinery and compress the collected gas, which is then sent to fuel-gas systems in oil reservoirs to partially replace natural gas. Similarly, GASCO aims to recover previously flared waste gases generated from the gas processing complex at Habshan oilfield and generate CO2 for the partial replacement of natural gas for oil production. In order to develop a strong research base and encourage infrastructural development, multiple organisations and universities (both national and international) are engaged in the advancement of CCS in the UAE. This is considered to be a promising development since at the core of an innovation system are research universities and laboratories for generating knowledge, technologies and industry standards. At present the Masdar Institute, established in 2007 in collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), focuses on providing independent research-driven graduate programmes to develop human talent to advance the local clean energy industry. Furthermore, the Masdar Institute is seen as the research arm of Masdar carbon and is currently involved with several CCS-based research projects. International collaborations to deepen local oil and gas industry knowledge in conducting EOR and CO2 sequestration have led to research partnerships involving the Petroleum Institute (in Abu Dhabi), the University of Oslo, Stanford University and the University of Texas at Austin. In addition, the US Department of Energy has forged a strategic partnership with Masdar Carbon to facilitate and encourage knowledge transfer in CCS. Amongst the private organisations, Siemens, Statoil and the Norway Institute of Air Research have launced a partnership with Masdar to delve into technical research investigating methods of mitigating risks and uncertainties associated with CO2 capture technologies when deployed in the local environment. Praxair Industrial Gases LLC supplies CO2 for the current pilot project carried out at Bab’s Rumaitha field in Abu Dhabi. Mustang Engineering and JC Penny were awarded the Front-End Engineering and Design contracts for the pipeline network and CCS facilities in Abu Dhabi, respectively. 7.2 Institutions At the outset, the role of the government in setting standards, granting funds, and leading industry coordination efforts is critical for the emergence of a sector. Edquist and Johnson (1997) explain that institutions are rules and norms that regulate the interaction between actors, as well as the behaviour and value base of various segments in a society. Globally, CCS regulatory frameworks are at a formative stage. The interviewees expressed the view that favourable CCS regulations and financial mechanisms should be developed to govern CCS activities in Abu Dhabi. This can encourage the increased participation of current and future stakeholders in CCS developments in Abu Dhabi.

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In fact, although CCS activities in Abu Dhabi are at an early stage, some of the interviewees suggested that the absence of a regulatory framework questions the position of the government with regard to expanding future CCS activities in Abu Dhabi. The CO2-EOR pilot project conducted at the Rumaitha oilfield was the first of its kind in the Middle East. The pilot-study is undergoing the testing and reliability phase and is governed by existing oil and gas industry regulations. However, ownership and liability of the injected CO2 in the long-run, as well as the long-term monitoring costs of the injected CO2, are some of the key regulatory aspects that the Abu Dhabi Government is yet to address. By passing the long-term liability of injected CO2 to investors or to the oil and gas industry, it can potentially discourage them from pursuing short-term EOR projects. Issues such as long-term ownership of CO2 can be risky and safety can be a concern. Hence, a favourable regulatory framework will require careful balancing of short-term CO2 injection plans by the oil and gas companies with the risks associated with their long-term responsibility for the injected CO2 and reservoir property rights. The interviewees suggest that due to the nature of the governmental structure in Abu Dhabi, public opinion does not influence decision making for oil and gas industry projects. It was suggested that the undertaking would be considered as essentially “[. . .] another oil and gas project” that is not influenced by public perception. From a broader context, ADCO has developed an EOR project roadmap detailing the procedures and protocols that are to be followed for conducting CO2-EOR activity. The roadmap illustrates the technical screening studies, laboratory fluid and rock core studies and computer simulation studies that have to be followed while conducting CO2-EOR. The development of this roadmap has encouraged other operating companies of ADNOC to launch similar CO2-EOR activities. Furthermore, ADCO has launched a Vision 20/20 strategy whereby maximizing oil recovery with minimum costs is a key priority for conducting future operations (ADCO, 2012). 7.3 Networks Networks are said to constitute important channels for interaction and cooperation between actors and the transfer of both tacit and explicit knowledge. Carlsson and Stankiewicz (1991) defines network as “an exchange of information”. Masdar Carbon, currently taking the lead in the deployment of CCS-based activities for Abu Dhabi, has made substantial progress in forging partnerships with both local and international stakeholders in order to reduce the infrastructure gridlock and CCS-based knowledge-gaps. Starting from 2006, CO2 emitters and CO2 off-takers collaborated to address challenges across multiple facets of the CO2-EOR project. A number of interviewees supported the need for research institutions and universities to play a vital role in bringing together best practices and guidelines for developing CCS related regulations and reducing technical knowledge-gaps with regard to CCS. Additionally, Masdar Carbon is a member of the Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute, established to share expertise amongst its member participants and ensure that CCS sectors in different parts of the world benefit from each other’s knowledge and expertise. Furthermore, Abu Dhabi is the host of the World Future Energy Summit (WFES), which targets policy-makers, business investors and technology experts in various clean energy sectors. Since its inception in 2008, WFES has had CCS as one of its key focus areas and has become a platform to discuss issues that relate to the latest developments in terms of low-carbon related technology, business and policy.

7.4 Knowledge According to Malerba (2005), knowledge can affect the type of learning and capabilities of actors and supports them in attaining a competitive position. It can directly influence the rate and direction of technological change, production activities and performance of firms. The interviews suggest that there is a severe lack of a CCS related knowledge-base in both the UAE and the wider Middle East. The CO2-EOR activity mechanism brings forth new sets of challenges for firms to find the right talent and human capital who can work towards this development. Attracting and retaining well-qualified engineers in the UAE has also been a challenge. As one interviewee points out: [. . .] if you want to bring experts here, they have to be paid well. They have to be provided with good conditions otherwise people won’t leave their country, and come here [. . .] they have to be provided with good package so they can bring their good minds to this country.

Currently several research-oriented collaborations have been developed, which we briefly mention in Section 7.1. Masdar Carbon, Masdar Institute and Siemens have set-up a research partnership aimed at establishing a long-term strategic collaboration for developing CCS technologies. The activities are oriented towards optimising technical performance and economic feasibility for post-combustion capture technology appropriate for industrial facilities in Abu Dhabi. A separate MOU signed with Canada and the UK has been facilitated by the DED and has strengthened knowledge development and sharing between Masdar Carbon and its stakeholders. At the same time, MIT, MI and the Petroleum Institute have engaged in joint research programmes addressing various CCS challenges. These research collaborations have been conducted to address two primary factors: technical issues related to the CCS project and human capital development. One interviewee argues that “[. . .] the Government is doing the right thing by trying to partner with the best out there [. . .] the best in the world and bringing the knowledge”. In undertaking such initiatives, Abu Dhabi aims to identify and develop a young pool of local talent and encourage their engagement in developing CCS. Furthermore, local institutions like the Petroleum Institute have begun setting-up CCS related university-industry relations to advance technological knowledge among local students. The interviewees suggest that such research-driven programmes will help to support the local energy industry and additionally play a vital role in addressing the demand for human capital. Additionally, the interviewees have been encouraged by the various workshops, seminars and conferences held in the UAE and indicate that these are positive factors that have encouraged knowledge sharing in CCS between local and international stakeholders. Finally, ADNOC, ADCO, Petroleum Institute, Rice University and the University of Texas in Austin, have been jointly collaborating to conduct research in the area of CO2-EOR. Agreements between ADCO, Petroleum Institute, Masdar Institute, Masdar Carbon, MIT and Stanford University have been signed with the aim of addressing the long-term storage disposal of CO2 in the UAE. Table VI provides a summary of the current research and development projects led by various research institutions for CO2-EOR and CO2 storage disposal.

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CO2 disposal

Table VI. Current research and development projects for CO2-EOR and CO2 storage disposal

Projects

Fundamentals understanding of CO2/rock and fluid interaction Sweep efficiency, recovery factor, injectivity and asphaltene deposition Surfactants and mobility control EOR-CO2 simulation modelling

1. Herriot Watt University: carbonated water injection (CWI, Phase 2) 2. Rice University-Mobility control for CO2-EOR in heterogeneous, high temperature, high salinity, carbonate reservoirs 3. Rice University: modeling asphaltene phase behavior and deposition in crude oil systems 4. UAE University: evaluation of mobilization efficiency, in improved oil recovery (IOR)/EOR floods for carbonate reservoirs 5. University of Texas at Austin: EOR by CO2 injection CO2 capture, transportation and purity 1. Petroleum Institute: assessment of Site characterization of permanent disposal potential and options for large-scale, Integrity long-term geological CO2 storage in Comprehensive monitoring program Abu Dhabi Capacity estimate and risk assessment 2. MIT: integrated science and Modelling of CO2 sequestration implementation of geological storage of Energy policy CO2 in Abu Dhabi 3. Stanford University: large-scale modelling of the physical process associated with sub-surface CO2 sequestration

Source: Salma et al. (2010)

7.5 Technologies The successful introduction of a new technology can allow a firm to gain a substantial leap in its relative competitiveness and may eliminate less successful innovators from the market. With the development of an industry and eventual maturing of a technology, the competitive process of a technology can depend on economies of scale, learning curves, barriers to entry and availability of financial resources (Malerba, 2004; Flamos and Begg, 2010). Based on the definition of Technology Readiness Level (TRL), in order for a technology to reach a stage of commercialization, TRL-9 has to be achieved (Table VII). The technical challenges involved in the CO2-EOR pilot project need to be overcome before commencing commercial scale development of CO2-EOR. The interviewees explained that the relevance of such a technical study is required so that the risks and uncertainties associated with CO2 miscibility with oil can be minimised. Furthermore, the interviewees pointed out two outstanding challenges that are paramount for CCS developments in the UAE. They include: (1) determining a suitable CO2 capture process that is tolerant to the extreme temperature conditions in Abu Dhabi; and (2) a thorough examination of oilfield behaviour with CO2 which needs to be well-understood.

Readiness level

Description

TRL-9 TRL-8 TRL-7 TRL-6 TRL-5 TRL-4 TRL-3 TRL-2 TRL-1

Full-scale commercial deployment Sub-scale commercial demonstration plant (.25 per cent commercial-scale) Pilot plant (.5 per cent commercial-scale) Process development unit (0.1-5 per cent of full-scale) Component validation in relevant environment Laboratory component testing Analytical, “Proof of Concept” Application formulated Basic principles observed

Source: Global CCS Institute (2011)

With this being the first CO2-EOR project in the Middle East, the challenges facing the technology companies and the National Oil Company are all a first, as little or no research has been conducted about CO2-EOR capability in the GCC region. In Abu Dhabi for the capture of CO2 from ESI, the CO2 obtained is in a pure form. Therefore, no CO2 capture facility is required at ESI. Parallel to this phase, Siemens is involved in a separate research and development activity to develop proprietary amino acids solvents that would both work and tolerate Abu Dhabi’s extreme temperature conditions. Other technology related research areas that are being investigated by Siemens also include: . determining the specification of the CO2 stream for pipeline transport, geological storage and EOR in Abu Dhabi; . evaluating the CO2 purification process for obtaining the required CO2 stream from post-capture processes; and . assessment of local regulations to incorporate and adopt measures for re-use, re-cycling and disposal of solid and liquid waste streams from post-capture solvent reclaiming systems. Some of the important challenges met by CO2 capture are also being investigated by the stakeholders. The use of amine solvents at CO2 capture facilities can lead to the release of amine degraded products to the atmosphere. This poses risks to human health and the natural environment. In order to enhance the study of amine-based degradation, a joint research collaboration involving the University of Oslo, the Norwegian-based oil company Statoil and the Norway Institute of Air Research and Masdar Carbon has been formed. This project, called the Atmospheric Degradation of Amines, commenced operations in 2009. The study investigates the atmospheric fate of aminoethanol, a by-product of CO2 capture. The success of the Atmospheric Degradation of Amines-2009 study led Masdar Carbon to extend further research funding in 2010 and support the continued investigation of amine impact on the environment and human health. At present, only a limited study has been conducted about amines emissions and their impact on the environment (Nielsen et al., 2010). The study is currently under TRL-5, indicating component validation in relevant environment.

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8. Conclusions Our analysis has helped us to identify two key areas of improvement for promoting CCS development in the GCC region. The recommendations provided below are tailored towards developing a healthy CCS industry for the UAE but they can also be further exploited if suitably adjusted in the other GCC countries. They include establishment of policy and regulatory support for the CCS industry and a scale-up of efforts to build a robust knowledge base focused towards CCS. Below we provide a brief description for the two recommendations: (1) A regulatory and policy framework to govern CCS activities: the two most important regulatory works that deserve the most attention are: . A comprehensive energy policy that details how CCS can support carbon emissions plans for the UAE; and . The need for realistic and factual assessments for EOR opportunities that takes into consideration all complexities surrounding CO2 storage and CO2-EOR application in Abu Dhabi. We suggest that CCS is part of a comprehensive carbon abatement approach in the UAE and should not be looked at in isolation. At the same time, the specific CCS policy when introduced may not be the optimum approach to encouraging long-term development of the CCS industry, but should instead be looked at as a key carbon abatement strategy along with other low-carbon technologies. (2) CCS is a relatively new field involving advanced engineering processes and techniques. As a fast emerging option for carbon mitigation solutions, development can be stalled by a shortage of expertise and human capital to support that development. In order to avoid these bottlenecks during the project execution and implementation phase, we recommend graduate programmes and vocational training courses to be imparted to graduate schools students with a technical and a commercial focus towards CCS, CO2-EOR and CO2 storage. Additionally, experimental facilities should be built to encourage technology innovations. Taking also into consideration that the European Union (EU) has a well-founded interest to cooperate with the GCC countries in addressing clean energy issues (Doukas et al., 2010; Flamos et al., 2010), CCS development in GCC countries could be also facilitated from the operation of the EU GGC Clean Energy Network (www.eugcc-cleanergy.net). The Network can act as a catalyst and a coordinator for EU-GCC energy cooperation on different levels to support the understanding on how CCS industries could be established from the perspective of the GCC countries. We suggest any future research should place its focus towards an in-depth assessment of the barriers and challenges facing CCS development in other oil-rich GCC countries. This would allow understanding of the local challenges facing the CCS sector and help policy-makers to promote CO2-EOR at a quicker pace. If successful, this can help support the regional oil and gas industry to adopt sustainable operations for oil production by implementing CO2-EOR. Another area of research that could be focused on is specific regulatory policies across the CCS value-chain involving CO2-EOR. This is particularly important since, participating stakeholders require a concrete understanding of the risks and uncertainties that are entailed in CO2 transportation, injection and storage.

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OECD (1998), The OECD Jobs Strategy: Technology, Productivity and Job Creation: Best Policy Practices, OECD, Paris. Qader, M.R. (2009), “Electricity consumption and GHG emissions in GCC countries”, Energies, Vol. 2, pp. 1201-1213. Ragin, C.C. and Becker, H.S. (1992), What is a Case? Exploring the Foundations of Social Enquiry, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Raouf, M.A. (2008), Climate Change Threats, Opportunities, and the GCC Countries, available at: www.mei.edu/Portals/0/Publications/CLIMATE-CHANGE-THREATS-OPPORTUNITIESGCC-COUNTRIES.pdf (accessed 25 December 2011). Robertson, P., Smith, K. and Tunzelmann, N. (2009), “Innovation in low- and medium-technology industries”, Research Policy, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 441-446. Rubin, E.S., Yeh, S., Antes, M.K., Berkenpas, M.B. and Davison, J. (2006), “Estimating future costs of CO2 capture systems using historical experience curves”, Proceedings of GHGT-8, Int’l. Conf. on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, Trondheim, Norway, June 2006. Salma, A.H., Negahban, S., Al-Yafei, G. and Al Basry, A. (2010), “Design and implementation of the first CO2-EOR pilot in Abu Dhabi, UAE’”, paper presented at the SPE EOR Conference at Oil & Gas West Asia, Muscat, Oman, 11-13 April 2010. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2007), Research Methods for Business Students, 4th ed., Pearson Education, London. Stake, R.E. (1995), The Art of Case Study Research, Sage, London. US Department of Energy (2008), “Ranking of the world’s countries by 2008 per capita fossil-fuel CO2 emission rates”, available at: http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/top2008.cap (accessed 5 July 2012). WWF (2010), Living Planet Report, available at: www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/ GFN/page/Living_Planet_Report_2010_dv/ (accessed 1 July 2012). Yin, R.K. (2003), Applications of Case Study Research, 2nd ed., Sage, London. About the authors Vijo Varkey Theeyattuparampil is employed with Siemens Energy-Oil and Gas, Abu Dhabi, UAE. He earned his Masters degree in Operations Research and Industrial Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 2009 and Masters in Engineering Systems and Management from the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, in 2011. His research interest includes sustainability in oil and gas industry and carbon mitigation technologies. Vijo Varkey Theeyattuparampil is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected] Othman Adnan Zarzour is the Manager of the Project Development Department in Masdar Carbon. Othman is responsible for the development and execution of projects, investments, and technology development in the field of Clean Fossil Fuels. Prior to joining Masdar, Othman has had a very successful career in the Oil and Gas project development and execution in some of the most reputable contractors and operators in the region. Othman holds Masters in Thermal Power and Fluids Engineering from the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST), UK. Nikolaos Koukouzas is the Director of Centre for Research and Technology Hellas. Nikolaos holds a doctorate degree in Geology from the University of Leicester. His research interest includes Geology, Geochemistry and carbon-mitigations technologies. Dr Georgeta Vidican is a Senior Researcher at the German Development Institute (DIE) in Bonn, in the Competitiveness and Social Development Department. She holds a PhD degree from

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MIT International Development and Regional Planning. She also holds a Master degree in Applied Sociology (MSc) from University of Massachusetts Boston, and in Urban Planning (MSc) from MIT. After obtaining her doctorate in 2008, she worked as Assistant Professor at Masdar Institute of Science and Technology in Abu Dhabi. Her main areas of expertise are in development economics, green industrial policy, innovation systems and private sector competitiveness. Yasser Al-Saleh was awarded a PhD from the Manchester Institute of Innovation Research – University of Manchester, UK. Prior to Joining INSEAD Innovation and Policy Initiative, he worked as a Post-Doctoral Researcher at the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology. His current research interests include sustainable energy policy, sustainability transitions, foresight and innovation studies. Ismini Katsimpardi is an oil and gas professional and graduated with a master’s degree from the Heriot-Watt University. Her research interest includes reservoir engineering and novel technologies in Carbon, Capture and Storage domain.

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