Biological Education in German Universities

Biological Education in German Universities By Eberhard Müller, Universität Jena 1. Introduction Although a broad federal frame exists for universi...
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Biological Education in German Universities By Eberhard Müller, Universität Jena

1.

Introduction

Although a broad federal frame exists for university studies in Germany, details and situations are different in the regions (Länder). This outline provides a general sketch of common aspects. In particular cases further information must be sought from the university of interest, especially about the options available during the 3rd and 4th years of study. Besides the Universities, Technical Universities, and Technical High Schools, in Germany, Fachhochschulen exist. They are of increasing importance for professional education and include the applied branches of biology (agriculture, biotechnology, medical sciences, aspects of environmental sciences). The staff have much more teaching than university staff, and it is not easy to do research under these conditions. Research is not always expected although outstanding examples of high quality research and cooperation exist. This very specialised area cannot be reported in detail here although the writer is a proponent of further development of Fachhochschulen as this seems to be a way of allowing universities to fulfil their important role as part of the future European culture, without being overloaded with students.

2.

System of organisation

In Germany more than 50 university Biology Departments exist (see list of institutions) with different denominations: ‘Fachbereich’ or ‘Fakultät‘, both of which are usually organised in Institutes. University Studies are in principle more or less comparable as a common frame for biology exists in form of the ‘Rahmenordnung für die Diplomprüfung im Studiengang Biologie’ of the Kultusministerkonferenz and the Hochschulrektorenkonferenz. The resolutions of 1993 and 1994, are still valid. In detail however, differences exist between the different Länder which have the responsibility for this level of education, conse-

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quently dates of beginning and end of semesters and both school and university holidays must be confirmed with the specific Länder. Moreover, certain differences still exist between the Former ‘west’ and Former ‘east’ Länder. The speed of change in the ‘new’ Länder is different, and a smaller number of students could be an advantage in some cases to reduce the staff/students ratio but this depends on the quality of the teaching staff. Changes are also going on in universities of the ‘old’ Länder, as the financial situation develops sometimes disadvantageously. Specific information about this rapidly changing situation is necessary. A national commission has been set up (Konferenz biologischer Fachbereiche) which consists of representatives (head of the Fachbereich or dean in the case of a Fakultät) from the different universities (see list) with an elected president. Currently this is Prof. Dr. Heinz Mehlhorn, Lehrstuhl für Spezielle Zoologie und Parasitologie, Fakultät für Biologie, Ruhr Universität Bochum. German universities are given a budget which may be remarkably different in the different Länder. In many cases the budget is too low to support modern teaching, especially for developing advanced practical work. Individual applications for grants or projects paid from other sources are necessary and may be for research projects but also for projects introducing new teaching programmes. A scheme had been developed which links the number of students to proportion of staff and consequently finance. Over the years, these relations have so changed that now what used to be considered an overload of students is taken as normal, and it is a matter of debate. If the system should be applied strictly, it would destroy the broader functioning of the universities as a component of national culture. The number of students varies from university to university, the average number starting in biology in 1994/95 is about 108 per university. No registration fees are charged. Student residences generally exist although the proportion able to get a place differs greatly. Assessment system: 1 = sehr gut (very good) 2 = gut (good) 3 = befriedigend (satisfactory) 4 = ausreichend (pass) 5 = nicht ausreichend (fail) Entry to the universities The duration of primary plus secondary school educaton in Germany varies from 12 years (most former ‘east’ Länder) to 13 (most former ‘west’ Länder).

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The final certificate (Abitur, Reifeprüfung) in principal permits a student to register for university study. Biology and some allied subjects (medicine, pharmacy, psychology) belong to a list of disciplines with limited access (numerus clausus). They operate with centralised application and selection of the applicants according to their quality, but this changes according to the ratio of applications to places available.

3.

Studies in Biology

3.1. University teaching 3.1.1.Basic studies Three different types of study programmes exist: Biology diploma. This is the programme with the largest number of students. It is found in most universities and is typically involved in exchange networks and programmes, so it will be described here in more detail (3.1.1.1.). Biology as part of a Magister programme This can be as a main or subsidiary component of a magister scientiarum or as a subsidiary component of a magister artium. These magister study programmes are common in many other sciences in Germany but do not often include biology or other natural sciences (biology in Freiburg and Jena). Although these biology programmes are rare, and at present scarcely involved in the normal exchange networks, they should be briefly mentioned here (3.1.1.2.). They represent an interesting and extremely interdisciplinary model well suited to integrate biology (especially ecology and molecular biology) with an extended list of other sciences. Biology for teachers (3.1.1.3.): The training of teachers for the various types of secondary schools (Gymnasium, Regelschule) differs at the universities from the diploma training as it includes two main subjects, and the final examination involves two state examinations and a two year period as a probationary teacher (Referendar) in between. The structure of the study programme resembles that of the magister. Thus, with a few additional activities (e.g. a magister-thesis) a student teacher can obtain in addition, a magister certificate which considerably broadens his professional chances.

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3.1.1.1. Biology - diploma The normal duration of study, including the oral and written examination, should not exceed 5 years (10 semesters). It is important to realise that although different types of examination accompany the study programme, it is only the final certificate (Diplom) that qualifies the candidate for professional status in Germany. Structure of the study programme: 2 years (4 semesters) of basic study are completed with the DiplomVorprüfung. A further 3 years (6 semesters) consist of the main (advanced) study of a 2 years (4 semesters) teaching programme, and time for an oral examination (mündliche Diplomprüfung) and preparation and evaluation of the thesis (Diplomarbeit, written examination), wich leads to the final certificate (Diplom), and the title of Diplom-Biologe or Diplom-Biologin. The prescribed time for teaching should not exceed 110 SWS (the measure of teaching time used is the ‘Semesterwochenstundenzahl’ (SWS), one SWS is 1 hour per week for one semester) in total for the 4 semesters of basic study (of which not more than 35 SWS should be during any one semester) and 110 SWS for the 4 semesters main study. About 50% of the time will consist of practical work, excursions etc. The Diplom-Vorprüfung presupposes certificates for at least 50 SWS practicals and includes an oral examination (or alternatively a written examination) in: botany, zoology, microbiology, genetics or ecology, chemistry, physics or mathematics/statistics. The Diplom-Vorprüfung is a prerequisite for the start of the main study. The failure rate at this stage is very different between the universities although it is at least 10-20%. Whereas the basic study is more or less common for all students of biology, the main study allows the possibility of differentiation although not strict specialisation. The student has to choose 1 main branch (e.g. biochemistry, botany, microbiology, ecology, zoology), comprising 60 SWS of the total of 110 SWS of the main study and 2 (or 3) subsidiary branches. The list of subsidiary branches for Jena may give an impression of the alternatives which will differ from university to university: anthropology, bio-inorganic chemistry, biochemistry, biophysics, botany, cell biology, ecology, genetics, mathematical biology, medical microbiology, microbiology, neurobiology, pharmacology, zoology. Each of these will be 20 to 25 SWS.

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One non-biological subject can also be chosen from a long list of possibilities. According to the Rahmenordnung, the diploma examination shall consist of • 3 oral examinations, the possible combinations being different in the various universities, and one non-biological subject can be chosen, • the Diplomarbeit (diploma thesis), the duration of which cannot be longer than 8 months, typically consisting of the formulation of a problem referring to the state of the art by citation of literature, experimental results, theory, discussion within the frame of contemporary literature, and a list of literature. Examination is required by two independent qualified persons. In some universities, the thesis has to be presented and defended. The diversification of biology into too many branches, each with a different diploma has been resisted. The aim is to avoid too high a degree of specialisation and to concentrate on a sound basis of knowledge and methodological ability so as to ensure a high degree of professional flexibility. In spite of this predominant view some specialised study programmes with separate diplomas have developed in a few cases: biochemistry (few universities) biophysics (Humboldt-University Berlin only) landscape ecology (e.g. in Oldenburg). 3.1.1.2. Biology as part of a magister programme The magister programme permits the choice of two main disciplines, or one main and two subsidiary disciplines. According to this structure the time allowed for one discipline is less than in the diploma programme: 80 SWS in total, if biology is a main subject 40 SWS in total, if biology is a subsidiary subject. Thus a restricted selection of material is unavoidable. Structure of the study programme: 2 years (4 semesters) basic study with an intermediate examination, followed by 2 years (4 semesters) of main study, and 1/2 year (1 semester) in addition for the final oral examination and magister thesis. This is shorter than the diploma thesis. Final certificate: • if the main discipline with the thesis is one of the natural sciences: magister scientiarum (M.S.) • if the main discipline is not a natural science: magister artium (M.A.). In Jena there is a magister study programme for ‘The history of natural sciences and techniques’ (magister scientiarum) which has a certain biological accent.

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As the 4 year magister programme for biology is more or less identical with that for training teachers it can be offered without the need for further staff, as long as the number of students does not exceed the limit advisable in these programmes. 3.1.1.3. Biology for teachers The study programme includes two disciplines, and consequently the time available for biology is restricted and not the same as the diploma programme although it is comparable (or identical) with that of the magister-programme (see 3.1.1.2.). Structure of the study programme; this is different for teachers destined for the Gymnasium or the Regelschule:

Gymnasium

Regelschule 2 years (4 semesters) basic study common for both followed by:

2 years main study

2 years main study including thesis and 1st state examination

1/2 year (1 semester) thesis and 1st state examination

In both cases a 2 years period of probation teaching (Referendar) follows and the programme is completed by the 2nd state examination. 3.1.1.4. Impact of European Community Programmes The situation in the German universities differs and a generalised evaluation is difficult. Sometimes teaching is underestimated (publish or perish) and the quality of exchanges depends on the commitment of individual scientific or administration staff. Thus the aim of Socrates, to minimise formality in administration and individual evaluation and so make exchanges more a routine process is extremely important. Exchange is most useful during the 3rd and 4th year of the study programme. The different EC-programmes have been very helpful in facilitating the exchange of students and staff. The biology-network of ERASMUS and TEMPUS deserves special mention for its help to students of the ‘new’ Länder. A special situation existed in Germany where some of the universities were located behind the ‘iron curtain’ and it was extremely important to ‘open the door’ for the young generation as quickly and effectively as possible once the political changes had occurred. Thus for example about 25% of the students of the university of Jena in the appropriate stage of their study programme used the ERASMUS-biology-network for a

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one or two semester stay in one of the partner universities. This was, and is, extremely important for the integration process of former eastern universities. Likewise these universities should use their former relations to develop exchanges with the former socialist countries through TEMPUS. This will be a long lasting and important duty within the Socrates-programme. Intensive courses are very useful and contribute to an enrichment of the teaching programme, and furthermore facilitate discussions about further international cooperation. To mention an example, in Jena the intensive course ‘Human Biology’ fulfilled this function.

3.1.2.

Post - graduate studies

Post-graduate studies in Germany (in contrast to some other countries) are defined as studies after the diploma-graduation, e.g. promotion (see 3.1.3.). A different type of post-graduate programme is the so called ‘Aufbaustudiengang‘. This is an addition to the normal study programme and can lead to a second diploma. An example is the European Postgraduate Programme in Ecotechnie (2 years) within the frame of TEMPUS, which includes a common programme between universities in Brussels (main contractor), Bucharest, Huddersfield, Jena, Madrid and Szeged. In this case, the EC-programmes are the basis and this model seems capable of further development. To improve the level of the final certificate it is worth discussing whether it might be developed as a Ph.D. programme.

3.1.3.

Ph.D.

The German equivalent is the ‘promotion’ leading to the title Doktor (Dr. rer. nat.). Prerequisite: one of the above mentioned certificates with good grades or another science certificate from a university. An exception in individual cases is a very good certificate of a Fachhochschule if individually accepted by the faculty council. A central German authority for the acceptance of foreign certificates exists, but the faculties also have the ability to decide in individual cases. The main activity leading to the doctoral thesis is research and there is no prescribed study programme. Self education is expected although in special cases (Graduiertenkolleg) courses are organised. The duration has been reduced to 2 years, although in many cases candidates need more time. Most grants however, are now limited to a period of 2 years, and extension is an exception. In the opinion of the author however, it is just this stage of development of young scientists that needs the influence of international cooperation, although the time peri-

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od of 2 years leaves little space for such international exchange. This is the worst period to try to save time. In opposition to the German Rectors’ Conference the author is a supporter of an ‘European Ph.D.’ as defined in the biology-network of Erasmus. Before discussion and criticism of this European degree it is extremely important to seek information about the details (see annex 1 – Erasmus and Biology). A very limited number of grants come from the university, on average about 1 per year per faculty. Another possibility is to take a position as an assistant, in which case one has to contribute to teaching, and extension of the 2 year period then becomes easier. Other sources for financing a doctorate include research projects, scholarship foundations, grants for special supported fields (Graduiertenkollegs, Sonderforschungsbereiche), and last but not least (very important) grants for graduation in international exchange (scholarship foundations, Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst). The final examination consists of the thesis (Dissertation) which has to be examined by the supervisor and two others, at least one from another German or foreign university. In some universities, an oral presentation and defence of the thesis is necessary. The second component is an oral examination (Rigorosum), optional in some universities: 3 examinations during one day (1 main subject and 2 subsidiary subjects).

3.1.4.

Habilitation

In spite of discussions the habilitation is still a strict requirement for independent teaching (venia legendi, Privatdozent) and is a prerequisite for a professoral position at German universities. The official time for preparing the thesis is 3 to 4 years but often more time is needed. Prerequisites are a minimal number of original publications in peer reviewed journals and experience in teaching. The thesis (Habilitationsschrift not longer than 150 pages) has to be examined by 3 independent examiners, at least one being from abroad (no mark is given, only pass or fail). The examination is different and typically can include the presentation and defence of the thesis and an assessed lecture (Probevorlesung).

3.2. Professional education 3.2.1.

Job recruitment

No complete picture exists. A number of biology students find a job in research, as most lower level posts are temporary. This leads to some

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turnover. Besides universities and institutes, many research projects include funds for personal employment. A broad spectrum of applied fields exists in industry, although in the eastern part of Germany there has been a dramatic reduction in jobs in most branches. At the same time, new institutions are being formed. Although more or less saturated at present more jobs in industry can be expected in the future, including those connected with environmental problems. Employment opportunities in hospitals and medical laboratories are decreasing at present, as biologists have to compete with students from medicine. The author sees chances in further development of the magister programme (see 3.1.1.2.). If biology is to be of much more importance for the future, it is in combination with other fields of knowledge that it will count. Even for the unemployed, the best studies for the future would be biology including environmental aspects, so as to develop an impetus towards new ideas and jobs. At present the actual number of positions in these fields is much fewer than the existing real demand.

3.2.2.

Continuous education

This field is of increasing importance, and will become a determining component of future life styles. Although a number of versions exist (Volkshochschulen, a wide spectrum of courses sometimes even supported by the labour exchange offices; a system of distant studies at the ‘Sunday universities‘, ‘the senior university‘, activities of societies, unions, academies etc.) this branch of education deserves systematic development, and it needs the kind of language that brings it to nonspecialists, especially the decision makers. With sorrow, the author notes the arrogance of some German universities, expressed in false arguments about an academic quality. The material prerequisites for quality will disappear if our language does not reach ordinary people and convince them that universities can contribute to the solution of present and future problems in this world. Continuous education is one of the most important components in this process. It seems to me that in Germany certain types of academies do serve these aims. Several are founded in the Länder, an example being the Academy for Nature and Environment in Dresden. A well known and experienced example is the ‘Europäische Akademie für Umweltfragen’ which deserves more support from ministries and universities acting as partners.

3.2.3.

Role of national scientific associations/societies

In Germany a wealth of such institutions exists and some of them are especially active in biology. It seems beyond this report to present them

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in detail, although it would be useful to have a more detailed survey at the European level. This would be a chapter in its own sake.

4.

New needs in biology

4.1. Shortcomings and gaps 4.1.1.Biological topics • The rapid development of biology has led to an accumulation of knowledge that makes it impossible to teach all branches with comparable completeness. • The development of biology means not only the increase of knowledge, but also diversification of thinking. In this respect, ecology or taxonomy can be more different from physiology or biochemistry than these are from physics or chemistry. Biology in itself has interdisciplinary aspects and this should be stressed in teaching. If this is mutually recognised the situation can be stimulating. • Modernisation (support for new fields of study) often took place at the expense of the so called classical fields with negative consequences.

4.1.2.

Professional situation

• The professional situation is extremely specialised and this can be positive as it means that besides traditional fields, biologists participate in and stimulate a lot of new professional activities in society. • In Germany a discrepancy is being created in the ‘new Länder’ characterised by a tendency to destroy the unity of research and teaching. Rich research institutes of various types exist in contrast to relatively poor universities. The normal budget of a faculty is not sufficient to ensure up to date practical courses without foreign sources of money. This leads automatically to an underestimation of teaching and to a drain of gifted students to the research institutes and laboratories by unfair competition, which begins as early as the preparation phase of the diploma thesis. Cooperation needs better balanced conditions, where they occur, the symbiosis of universities and research institutes appears as a most beneficial development. • The needs and problems of mankind are not in all cases adequately reflected in present professional positions. The solution to this situation urgently demands the innovative power of interdisciplinary cooperation (biology, chemistry, medicine, law, economics) at present underdeveloped. It is necessary to develop new complex and ecologybased economic models set before the public and to the politicians.

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The European Union

• Is the diversity of university studies in Europe really a handicap or is it a wealth and opportunity? How far is mutual adaptation necessary? • European and UNESCO activities are insufficiently reflected in the universities.

4.2. Prospective All the problems mentioned in 4.1. are or will become in the near future, critical, thus action is necessary at all levels (see 5.).

4.2.1.

Biological topics

The situation in biology is more and more characterised by growing responsibilities • to develop as a discipline with balance between its different branches and subjects, and concentrating on fundamental questions focused towards a theoretical, general biology, • to contribute to the demands of society such as: sustainable development and needs for further biotic evolution, biodiversity, environmental problems, development of new technologies, development of a proper quality of life, human biology including the food chain. • to develop an educational programme that goes far beyond classical academic borders to impress decision makers and to influence the mass of people, so creating new insights, needs and values. The situation in Germany seems sometimes overshadowed by purists or by activists who emphasise only one aspect. Progress requires a balanced consideration of all these needs, and universities have responsibilities for all of them. Biology thus has to meet more demands compared with the other natural sciences.

4.2.2.

Professional situation

The problems mentioned in 4.1.2. will become more serious and the increasing rate of knowledge acquisition will need lifelong learning. Thus besides teaching nonspecialists (see 4.2.1.) several forms of continuing education of professionals will also become of increasing importance.

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The European Union

European cooperation in science is not only a consequence of cooperation in other fields but could even be a motor stimulus for these processes. This seems to be self-evident at present in research. The author is a proponent of such cooperation, but against any formalism which hinders flexibility. This can even be a danger in many contracts (universities and countries) that are formally planned in order to support cooperation. One extreme is the former ‘vodka - tourism‘. Between the EU-countries, cooperation in research should be (and in most cases is) possible after a simple phone call for example, which stimulates a common publication, a change in the direction of tackling a problem or in the trial of another technique. In other cases longer lasting links could be useful and should be possible. EU-financing of research, in the opinion of the author, should be concentrated on a few crucial fields where defined common problems have to be solved. It is especially helpful to the countries behind the ‘economic curtain’ and in these cases contracts may be useful and important, especially if political and economical difficulties have to be overcome and if they mobilise European money for equipment also. Far more complicated is cooperation in teaching, and much activity has to be devoted to this important field. The experience of Erasmus and Tempus especially in the form of the biology network, provides a sound basis, and the question is whether Socrates will be able to improve on this situation (see 5.).

5.

Ways to satisfy these new needs

The author sees no sense in a European ‘homogenisation’ of university function and academic curricula. Each country has to be conscious of its cultural roots, present possibilities, specialisation and the advantages and disadvantages of its present models. It is this diversity that demands cooperation and exchange. All formal and administrative barriers to exchange should be minimised, and a systematic exchange and evaluation of experience should be planned.

5.1. University level Humboldt characterised the main activities of universities not only as the unity of research and teaching but also as that of ‘character’ (responsibility) and action (according to the demands of society). This view is not oldfashioned but cannot be taught ex cathedra, it needs a vital relationship to exist between the older and the younger generations, a mutual influence.

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This is possible only if the quantitative relationship between the numbers of students and staff permits direct contact and interaction. The underestimation of teaching and education, the publish or perish, onesided evaluation of the citation index view may produce in consequence an insufficient engagement with students. This has to be overcome, and it may be that quality assessment of teachers by students will be helpful. Some orientations may be specific for German universities, but some might be of more common interest, although it is not intended that this should be described as a model valid for all countries. • Concerning aims: reduced emphasis on teaching facts (although a minimum is indispensable), becoming acquainted with different ways of thinking and of formulating questions and hypotheses, new learning techniques for the laboratory, the use of data banks, and training creative and innovative abilities, • concerning content: we should not give up the type of curriculum which is based on the logical construction of biology as a coherent although differentiated discipline. This does not mean neglecting transdisciplinarity or the contributions of Biology to general problems. We need to develop a spectrum of differentiated programmes for the main study (3rd and 4th year) without overspecialization, to practice a common diploma ‘biology‘. • the problems of life and the expectations of the taxpayers put the universities under pressure to continue discussions about new kinds of teaching, not always based on the philosophy of an academic discipline, but on the demands of complex situations and of problem-solving. An example could be the Faculty of Environmental Sciences of the ETH Zurich. Opponents argue that such students end up knowing nothing about everything and this might be a real danger. Existing experiments however should be evaluated, because although these studies are no substitute for the traditional discipline oriented syllabus, in certain rather rare cases they could be a useful supplement if conditions and demands are favourable. Other types of studies should be investigated: • a good example could be the European Post- graduate Study Ecotechnie already mentioned. • another experiment that deserves attention is the ‘Begleit- studium’ (accompanying study) of the University Basel: interested and able students get the chance to enhance their knowledge by using interfaculty opportunities to study different disciplines (law, economics etc.) connected with environmental problems. After they reach a certain quantitative and qualitative level they can be given an additional certificate. • concerning professional training the character of university study in biology should not be determined by the demand of a particular professional branch. Such needs can better be met and certainly cheaper and quicker by study at a Fachhochschule. University biologists should be

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able to adapt to unforeseen situations, and the best of them at least should be motivated and able to develop innovation, not only in fundamental research but also in practical problems.

5.2. Governmental level • The unique situation of biology among the natural sciences, because its importance for ‘sustainable development’ (see e.g. 4.2.1.) urgently needs special measures • to overcome the disadvantageous discrepancies with other natural sciences which exist in Germany especially in teaching. Thus the cost of a student in the experimental branches of biology is rather higher than in physics or chemistry, but the available budget is calculated on the basis of lower cost, • to enable biology to fulfil the demands of society in research and especially in education. The budget of the university should permit research and teaching of experimental methods on a comparable level to institutes of research, industry or government although this does not necessarily mean that the costs must be the same. Certain professional needs are best met by a study in a Fachhochschule. The author is a strong proponent of a further extension and development of Fachhochschulen for professional training. Only this will permit the decrease in student numbers in universities that will allow them to develop their unique functions. It is much better to have a smaller number of universities with a more complete spectrum of disciplines, than to found new ones with a high degree of specialisation. The latter fault is being put into action in the ‘new’ countries, with long lasting and fatal consequences. Natural sciences are sometimes evaluated in a very one-sided way, by only counting their contribution to practical or technological problems. It must not be forgotten that they have an important function in contributing to European culture, to the European Weltanschauung and to a European quality of life that represents value in a world-wide context. Universities should get the opportunity and the money to integrate museums and memorials into future oriented scientific developments which will shape the cultural face of a region, by utilising the wealth and high standards exemplified through tradition. Governments should help to create or strengthen new developments in education such as continuing teaching of professionals and a system of public education which will include distant teaching. Although the universities have the duty to help to develop educational programmes they are not able to execute all the activities necessary and need partners.

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One example of a fruitful partnership could be cooperation with the European Academy for Environmental Problems. This academy possesses a system of distant teaching directed towards the educated laymen, a group not normally reached by university study programmes but very important for spreading knowledge and reaching decision makers in politics and industry. The Academy is experienced furthermore in the organisation of interdisciplinary discussions on expert topics resulting in proposals for political and managemental action. Other partners are schools, and the help of universities to ensure up to date teaching of aspects of ecology and environment in them is urgently needed.

5.3. European level • Exchange of students and staff should become routine and Socrates has to support this. It would be sad if the existing, often rather successful programmes were interrupted. The input of coordinators who know each other and the conditions in the partner universities cannot be replaced by a mere administrative mechanism. Such questions need to be discussed. The experience of Erasmus and Tempus programmes ought to be built on, especially the well organised biology network. The credit system, without destroying the national character and variety of education systems can help to compare teaching programmes. Quality assessment seems to be an open problem and the active role of students should be considered in this process. The idea of a European Ph.D. must be developed further in the light of the concrete proposals of the biology network (B1004). These state very clearly that national degrees are not affected but that very able students who fulfil certain extra criteria could be awarded an additional certificate in the sense of a label for quality. • Exchanges should not be restricted to narrow disciplinary fields or topics, the biology network seems to the author to be the optimal size that still permits an overview, which gives a chance to smaller, sometimes neglected fields and yet does not exclude any special interests. • Special important topics (not too many and perhaps only one) could be selected. They should be of importance for the solving of global problems where special support will permit a further intensification of exchange of personnel results, and innovative ideas. An example could be ‘The University Charter for Sustainable Development’ (Copernicus) of the Conference of European Rectors. In this example, it makes no sense for the different activities to exist independently from one another. • A special task is the development of exchange and help for countries behind the ‘economic curtain‘. Support in science, with the aim of preserving or developing groups of activity inside the country is very

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important for mutual understanding; it is very much cheaper than help after a catastrophe. The model of Ecotechnie inside the Tempus Programme deserves special mention and extension. This may at the same time be a component of the Copernicus-activities. • Governments should be encouraged to spend a sufficient amount of money for exchange. • The knowledge in universities of the actions and activities of the EU or the UNESCO is inadequate. An effective system for information, response, and interaction has to be created.

An acknowledgement Last but not least I would like to add a heartfelt ‘thank you’ to the contractor and leading coordinator of the biology network in Erasmus and Tempus, Prof. Dr. Charles Susanne, who does much not only for ‘normal exchange’ but also for very effective and helpful integration of ‘eastGerman’ students. For them the door to the world opened after the fall of the iron curtain. We are grateful also for his help for groups in the former socialistic countries. It will be a fatal error if Socrates assumes that shaping a part of European culture by academic exchange can proceed without the unselfish activity of coordinators who do much more than any administration can ever do.

Annex 1 – List of Fachbereiche in biology H= Technische Hochschule, TU= Technische Univers., U= Universität H. Aachen; U. Augsburg; U. Bayreuth; U. Humboldt Berlin; U. Freie Berlin; U. Bielefeld; U. Bochum; U. Bonn; TU Braunschweig, U. Bremen, H. Darmstadt, U. Dortmund, TU. Dresden, U. Düsseldorf, U. Erlangen, U. Essen, U. Frankfurt, U. Freiburg, U. Giessen, U. Göttingen, U. Greifswald, U. Saale, U. Hamburg, U. Hannover, U. Heidelberg, U. Jena, U. Kaiserslautern, TU. Karlsruhe, U. Kassel, U. Kiel, U. Konstanz, U. Köln, U. Leipzig, U. Magdeburg, U. Mainz, U. Marburg, TU. Munchen, U. Munchen, U. Munster, U. Oldenburg, U. Osnabrück, U. Postdam, U. Regensburg, U. Rostock, U. Saarlandes, U. Stuttgart, U. Hohenheim Schloss, U. Tübingen, U. Ulm, U. Wuppertal, U. Würzburg

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