BIOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEW SHEET Answer the questions below on a separate sheet of paper. You may use any notes, worksheets, or your textbook to find the answers. The questions are divided up based on the different units we have covered throughout the course. Biochemistry 1. List the four necessary elements of life. C, H, O, N 2. State the monomers and functional groups of each organic molecules listed: a. Carbohydrates – monosaccharides, -OH (hydroxyl group) b. Proteins – amino acids, –NH2(amine group) AND -COOH(carboxyl group) c. Lipids – fatty acids (& glycerol), -OH (hydroxyl group) AND -COOH(carboxyl group) d. Nucleic acids – nucleotides, no functional group 3. Differentiate between ionic and covalent bonds. I = transfer of e-

C = sharing of e-

4. Define polymer and give 2 examples of polymers. Large compound formed from linking many monomers (or building blocks) together. Examples: Cellulose, starch, glycogen 5. Draw the pH scale. Label where acidic, neutral, and basic substances would fall on the scale. Å 1-------------------------------------------- 7 -----------------------------------------------14 Æ Åacidic neutral basicÆ 6. Differentiate between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis (condensation reaction). Be sure to include which one makes bonds and which one breaks bonds, and also which ones stores energy and which one releases energy. Dehydration/Condensation – linking smaller molecules to make larger molecules (removes water), stores E Hydrolysis – breaking large molecules into smaller molecules by adding water, release E 7. What are the functions of lipids? Builds membranes, store E (secondary role) 8. What molecule of life is the primary fuel for all cells? Carbohydrates (specifically glucose) 9. What is the purpose of an enzyme and how does it function? Increases the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy. 10. How is energy released from ATP? Adenosine Triphosphate. Stores and releases energy. Energy is released from ATP when a phosphate group is REMOVED from it, thus breaking a high-energy bond. 11. Draw a phospholipid molecule and explain how it is arranged to form the lipid bilayer in cell membranes. Polar Head – Hydrophilic or water-loving portion of the molecule Nonpolar Tail – Hydrophobic or water-fearing portion of the molecule Cell Structure and Function 12. What is the function of each of the following structures: a. Cell membrane – regulates what can enter/exit the cell, separates internal from external, support b. Ribosomes – sites of protein synthesis c. Mitochondria – site of ATP synthesis; “powerhouse” of the animal cell d. Endoplasmic Reticulum – RoughÆtransports ribosomes, SmoothÆ Lipid synthesis & Calcium storage

e. f. g.

Lysosomes – contains powerful digestive enzymes; intracellular digestion Nucleus – control center of the cell; contains DNA Golgi Apparatus – packages and modifies protein for export

13. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and give an example of each. Prokaryotic cell = simple, no nucleus/membrane-bound organelles – such as bacteria Eukaryotic cell = complex, membrane-bound, nucleus – such as an animal or plant cell 14. Arrange the following levels of organization from simplest to most complex: Cell Æ Tissue Æ Organ Æ Organ System 15. Differentiate between plant and animal cells. Make sure to answer the following questions: a. What is the outer boundary of each? A = plasma membrane P = cell wall b. What are the support structures of each? A = cytoskeleton P = cell wall c. What organelles do plant cells have that animal cells do not? What organelles do animal cells have that plants don’t? Plant cells have chloroplasts, a cell wall, and a large, central vacuole. Animal cells have a central nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and/or cilia/flagella. 16. List the components of the cell theory. All living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and function, and all cells come from pre-existing cells. 17. Relate/Compare/Contrast the following groups of terms: a. Hypertonic/ Hypotonic/ Isotonic – All are directions of osmosis, passive transport, no energy High/Low/Equal – concentration of solute molecules OUTSIDE the cell than inside b. Osmosis/ Diffusion – Both involve the movement of molecules down a concentration gradient-no energy. Osmosis is diffusion of water / Diffusion is term for movement of all other molecules. c. Active Transport/ Passive Transport – Active = requires energy & moves molecules from an area of low concentration to high. Passive = no energy & moves molecules form an area of high to low. 18. What would happen to an animal cell in each of the following solutions: a. Hypertonic - Shrink b. Hypotonic - Swell c. Isotonic - Remain the same 19. Explain equilibrium. Homeostasis – maintaining an internal balance of all functioning systems. 20. Compare and contrast endocytosis and exocytosis. Both are active processes (active transport) that require energy. Endocytosis involves the “intake” of nutrients into the cell and exocytosis involves the “export” of nutrients/waste out of the cell. Photosynthesis 21. Compare and contrast ADP and ATP. Both are energy molecules composed of adenosine and phosphate. ATP is a HIGH-energy molecule that has more stored energy than ADP (low-energy molecule). 22. Write the chemical equations of photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthesis 6CO2 +6H2O + light energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2

(Cellular Respiration is the opposite)

23. What are the two major parts of photosynthesis? Light Reaction and the Calvin Cycle 24. What is chlorophyll and how does it help to make most plants green? Chlorophyll is the pigment found in plants. It makes plants green by REFLECTING green and absorbing all other colors. 25. Does photosynthesis take place in plant cells or animal cells? Plant cells

Cellular Respiration 26. What is glycolysis? Explain and state the reactants and products. Glycolysis involves the breakdown of GLUCOSE and ends with 2-PYRUVIC ACID (two 3-Carbon compounds) molecules and 2ATP (net). 27. What are the reactants and products of aerobic respiration? Aerobic respiration begins with glucose, oxygen, and enzymes and produces ATP, CO2, and H2O. 28. Compare the amount of ATP produced in aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration produces 38 ATP molecules per glucose molecule and Anaerobic produces 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule. 29. True or False: Both anaerobic respiration & aerobic respiration begin with the process of glycolysis. True 30. List the two types of fermentation. Alcoholic and Lactic Acid Cell Division 31. Describe what is taking place during each of the parts of Interphase (G1, S, G2). G1 = 1st growth phase S = DNA synthesis (replication of DNA) G2 = 2nd growth phase and preparation for cell division 32. List the correct order of phases in mitosis. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, (and then Cytokinesis) 33. What significant events occur during each phase of mitosis PMAT? P = chromosomes coil and become visible for the first time. M = chromosomes line up at the center of the cell. A = separation of sister chromatids. T = nuclear membrane forms around each newly separated chromosome. 33. Explain the process of crossing over. During crossing over, portions of chromatids break off and attach to adjacent chromatids on the homologous chromosome. This drastically increases the genetic variability. 34. Compare mitosis and meiosis using the following criteria: Number of cells formed Mitosis = 2 diploid cells Meiosis = 4 haploid cells Haploid or diploid (number of chromosomes) Haploid = 23 for human Diploid = 46 for human Function of cells formed Mitosis = somatic cells Meiosis = germ/sex cells Number of divisions Mitosis = 1 Meiosis = 2 35. True or False: Animal cells form a cell plate during cytokinesis, but plant cells do not. False—opposite is true 36. What are the differences between Meiosis I and Meiosis II with respect to the alignment of the homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids? In Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase, whereas in Meiosis II sister chromatids separate during anaphase.

Nucleic Acids & Protein Synthesis 37. What is the relationship between DNA and the proteins in your body? DNA carries the code for making the proteins that your body needs. It is the recipe (DNA) for the cake (protein)! 38. Describe the shape and composition of a DNA molecule. DNA is a double stranded, helical molecule composed of repeating units called nucleotides. It is consists of the following bases: A, T, C, G 39. Draw and label the three basic parts of a nucleotide. Sugar, phosphate, and base 40. What nitrogen-containing base is found in RNA but NOT in DNA? Uracil (U) 41. A DNA molecule has a sequence of TAGCA. What is the sequence of its complementary strand? ATCGT 42. What are two ways in which DNA and RNA are similar? What are three ways in which they differ? Similar: Both are nucleic acids composed of nucleotides that are needed in protein synthesis Differ: DNA is double stranded, whereas RNA is single stranded, DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, whereas RNA contains the sugar ribose, and DNA contains the base Thymine, whereas RNA contains the base Uracil. 43. How are the complementary bases, such as adenine and thymine joined across a DNA molecule? All bases are joined by weak hydrogen bonds. 44. What is the function of mRNA in the nucleus of the cell? What is its function outside of the nucleus? In the Nucleus: to copy the genetic code from the DNA molecule Outside the Nucleus: to deliver the genetic code (or message) to the ribosome for translation 45. If two amino acids, valine (mRNA codon GUU) and glycine (mRNA codon GGA) are brought together at the ribosome, what is the DNA sequence that stored this information? CAA and CCT 46. Arrange the following terms in the correct order for protein synthesis. This represents the “Central Dogma of Biology” Æ DNAÆ RNAÆ ProteinÆ Trait 47. Where does transcription take place in the cell? Where does translation take place in the cell? Transcription = nucleus, Translation = ribosome 48. What is the product of transcription? What is the product of translation? Transcription = mRNA, Translation = chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds 49. What does an mRNA codon code for? Amino acid Mendelian and Human Genetics 50. Define the following terms: a. Homozygous (purebred) = same alleles b. Heterozygous (hybrid) = different alleles c. Genotype = genetic make up of organism d. Phenotype = physical appearance of organism e. Dominant = trait that is expressed

f. Recessive = trait present but not expressed g. gene = a segment of DNA that codes for a trait h. somatic cell = body cell i. germ cell = sex cell = gamate

51. Who is Gregor Mendel? What did he study? He is an Austrian monk who is known as the “father of genetics.” He studied pea plants and patterns of inheritance. 52. What does a Punnett Square show? The probable outcome of a genetic cross; the parental alleles; the possible offspring genotypes 53. What is the difference between a monohybrid and a dihybrid cross? How do you set up such a cross in a Punnett Square? Mono = involves 1 trait Di = involves 2 traits (See class notes for set up) 54. Compare the following mutations: a. Chromosome structure – deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation Chromosome abnormality b. Chromosome number – nondisjunction (resulting in mono- or trisomy) ie. Down Syndrome c. Gene – point (insertion, deletion, substitution), frameshift All involve a change in the genetic code. 55. What is the difference between somatic and germ mutations? Which are inherited? Germ cell mutations are inherited and somatic cell mutations are acquired. 56. Discuss Down syndrome and nondisjunction. Down syndrome results in an extra 21st chromosome. This results in multiple symptoms, one being mental retardation and is a direct result of nondisjunction. Nondisjunction happens during meiosis when the chromosomes do not separate properly, thus leaving one cell short a chromosome and one cell with an extra (Down syndrome). 57. Why are X-linked disorders more common in males than females? They are carried on the X chromosome not the Y. Thus females need 2 copies of the defective X to show the disorder. 58. Define the Human Genome Project. A project where scientists have begun to sequence human DNA 59. Summarize the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for each of the following crosses: B=brown b=blue a. BB X BB G= 100% BB, P=100% brown d. Bb X BB G= 50% BB & 50% Bb, P=100% brown b. BB X bb G= 100% Bb, P=100% brown e. Bb X Bb G= 25% BB, 50% Bb, 25% bb, P=75% brown & 25% blue c. bb X bb G= 100% bb, P=100% blue f. Bb X bb G= 50% BB & 50% bb, P=50% brown & 50% blue Embryology 60. Name in order the 4 embryo stages associated with early embryonic development. Zygote (fertilized egg) – morula (stem cells) – blastula (implant uterus) – gastrula (form germ layers) 61. What do you call the first few mitotic cell divisions that occur in the zygote? Cleavage 62. What is the difference between implantation and gastrulation? Implantation is when the developing embryo attaches to the uterine wall and gastrulation is when the germ layers begin to form (after implantation). 63. What is the role of the placenta? Exchange nutrients, gases, and waste products between the mother and the fetus. 64. What is the first body system that develops within a growing embryo? Nervous system

65. What are stem cells? Unspecialized cells that have the ability to differentiate. 66. What is a fertilized egg cell called? Zygote Microbiology 67. Describe the structure of a virus. What is it made up of? Protein and Nucleic Acid 68. What happens in the lytic cycle of viral infections? The virus immediately makes more viruses and destroys the host cell. 69. What is a retrovirus? A virus that contains RNA as its genetic material and is the cause of AIDS. Uses the enzyme reverse transcriptase to make DNA from RNA. 70. What is the difference between facultative anaerobes and obligate aerobes? Obligate aerobes are organisms that require oxygen in order to live. Facultative anaerobes do not require oxygen. 71. How do bacteria reproduce? Binary fission 72. Describe the 3 main shapes of bacterial cells. Coccus, bacillus, spirillum 73. Name two ways in which bacteria can be helpful/beneficial. Food production, digestion, environment