Katarzyna Kurek Janusz Holuk Stanisław Bury Michał Piotrowski

BEST PRACTICES MANUAL FOR REPTILES PROTECTION

2014

CKPŚ, ul. Stawki 2, 20th floor, 00-193 Warszawa, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl www.lasy.gov.pl tel.: +48 22 318 70 82; fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction Due to the climatic conditions which prevail in our country, reptiles, as cold-blooded animals, are represented in Poland by only 9 species. The group of reptiles which occur and procreate in our country includes 4 species of snakes: grass snake (zaskroniec zwyczajny) Natrix natri, common European adder (żmija zygzakowata) Vipera berus, smooth snake (gniewosz plamisty) Coronella austriaca and Aesculapian snake (wąż Eskulapa) Zamenis longissiums), 3 species of lizards: sand lizard (jaszczurka zwinak,) Lacerta agilis, viviparous lizard (jaszczurka żyworodna) Zootoca vivipara, legless lizard (bezoga jaszczurka) - blind worm (padalec) Anguis fragilis and 1 species of turtle: European pond turtle (żółw błotny) Emys orbicularis). Up to 1960s, the occurrence of European green lizard (jaszczurka zielona) Lacerta viridis was also included in that list. However, nowadays it is enlisted in the Polish Red Data Book of Animals as an extinct species, with EXP category. In Poland in 2009, one individual of dice snake (zaskroniec rybołów) Natrix tessellata was observed. This observation concerned a place 10 kilometers away from the position of the snake in the Czech Republic discovered in the same year. However, this dice snake has uncertain status in our country, as it was not confirmed that it reproduces in a newfound position. Additionally, there is no certainty that the observations from the Czech Republic and Poland are not the result of intentional transfer. The process of introduction of alien species of reptiles to the natural environment has been observed for years. Many of these species are released by man, and part of them escaped from private breeding. However, the majority of exotic reptiles are not able to survive the winter period in moderate climate conditions. Only one alien species spends winter period in our country, that is Trachemys scripta, represented by all subspecies like e.g. red-eared slider (żółw czerwonolicy) or river cooter (żółw zółtobrzuch). Recent reports indicate that the species is commonly found in Poland. Due to the climate and this turtle breeding phenology, it does not reproduce in our country. Turtles, both young and adults, are released into rivers, ponds and lakes, as a result of which in some areas they form populous groups. It happens that this alien species of turtle is released into the habitat of endangered European pond turtle, where it competes for insolated space and can carry diseases and parasites harmful for local herpetofauna. In Poland, all native species of reptiles are strictly protected. Some of them, such as common European viper, grass snake, sand lizard, viviparous lizard and blind worm occur

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throughout the country and can be conventionally considered as common species. However, due to loss of habitat, as a result of human activity and mindless killing (this especially applies to snakes), there are many blank spots on the maps of their occurrence. Due to their habitat requirements and low ability to overcome barriers such as routes, vast areas of agricultural monocultures or urban areas, reptiles are now one of the most vulnerable groups of animals, not only in Poland but also worldwide. Evidence of that is the status of protection of three rarest species of reptiles in this guide. European pond turtle, smooth snake and the Aesculapian snake are critically endangered species and they are assigned to active and zonal protection. The reason for this is their low abundance and deteriorating living conditions. This guide is dedicated to everyone interested in problems of the protection of threatened and endangered species of reptiles in Poland. In spite of carrying out protection activities, any initiative supporting their continuation and increasing public awareness is extremely valuable. Each of us can contribute to the survival of these three species of reptiles in our country by providing information on their occurrence, not releasing alien species to their habitats (it is particularly important when it comes to the European pond turtle) or by careful driving near places of their occurrence. We hope that this guide will help you understand the problems and the need of protection of reptiles in general. Methods of protection, scientific research and cooperation between various institutions and private persons, which have been developed for many years, allow for an effective in its assumptions, realization of procedures supporting living conditions of European pond turtle, Aesculapian snake and smooth snake. We also hope that this guide will be useful for all enthusiasts who want to carry out similar projects. AUTHORS

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Table of contents I. General information on selected species of reptiles I.1 GENERAL INFORMATION ON EUROPEAN POND TURTLE I.2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON AESCULAPIAN SNAKE I.3 GENERAL INFORMATION ON SMOOTH SNAKE II. Threats and protection methods II.1 MAIN THREATS TO EUROPEAN POND TURTLE II. 2. MAIN THREATS TO AESCULAPIAN SNAKE II. 3. MAIN THREATS TO SMOOTH SNAKE III Used and recommended methods of protection of European pond turtle, Aesculapian snake and smooth snake III. 1. LEGAL PROTECTION OF EUROPEAN POND TURTLE, AESCULAPIAN SNAKE AND SMOOTH SNAKE III. 2. ACTIVE PROTECTION OF EUROPEAN POND TURTLE III. 3. ACTIVE PROTECTION OF AESCULAPIAN SNAKE III.4 ACTIVE PROTECTION OF SMOOTH SNAKE IV. Protective measures undertaken in Europe and Poland IV. 1. PROTECTIVE MEASURES UNDERTAKEN TOWARDS EUROPEAN POND TURTLE IV. 2. PROTECTIVE MEASURES UNDERTAKEN TOWARDS AESCULAPIAN SNAKE IV. 3. PROTECTIVE MEASURES UNDERTAKEN TOWARDS SMOOTH SNAKE V. Description of the best practices V.1. DESCRIPTION OF BEST PRACTICES FOR EUROPEAN POND TURTLE V. 2. DESCRIPTION OF BEST PRACTICES FOR AESCULAPIAN SNAKE V. 3. DESCRIPTION OF BEST PRACTICES FOR SMOOTH SNAKE REFERENCES

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I. General information on selected species of reptiles I.1 GENERAL INFORMATION ON EUROPEAN POND TURTLE European pond turtle (Żółw błotny) Emys orbicularis (Fig. 1) is a reptile of the Testudines turtles order, Emydidae freshwater turtle’s family and the Emys mud turtle genus. In Poland typical subspecies - Emys orbicularis orbicularis (L.) occur, which however is diversified into two distinct evolutionary lines - eastern and western. The geographical range of both populations runs approximately along the borders of Vistula and Odra basins.

Fig. 1. Adult female European pond turtle, photo by J. Holuk Distribution In the past geographical range of European pond turtle covered almost all of Europe, with the exception of the UK and the Scandinavian countries. Currently, the geographical range

is

very

much

scattered.

Geographical

range

of

European

pond

turtle

in Europe has significantly shrunk due to habitat changes caused by human activity. In many countries,

the

species

became

extinct.

Today,

it

still

can

be

found

in the Mediterranean Basin, the Balkans, Hungary, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Germany and Poland. In our country, only in the area of Polesie there is still fairly large population (populations) of the species, probably consisting of more than 1,500 adult specimens and it is the biggest in this part of Europe. The situation in the rest of the country is much different. While the Mazury Lake District population is estimated at 250-300 individuals, on the Plain of Radom there occur at least 100 individuals, on one of the posts in the Lubusz area one may encounter approximately 100 individuals, but in the other areas there

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are just dozens, while sometimes several dozens, of individuals (Najbar 2012). Apart from these posts the species can be found in large disperse, and it should be considered there as extremely sparsely populous. In most of the cases there are just single, usually migrating or old individuals. Morphology The body of the turtle is covered with oval, protective armor made of bone, covered with horn shields, which consists of two parts - the dorsal called carapace and ventral called plastron - connected together by a flexible bridge. Small shields also cover the skin on the front and back legs and the tail. These animals have well-developed, very muscular and slightly flattened limbs, with claws at the end. Turtle jaws are toothless. Instead of tooth they have horny ridges. Approximate age of a young specimen can be determined by counting annual growth rings, which are visible on horn shields. After reaching sexual maturity (18-20 years), growth tempo of an individual slows down, the rings become narrower, compact and counting them is impossible. Turtles can reach an age of more than 100 years. This species is characterized by sexual dimorphism and the shape of plastron is considered as a feature that allows for identification of gender, which in adult female is almost flat, while in males it is concave in the middle. An auxiliary feature is also the color of the iris. In females, iris is yellow or brown with yellow spots, while in males it is orange-red or brown. Females are generally larger and heavier (body length 16-21 cm, weight 1.5 kg) than males (length 1119 cm, weight 1 kg). Habitat and food European pond turtles lead a semiaquatic lifestyle. They prefer small, overgrowing and shallow water reservoirs, standing waters or slow-moving currents where water quickly warms up, oxbow lakes, forest swamps and extensively used ponds (Fig.2). Adult individuals which are ousted from natural habitats, inhabit all encountered water reservoirs, which give them a chance to get food and hibernation. In such an environment, usually there is no chance of successful reproduction. European pond turtles usually select as their breeding sites light, sandy soil covered with calcareous grasslands, with species such as grey hair-grass (szczotlicha siwa), mouse-ear hawkweed (jastrzębiec kosmaczek), annual knawel (czerwiec roczny), hard fescue (kostrzewa owcza). Turtles mostly eat meat food. Their diet mainly consists of molluscs, insects, amphibians, their tadpoles and small fish, all the organisms which may be hunted in the water.

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Fig. 2. The aquatic environment of European pond turtle, photo by J. Holuk Spring is the best time of the year to observe reptiles, when after the winter they sunbathe on the clumps of nearby plants or logs of fallen trees. Breeding In Poland, mating period of European pond turtle usually starts in April or early May, although copulating pairs were observed in third decade of June in western Poland, after the period of laying eggs by females (Najbar 2011). Copulation and fertilization takes place in water. From the second half of May to mid-June, females lay from 7 to 23 eggs (12-14 in average) in well-sunned places, sometimes far away from the water (Fig.3). The nest is a hole dug with hind legs, with a pear-like cross section which can be from 10 to 12 cm deep. After laying eggs a female carefully covers the nest and kneads the ground, and then masks it. Embryonic development takes about 100 days. Immediately after leaving the egg shells, young turtles are about 2 to 3 cm long and weigh about 3-6 g. In favorable weather conditions, the young turtles hatch out in September or October and leave the nest to go to the water. If in the same year they do not leave the nest, they winter in the soil until the spring of the next year, without eating food.

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Fig.3. Female of European pond turtle laying eggs, photo by J. Holuk Protection status of European pond turtle in Poland and European Union European pond turtle has been under legal protection in Poland since 1935. On the basis of the Regulation of the Minister of Environment of 12 October 2011 on the Protection of Animal Species it is strictly protected and requires active protection, as well as the designation of areas of protection. Additionally, as a species of a very high risk, highly endangered, it is also included in the Polish Red Data Book of Animals. Within the IUCN Red List (International Union for Conservation of Nature) it is classified in the category of species of lower risk, close to be endangered in the global scale, but not requiring protection. European pond turtle is also protected by European Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora. It is listed both in Annex II - animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation as well as in Annex IV - animal and plant species of community interest in need of strict protection. It is also protected by the Berne Convention of 19 September 1979 on the Protection of Species of wild European flora and fauna and their habitats (Annex II, which strictly sets out protected species of fauna). In most of the areas of its occurrence the turtle is subject to different local and wider forms of protection.

I.2 GENERAL INFORMATION ON AESCULAPIAN SNAKE

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Aesculapian snake (Wąż Eskulapa) Zamenis longissmus (Fig. 4) is a reptile which belongs to the Colubrinae suborder and Zamenis family. In Poland typical species which occurs is- Zamenis longissimus (Laurenti 1768) (Sura 2005).

Fig. 4. Aesculapian snake, photo by K. Kurek Distribution Aesculapian snake occupies areas of North-Eastern Spain, almost whole France, Switzerland, northern and central Italy, Austria, south-eastern and southern Czech Republic, southern and south-eastern Slovakia, south-western Ukraine, Moldova and Romania. In the south and east its range includes the Balkans (Balkan Peninsula to the edge of Greece), the Black Sea coast, north-western edge of Turkey, Georgia, Armenia, up to the north-western Iran. Isolated positions of this species occur in Iran on Lake Urmia, in some regions of Germany, namely: Rheinggau-Taunus, Neckar-Odenwald and Salzach, in the Czech Republic in the area Karlovy Vary (Najbar 2004 a, b; Sura 2005). After the last European glaciation, Aesculapian snake occurred within a substantial area of Poland. Along with the re-cooling of the climate, range of this species has shrunk to just a few refugees. Currently, its occurrence is limited to the south-eastern part of the country (Szyndlar 1984 Najbar 2004 a, b). In our country, the population of this species is probably isolated from the border of its clustered range (Najbar 2004 a, b; 2002). There are known reports from the beginning of the twentieth century which indicate a large population of Aesculapian snake on Roztocze (Bayger 1948 Najbar 2004 a, b). Occasionally the species has been also recorded i.e. near Częstochowa (Skowron 2003 Wałecki 1883), Beskid Sądecki - Zarzecze near Łącko (Barowicz, Jastrzebski 1977), in Beskid Niski - the most recent reports from this area come from Zyndranowa near Dukla (Dembiczak 2004), Przemyśl-Podgórze (Najbar 2004 a, b). These reports were mostly concerned with single observations and it can be assumed that currently these positions are extremely sparse or

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extinct. In Bieszczady, up to 2003 recognition of the species distribution was conducted by Najbar

(2004

a,

b;

2002)

and

Błażuka

(2007).

Reports

by

these

authors

on the occurrence of the Aesculapian snake were mainly related to the San valley in the area of Otryt, the area of Lutowiska forest inspectorate and in the region of Solina. According to the latest reports, this species occurs in the areas of Komańcza, Cisna and Baligród (Kurek 2010, 2011, 2012). Despite the continuation of measures connected with searching for occurrence of the Aesculapian snake, current distribution of the species still can be regarded as insufficiently known. Morphology, coloration Aesculapian snake is the biggest of the domestic snake species, which can grow longer than 1.5 m (males are longer than females - sexual dimorphism).The body of Aesculapian snake is slender and lithe. The scales on the back are smooth, free of rebate, and there are 9 big, regular shields on the head. These species also has double anal scale. Coloration of the dorsal part of the body is usually dark, from olive-brown to brown. The edges of the scales are white, which gives the impression of mottle. Yellow brightening can be found on the back of the head, which is particularly explicitly marked at young specimens, which makes them similar to grass snakes. Habitat, food Snakes pick their habitats in hierarchical way and selective choice of these habitats is based on the micro-habitual preferences associated with foraging, reproduction, hibernation and thermoregulation (Harvey and Weatherhead 2006). Diverse structure of the majority of the habitats chosen by Aesculapian snake provides a large number of hiding places, abundant food base, breeding sites and winter shelter. Aesculapian snake inhabits a variety of habitats, which are characterized by good insolation and warm microclimate. Their habitats are usually wooded, semi-open and open areas, e.g. forest clearings, edges of deciduous forests, banks of rivers (Fig. 5) and creeks, quarries. It eagerly enters the anthropogenic habitats (Fig. 6), in which human activity creates many attractive places to hunt, busk in the sun and lay eggs. That is why, it is so often seen in the vicinity of villages, old wooden buildings, bridge abutments, sawmills, etc. Places for laying eggs are a very important part of Aesculapian snake habitat. They must be characterized by stable thermal and moisture conditions. Typically these are layers of plant material (hay, twigs, sawdust, branches, fallen tree trunks), sometimes the snake uses the spaces under rocks, crevices between the boards of buildings, manures etc. Unfortunately, the natural habitats do not offer many such structures, which is another factor contributing to penetration

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of Aesculapian snake in the territories inhabited by man, where snakes can find favorable places to lay eggs.

Fig. 5. Rocky bank of the river San – natural habitat of Aesculapian snake, photo by K. Kurek Fig. 6. Aesculapian snake on the roof of a wooden building, photo by K. Kurek

Aesculapian snake mostly eats small vertebrates - mammals and lizards. It often hunts for birds, and sometimes eats birds' eggs. Young individuals hunt for small lizards. Aesculapian snake is very effective in the extermination of rodents; adult snake can eat whole litter of a rodent, if the snake encounters it during the search for food. The victims are strangled with snake’s body. Strangled victim is swallowed with its head being eaten first. Smaller animals are swallowed alive. Procreation Aesculapian snake's mating season typically starts in May or June. At that time, sexually active individuals are very stimulated and move intensively around the area in search of a partner. After encountering a rival, adult males often begin ritual combat, involving mutual pushing and pressing to the ground. Individual which loses the battle usually crawls away, and the winner gains access to the female. Copulation lasts less than hour, during which the male holds the female by the head or neck part of the body. Aesculapian snake, which is thermophilic species, ends his hibernation late (usually in the beginning of May). It also mates later, when compared to oviparous grass snake Natrix natrix. Eggs are usually laid in July, sometimes as late as in August. The female lays eggs in one, and sometimes in two batches. The number of eggs laid is small, typically 8-12. Eggs measuring 35-58 x 17- 25 mm, are oval in shape, and larger than those of a grass snake eggs. Hatching occurs in late summer or early autumn. Young specimens measure from 25 to over

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30 cm in length. Their color is more contrast than the color of adults, which may lead to identifying them as grass snakes (Fig.7).

Fig. 7. Adolescent Aesculapian snake individual, photo by G. Baś The length of development of the embryo normally depends on the thermal properties and humidity of reproduction spots, which in turn are impacted by the material from which they are made (Najbar 2004 a, b, Gomille 2002, Sura 2005). The shortest incubation period of Aesculapius snake eggs is associated with places of a secondary nature, such as mounds of sawdust, where stinging occurs between 48 and 55 days after eggs have been laid, while in sun-exposed primary microhabitats such as rotting leaves stinging occurs between 58 and 65 days after oviposition. Whilst, in the shady microhabitats such as rotting wood incubation period of eggs is increased by up to 100 days, which makes the stinging fall on the month of October (Najbar 2004b). Aesculapius snake protection status in Poland and the European Union. Aesculapian snake is under strict protection (dying species in Poland and Europe), in the second edition of "Polish Red Data Book of Animals" it was given the status of critically endangered species CR (Głowaciński 2001). It is also included in the "Carpathian List Of Endangered Species" as an endangered species - EN (Witkowski, Król, Solarz 2003). It is also covered by the Berne Convention of 19 September 1979, on the protection of species of wild Eurpean flora and fauna and their habitats, and the European Council Directive 92/43/ EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora in Annex IV Animal and plant species of community interest in need of strict protection. In The Red Book of Endangered Species published by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), Aesculapian snake was classified as a species of "least concern". In Poland, in accordance with the Regulation of the Minister of the Environment of 12 October 2011 on the

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Protection of species of animals, Aesculapian snake is covered by strict protection and requires active protection, as well as designation of areas of protection.

I.3 GENERAL INFORMATION ON SMOOTH SNAKE Smooth snake is the most widespread species of the Cornella genus. Others include Coronella girondica inhabiting Italy, Sicily, Iberian Peninsula, southern France and northern regions of Africa and Coronella brachyura found in Asia in Deccan Peninsula. Currently, there are three distinguished subspecies of the smooth snake: Coronella austriaca austriaca, Coronella austriaca fitzingeri (Italian peninsula, Sicily), Coronella austriaca acutirostris (north-western Iberian Peninsula). The name "gniewosz" (Polish name of the species is gniewosz plamisty) comes from the belief that the snake is of very aggressive nature. Tales about a nervous nature of the smooth snake are slightly exaggerated. It is true that after the snake is caught it can bite (which is completely harmless to man), but many individuals behave gently and do not bite. Another, more colloquial name, "miedzianka", refers to smooth snakes with brown, reddish coloration. However, other legless reptiles with brown coloration, especially common European viper, are also called "miedzianka". The names of this species in other European countries mainly refer to its smooth scales, e.g. smooth snake (England), glattnatter (Germany), uzovka hladká (Czech Republic). Distribution Smooth snake inhabits vast area of Europe, from the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, the South of England and Denmark, up to the southern ends of the continent. To the east its range extends into Asia Minor, the Caucasus and the Ural mountain range. In Poland, the distribution of smooth snake is poorly known. In general, is has local and irregular character. It is a species which is reported individually in almost entire country, although its position is not evenly distributed (Głowaciński, Rafiński 2003). The northernmost observations of smooth snake come from Warmia and Mazury (around Łomża – G. Górecki oral inf.). A large number of statements come from i.e. Gostynińsko-Wloclawskie Lakeland (Zieliński and others 2002) and from the West of Poland (Opole Silesia, Lower Silesia, Lubuskie Land) (Profus and others 2012, Kaźmierczak, 2011 Najbar 1997). Posts of the smooth snake also spread out through almost entire southern part of the country. The species is relatively rare in Bieszczady Mountains (Bury 2009), it is more common in Pieniny

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Mountains (Rybacki 2008b) and on the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland. Numerous occurrences of smooth snake come from an area of Solska Primeval Forest and Roztocze (P. Stachyra oral inf.). Most of the reports on the occurrence of smooth snake in Poland are a single observation, larger groups of snakes are much more rarely observed. Populations counting more than ten individuals of this species were found in just a few locations. Morphology and diagnostic features Smooth snake is a rather small snake. The adult individuals usually grow up to 70 cm in length (females are larger than males).The body is slender, the head is small, oval, quite poorly isolated from the rest of the body. The tail accounts for about 1/5 of body length (males have relatively longer tail than females), and it ends sharply. Coloration of the dorsal part of the body varies. Shades of brown and gray are dominant. On this background, there is a darker pattern composed of 2-4 longitudinal rows of spots. These spots can connect longitudinally or transversely into strips or ladder-like patterns. Smooth snake does not have characteristic zigzag, which is characteristic for vipers, but the coloration of this species may be similar at first glance and lead to confusion (Fig. 9a, b). On the sides of the head, at eye level dark streak can be found. The head bears a clear stain in the U shape, which can connect with the pattern at the back (individuals inhabiting British Isles do not have a U-shaped ending). The pupil of the eye is round, as opposed to the vertical gap-like pupil of common European viper. The iris usually has golden or yellow-brown color. The top of the head is covered with 9 regular shields. The scales on the body are smooth and free of rebate. There are usually two anal shields (Fig. 8a, b). Sexual dimorphism is relatively poorly highlighted. In addition to the differences in size, there can also occur differences in the coloring of the body. Males are usually colored in various shades of brown, while in females darker, gray, colors

dominate.

Similarly,

males

have

lighter

ventral

side

than females, which usually is reddish-brown, while the female ventral side is mostly gray to black. Both sexes have a speckled pattern on the back. In sexually mature individuals, morphological differences are more vivid in the area near cloaca. Males, due to the presence of the reproductive organs, have thickened tail behind cloaca, which is relatively longer than the rest of the body than in case of females. Females' tail narrows down just behind the cloaca and it is shorter.

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Fig.8 and b. Typical coloration of smooth snake. Visible circular pupil and characteristic head spotting, photo by S. Bury

Fig.9 a, b. Common European viper. Visible vertical pupil and characteristic zigzag, photo by S. Bury Tab. 1. Summary of main characteristics of national legless reptile species (dice snake was omitted due to its uncertain status in Poland). Smooth snake  Small, slender, smooth scales, head with 9 regular shields.

  Common European viper

Grass snake

Aesculapian snake

Round pupil. The top of the body in various shades of brown or gray with 2-4 rows of spots or stripes. U-shaped stain on the head. Dark streak on the sides of the head.  Small, bulky, rebate scales, head with numerous irregular shields.  Vertical pupil.  The top of the body in various shades of brown or gray.  Zigzag ribbon on the back. V or X-shaped spot on the head. Dark and light streak on the sides of the head.  Quite a large head with 9 regular shields, rebate scales  Round pupil  Dark gray, brown or olive body, sometimes with darker spots on the sides or bright edges of scales.  Yellow, white or orange spots on the back of the head, surrounded by black color.  Large, slender, 9 regular shields on the head, smooth scales.  Round pupil.  Olive to brown top of the body, usually with bright spots. Yellow brightening on the back of the head.

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

Characteristic, solid, creamy-yellow bottom of the

body Blind worm

    

Small, slender, small shields on the head Body covered with numerous small, shiny scales. Round pupil Head slightly isolated, lizard-like Brown top of the body, sometimes with a dark line, usually darker sides. Dark bottom of the body with little scales.  Rarer, bright, gray individuals or ones with blue markings on the back.  May detach tail

Habitats Habitats in Poland where the smooth snake can be found are very diverse. It is generally believed that this species prefers well exposed to sun and dry environment. Most frequently, smooth snakes are present in semi-open and open areas overgrown with rather low vegetation of differentiated structure. This species most often chooses heterogeneous habitats, which constitute a mosaic of different elements - borderland plant communities, stony places (Fig. 10), the periphery of the forests and fields, balks, banks of watercourses, scarps and ravines; it also willingly enters into anthropogenic structures (Fig. 13). Despite the requirements connected with sunshine and food base accessibility (mainly lizards), smooth snake may also be present in typical forest habitats. It applies, however, to thinned stands such as pine forests (Fig. 12), which are characterized by good sunshine of the forest floor, and well-developed underbrush. This type of habitat enables also migration between positions (Zielinski, Stanislawski 2006). Foothills and mountains are dominated by denser stands that are too cool and moist for smooth snakes. In addition, strong shading causes that such habitats are avoided by potential victims of smooth snakes (lizards), therefore, in the southern part of the country this species is observed in narrower range of habitats; mainly in open and semi-open areas, such as xerothermic grasslands (Fig. 11), forest clearings, forests edges, roadsides, stony areas (e.g. quarries, deforested areas, screes) (Bury 2012).

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Fig. 10. Quarry-example of smooth snake’s habitat in Bieszczady Mountains photo by S. Bury Fig. 11 Typical habitat of smooth snake – xerothermic grassland, photo by W. Heise

Fig. 12 Pine forest-example of smooth snake’s forest environment photo by N Juras Fig. 13 Antrhopogenic habitat of smooth snake-ruins of wooden household, photo by S. Bury

Food and natural enemies Smooth snake is often referred to as a monofagic species which feeds mainly on lizards and other reptile species (there are also known cases of cannibalism). Research on food preferences of a smooth snake confirms this finding since in most cases lizards are the most common victims of smooth snakes. This snake, however, often hunts for other small vertebrates, for instance rodents and their litters. Diet composition of a smooth snake is dependent on the availability of different types of victims in a given area, so that the proportions of animal species eaten by the snake can vary; e.g. in the UK, the food

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composition is dominated by small mammals. Research conducted in Poland (Lubuska Land) showed that the reptiles are most frequently devoured (Najbar 2000). The nature of habitats occupied by this species in the area of the country shows that also in other regions the reptiles may constitute the basic element of its food base. Smooth snake has many natural enemies. These are, first of all, the birds of prey, corvids, storks and others. The snakes are also killed by mustelids, foxes, hedgehogs and rats. Domestic animals such as cats and chickens can likewise hunt for small smooth snakes. Phenology and reproduction Smooth snake ends its winter sleep in the spring, usually in April, but when the weather is favorable, even in March. Shortly after the end of hibernation it starts mating. Males are at that time very active and penetrate the area in search of a partner for reproduction. In the case of an encounter with other males it usually comes to fights, sometimes very violent, which might end up in injuring rivals. After finding a female copulation takes place which lasts less than an hour. The female gives birth to young in late summer (August, September). In populations inhabiting the mountainous areas, which are characterized by short growing season and severe climate conditions, the smooth snakes females can breed less frequently – once every two or even three years. There are several or over a dozen young born, depending on the size of a female. Newly born smooth snakes are small in size, from about 12 to 20 cm long, and their coloration is typically camouflaging. Smooth snakes reach sexual maturity in 3 or 4 years of age, and males mature faster than females. In the wild, they can live about 8 years. In the autumn, at the end of September, smooth snakes start seeking winter shelters. These are usually underground hideouts, maintaining a constant temperature of about fifteen degrees. The shelters are often simultaneously used by other animals. Status in Poland - changes and their causes Smooth snake is one of the rarest species of reptiles in our country. In the Polish Red Book of Animals it received the VU status – at risk of extinction, wherein its total population was estimated at only 8 - 9 thousand specimen (Profus, Sura 2001). The status of a smooth snake in Poland is, however, hard to define precisely. Over the years in the national herpetologic literature, there appeared contradictory statements on the subject. According to papers from the 1960s and 1970s, smooth snake was a frequent species in Poland (Młynarski 1971). Subsequent works indicated poor condition of the national population of smooth snake and a small number of known positions (e.g. Goslawski, Fisheries 1988; Zemanek, Rafiński

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1989). Finally, smooth snake species was considered extremely rare and endangered in Poland (e.g. Najbar 1997). However, a number of new positions were described over the past several years which suggests that this species is not as dire as previously thought. Nonetheless, these changes are probably not a result of colonization of new areas by a smooth snake, but a more thorough penetration of the area during the faunistic studies and a growing number of naturalists. Moreover, a smooth snake is a hardly detectable snake, what in some cases may result in inaccuracies in determining the state of population. The problem of detection was observed by, among others, Wiśniowski and Rozwałka (2007) describing a number of smooth snake observations in the Ojców National Park. According to the previous studies concerning the fauna of the Ojców National Park a smooth snake was considered a rare species (Antoszewska-Bugno, Młynarski 1977), sebsequently Szyndlar (1995) called a smooth snake as disappearing within the Park citing only a single observation. It is possible that a number of smooth snake in the park really underwent decline relatively to overgrowth of xerothermic grasslands. Wiśniowski and Rozwałka, however, drew attention to the conditions in which most of the observations of smooth snakes were made. In the national herpetologic literature the view prevailed that sunny and scorching weather is optimal for the search of the snakes (Juszczyk 1987). In the work cited, within the Ojców National Park most individuals of this species were, however, observed during cloudy days. The effectiveness of the search of smooth snakes under such conditions has been confirmed also by the observations conducted in other parts of Poland (Dembicka et al., 2006; Bury 2009). It is therefore possible that the alleged changes in the number of smooth snakes are the result of the difficulty in finding them. A nationwide monitoring of smooth snake was conducted in 2009 and 2010. Results of the monitoring shed some light on the actual state of smooth snake population. It was confirmed that on the majority the surveyed positions it is a rare species, even with the relatively good condition of the habitat. Only part of the population, which is numerous and resides in favorable habitat, seems to have a stable structure and a chance for existence in the coming years. Smooth snake’s situation in the alpine continental region is however less optimistic due to, among others, high isolation of the surveyed positions (Najbar 2012). There is no doubt that despite the latest reports of observations of the smooth snake and increasingly fuller recognition of its distribution and abundance in Poland, it is a rare species, and in many places a disappearing one. Status in Europe

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In most European countries, smooth snake is a rare and protected species. In 11 out of the 14 countries in the Western Europe, smooth snake was placed on the Red List. In Germany, Norway, Switzerland, Poland and Finland it was classified as vulnerable (VUvulnerable). In the Netherlands, Lithuania and Latvia smooth snake is considered to be an endangered species (EN-endangered). In Denmark it is an extinct species, while in France and Sweden it is classified as requiring special protection. According to the Bern Convention of 19 September 1979, smooth snake is a species in danger of extinction. The snake was also placed in the European Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora in Annex IVAnimal and plant species of Community interest in need of strict protection.

II. Threats and protection methods II.1 MAIN THREATS TO EUROPEAN POND TURTLE European pond turtle is nowadays a rare and endangered animal species. The extent of its occurrence in Poland is still shrinking despite legal protection. It is caused primarily by human activity, which is sometimes conscious, but in most cases it is related to the lack of knowledge. The main threats are undoubtedly those connected with degradation of wetland habitats by drying them, management of the wetlands, river regulation and water pollution. Fires of wetlands are the consequence of drying them. Dried reed beds burn easily and many animals including European pond turtles are killed each year in fire. The second group of risks is related to the development of infrastructure, including the ever denser network of roads and the growing intensity of communication traffic. Construction of new roads is on the one hand a very desirable action, especially by the local communities, but on the other hand it contributes to further habitat fragmentation and isolation of populations of different groups of animals. There are also known cases of destroying breeding grounds due to land development and mining of minerals (sand). On the other hand, in eastern Poland there are several turtle breeding grounds formed in old not used sand pits (Fig.14).

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Fig.14. One of the biggest European pond turtle breeding grounds in Polesie is located in a former sand mine. The abandonment of farming on the weakest, often sandy soils causes that they are devoted for afforestation on the large scale. Such a procedure is the most rational, but unfortunately sometimes the European pond turtle breeding grounds, perhaps the last ones in the region, are also destroyed. In a situation where we do not really know how many of them are still in the country, and we are aware of only 60-70 breeding sites, including about 40 in the Lublin region (Lubelszczyzna), each one is valuable due to protection of the turtle. Potentially very dangerous anthropogenic factor, of at the moment unknown scale of the threat to the European pond turtle, is the introduction of alien species into the environment such as red-eared slider (żółw czerwonolicy) Trachemys scripta elegans. It is a subspecies of the North American pond slider (północno amerykański żółw ozdobny) whose natural range of occurrence includes mid-east part of the United States. The present actual range of this reptile occurrence is much bigger and covers virtually all continents (except Antarctica). For this reason, the red-eared slider is considered to be the most widespread species of terrapin in the world. In Europe, red-eared sliders inhabit many reservoirs and watercourses in most of the countries, also in Poland. These reptiles are able to survive even severe winters due to the similar climatic conditions in our country and in northern part of the natural range of redeared slider occurrence in the USA. In order to better recognize the threat and plan a possible protective measures, The Polish Society for Nature Protection „Salamandra” from Poznań maintains a record of observations of alien species of turtles in the natural environment. Everyone who will observe such a turtle in nature may communicate information on this subject through the website of the Society: http://www.salamandra.org.pl/obcezgloszenie.html The example of American mink (norka amerykańska) Neovison vison, which almost completely displaced the European mink (norka europejska) Mustela lutreola native for our continent, should be an important warning for us.

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Natural factors influencing the regulation of the number of the European pond turtle, include: adverse climatic conditions, spontaneous overgrowing of breeding grounds, pressure of destroying nests predators, diseases and parasites. It happens that in the cool and wet summers (e.g. summer of 2011.), European pond turtle breeding success is minimal or non-existent. It is a natural phenomenon which is not as important for the existence of the population as the maintenance of appropriate habitat conditions for the long-lived species. Changes associated with overgrowth of psammophytic grasslands, where the female turtles lay their eggs constitute much greater threat to the reproductive success of the European pond turtle. After only a few years there may be no trace of the "turtle" grasslands as a result of succession or afforestation. Females attached to their breeding sites will return for some time to such places. Some of them, especially the old specimen, will come back even for a several or over a dozen consecutive years. However, in the changed conditions of habitat, the eggs have no chance for the full development of embryos and thus precious broods are lost. Young turtles fall prey to many animals: foxes, badgers, raccoon dogs, wild boars, ravens, herons, and even some insects like great diving beetle. Predatory fish are also dangerous for them. Only the hard armor, which hardens at about five years of age, provides protection from predators to young turtles. Predation is natural. But is the population size of some predators, like foxes natural? Over the last 20-30 years it grew on the Chełmskie Peat bogs up to 3 times. This is evident not only by the number of destroyed nests of the European pond turtle (Fig.15), but also by the drastically decreasing numbers of partridges and hares.

Fig.15. Turtle nest destroyed by a predator Diseases and parasites are a natural factor affecting the size and condition of the European pond turtle population. In Poland, little research has been conducted so far on diseases and parasites in turtles which live in the natural environment. In the years 2006-2007 a pilot test for the presence of pathological changes caused by microorganisms and parasites on 55

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specimen from the area of Słubice was conducted. They showed numerous bacterial infection infections caused by protozoa and fungi. There were also found common leeches from Rhynchobdellidae family inter alia leech Placobdella costata parasitizing turtles, and the presence of eggs or larvae of common internal parasites; nematodes (nicień) Nematoda, tapeworms (tasiemiec) Cestoda and trematodes (przywry) Trematoda in faecal. The state of health of some of the tested specimens from western Poland pointed to harassing them by serious illness (Najbar 2011). Although in the past 20-30 years, the state of our knowledge about the European pond turtle has been constantly increasing, this species is still hiding many secrets. Paradoxically, one of the largest areas of the current distribution and abundance of the European pond turtle in the area of our country. Nowadays, the most common cause of destruction of the turtle habitat is the lack of knowledge of its occurrence in a given place, and not a bad will of people. The turtle enjoys a moderate sympathy and there is ample evidence that people can give up their intentions when their implementation may destroy the habitats of this endangered and mysterious animal. That is why we must as soon as possible eliminate this threat resulting from the lack of knowledge of the survived positions of the European pond turtle in Poland.

II. 2. MAIN THREATS TO AESCULAPIAN SNAKE Isolated populations which are not numerous, especially those located on the edge of their range are particularly exposed to the effects of anthropogenic impact, such as loss and fragmentation of habitats, what in turn may lead to their extinction (Pullin 2004). The national Aesculapian snake population exists on the border of the total range of occurrence. It means that the environment conditions are not optimal in this area, since they prevent the dispersion of the species to the north. Unfavorable climatic conditions belong to the main threats of natural origin. Period of Aesculapian snake activity in the Bieszczady Mountains is shorter than of the other species of reptiles, what in some seasons prevents efficient reproduction of the Aesculapian snakes. In connection with late mating season and thus late egg laying, the final stage of the embryos development falls in the period of the first frost (the end of August, September). As a result, many eggs die and breeding success is not achieved. In addition, the breeding microhabitats available in the Bieszczady Mountains do not provide optimal conditions for incubation. Potential breeding sites located in the semi-natural and natural areas quickly lose their thermal and moisture properties because of progressive succession of vegetation.

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According to Najbar (2004 a, b), the number of Aesculapian snakes in the valley of the San probably remained stable enough until the mid-twentieth century. Extensive farming and cattle grazing dominated in these areas; at the time wooden and stone buildings favored the occurrence of this species. Due to the presence of man, large open spaces and a significant amount of secondary and adequate breeding habitats in the form of piles of manure, straw or hay were maintained over the last few centuries. After the displacement of the population under the "Vistula" action (akcja "Wisła"), the size of snakes could even temporarily increase since the remains of buildings and considerable forest-free lands favored the migration and spread of the population. The progressive secondary succession and planned afforestation in the last several dozen years caused a significant reduction of acreage and population size, and these tendencies confirmed the research conducted since the 1970s, on the basis of which, the size of "otrycka" population was estimated at only 80 - 100 specimens until 2009 (Najbar 2004 a, b). According to current knowledge, this species adopted a rather settled lifestyle. The greatest distances are covered by males during the mating period (up to 3 km) (Najbar 2004 a, b). Consequently, the isolated populations/positions in the Bieszczady Mountains do not provide the continuity of the species duration , what is more, the migrating animals, due to the small size, are not able to find breeding partners. In addition, the growing area of forests can lead to increased isolation of particular positions and consequently impede, or even completely prevent the colonization of new positions by snakes and migration between the existing ones (Najbar 2004 a, b, Kurek et al. 2009 mat. unpublished. Kurek et al . 2010, 2011). The already mentioned overgrowing of open and semi-open areas forces snakes to leave their positions. It is at increased risk for falling prey to predators, a man or being run over on transport routes. The growing amount of traffic results in increased mortality of animals on the road, including the Aesculapian snakes (Fig. 16). Snakes, as cold-blooded animals, can use quickly warming surfaces of roads, to warm themselves. In areas with high forest cover of roadsides, as an ecotone zone used by snakes as a place of existence, they are also the migration routes of animals. Aesculapian snake is a synanthropic species; it uses abandoned and inhabited buildings, apiaries, composters, where it finds a convenient place to lay eggs, permanent shelter and adequate food base (Drobny 1993, Heimes, Waitzmann 1993 Waitzmann 1993, Gomille 2002, Mikátová Zavadil 2001, Janoušek Musilová 2009, Najbar 2004a b; Kurek 2010).

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Fig. 16. Dead Aesculapian snake on the road around the "Krywe" nature reserve, photo by G. Baś The presence of snakes in the vicinity of human settlements is associated with an increased risk of thoughtless killing, falling prey to domestic animals and increased mortality on roads during migration. Undoubtedly, fear of vipers and inability to identify species of snakes has a negative impact on other national hoses, including Aesculapian snake. Impact of domestic animals on snake populations is difficult to determine. Cats, and even domestic birds can successfully hunt for young specimens of Aesculapian snake. High thermal requirements of Aesculapian snake are mostly reflected on the problem related to the limited availability of breeding microhabitats. Snakes penetrate to the areas inhabited by man in search of places to lay eggs. Female of Aesculapian snake and the grass snakes (zaskroniec zwyczajny) Natrix natrix, very willingly and in large numbers use for instance the piles of sawdust at sawmills to lay eggs. These two species may together lay up to several hundreds of eggs in one place (Najbar 2004 a, b). It should be borne in mind that due to low size of Aesculapian snake and its breeding biology the number of eggs of this species is from a few to a few dozen times lower compared to the number of eggs of grass snakes in such group layings. Until now such places provided breeding success and probably largely contributed to the survival of the Aesculapian snake in the area of the village Zatwarnica. The problem appeared a few years ago when sawdust reached the market value and is currently used for example for the production of fuel briquettes. The frequency with which they are sold prevents the formation of more sustainable breeding habitats and, consequently, results in the destruction of eggs and the formation of ecological traps for this endangered species. An important but difficult to define factor which negatively affects the size of the Aesculapian snake is trapping them illegally to private breeding. A procedure repeatedly described in the literature that threatens the Aesculapian snakes is illegal catching. Little is known about the intensity of this activity, however, in the second half of the twentieth century, there were many cases of catching snakes in the Bieszczady Mountains and their exporting into different parts

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of Poland e.g. to the zoos or abroad. Currently, there are indications that this practice still exists, but it is extremely difficult to catch people responsible for it red-handed.

II. 3. MAIN THREATS TO SMOOTH SNAKE Smooth snake populations are exposed to variety of factors that may have a negative effect on the size, age structure or condition of the habitat. Some of them are the result of natural processes occurring in the ecosystem, such as vegetation succession, but the threats of the most serious impact on the populations of smooth snakes are of anthropogenic origin. The main threats to smooth snake include:  Killing and extermination Smooth snake, due to its body size and coloration, is often confused with an adder and consequently becomes a prey for people who exterminate adders. This practice has sometimes an alarmingly high intensity. Killing of 7059 smooth snakes was recorded at the beginning of the last century in the area of Slovenia (Engelmann 1993). There is no precise data for Poland, but the information provided by Pax (1925) concerning the adders extermination clearly suggests the possibility of extermination of smooth snakes "by the way, and by mistake".  Loss of natural habitats and their fragmentation Smooth snakes’ occurrence is dependent on the presence of suitable habitats. Most of them are destroyed with cities and roads development. Some positions disappear as a result of afforestation of the open areas and changes in agriculture. The reduction of smooth snake habitats’ areas is associated with the increasing isolation of particular positions. Thereby, the risk of extinction of local populations is growing, inter alia, by limiting migration and potential decline of genetic variation.  Overgrowing of semi-open and open areas As was mentioned before, a smooth snake inhabits mainly non-forest areas (with some exceptions), with a high degree of sunshine. Overgrowing of such habitats is associated with a reduction of sunshine and thus the quality of the habitat decreases. In addition, also lizards – the main victims of a smooth snake – avoid shaded areas.  Development of road infrastructure and increase of car traffic Animal mortality on the roads has been a pressing problem for many years. Snakes are exposed to this factor in a particular way. Killed under the wheels of cars not only while

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crossing communication routes during migration, but they can also use the road to warm and search for the victims, which increases the risk of being run over.  Reduction of food base abundance Lizards constitute the main dietary ingredient of a smooth snake. Destruction of natural habitats, killing them by pets, changes in the use of agricultural land and many other factors lead to a reduction of the lizards number (at the same time, many of these factors affect directly the smooth snakes), what may have a negative effect on the condition of the smooth snake population. Also, the growing use of chemicals in agriculture and horticulture can seriously contribute to the diminution of the lizards and smooth snakes population. Chemicals which aim at extermination of invertebrates are able to accumulate in organisms of preying on insects lizards, then devoured by smooth snakes (Hall 1980).  Changes in agriculture In many cases the traditional farming favored the occurrence of smooth snakes population and other species of snakes. The open areas do not overgrow due to cattle grazing. Farm buildings provided a large number of hiding places and potential prey (lizards, rodents). Agricultural lands were fragmented by balks and heavy equipment, or pesticides were not used for the cultivation. Nowadays, clear and rapid adverse changes in agriculture can be observed. The most important of these include land reparcelling, as a result of which habitats and migration routes of snakes are destroyed, as well as the use of heavy equipment, which is associated with the killing of small animals, and the unfavorable impact of plant protection products. At the same time, there is no compensating actions ensuring the maintenance of at least fragments of habitats.  Increasing urbanization Cities development has a direct negative impact on the incidence of smooth snakes and other reptiles population. Natural and semi-natural habitats are destroyed relatively to the development of further areas. The urban environment is very rarely used by reptiles, and only in sporadic cases it happens that the populations of snakes persist in the cities (e.g. in Cracow [Kraków] – Bury 2011).  Catching snakes in order to keep them in terrarium. It is difficult to assess the real impact of this practice on the condition of smooth snake population. It is possible that, at the current availability of many species of snakes propagated in captivity, the cases of illegal catches are rare and are not so significant. However, the possibility of locally frequent catching of snakes should be taken into account, as was

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indicated by the numerous appeals of the Polish herpetologists (e.g. Gosławski, Rybacki 1988).

III Used and recommended methods of protection of European pond turtle, Aesculapian snake and smooth snake III. 1. LEGAL PROTECTION OF EUROPEAN POND TURTLE, AESCULAPIAN SNAKE AND SMOOTH SNAKE As was already mentioned in the chapter concerning protection status - European pond turtle, Aesculapian snake and smooth snake are in Poland subjected to strict protection and require an active protection, as well as the determination of protective zones. Passive protection, further referred to as conservation, is primarily the protection of the species through introducing universally binding prohibitions which are to protect the given species from the adverse influence of people. Selected regulations concerning the European pond turtle, Aesculapian snake and smooth snake (valid on the basis of the regulation on the protection of animal species) prohibit:  deliberate: killing, mutilation, capture, destruction of their eggs, juveniles, scaring and disturbance; 

transport, acquisition, retention, and also possession of live animals;



collection, retention and possession of specimens of the species;



destruction of their habitats, refuges, and nests;



selection, possession and storage of their eggs;



preparation of specimens;



disposal, offering for sale, exchange and donation of specimens;



photographing, filming and observation, which may cause scaring or disturbance to animals;



movement from places of regular presence to other places.

In order to ensure the permanent preservation of the species, its habitat or refuge, to eliminate the causes of threats and to improve the conservation status of its habitat or refuge, the locally

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competent Regional Director for Environmental Protection can determine and eliminate through an administrative decision – the protection zone of the refuges, breeding sites and regular presence of the European pond turtle, Aesculapian snake and smooth snake. The boundaries of the protection zones should be marked with boards bearing the words "Animal refuge, no admission for unauthorized persons." In justified situations, such as scientific research or active protection of the population, it is possible to obtain derogations from some of the aforementioned prohibitions.

In the protection zones, without the permission of the regional director for environmental protection the following is prohibited:  stay of people, with the exception of the owner of the property covered by the protection zone, the management personnel and persons who supervise the areas covered by the protection zone, as well as those who work under a contract concluded with the owner or manager;  cutting down trees or shrubs;  making changes in water conditions; if it is not associated with the need of protection of particular species;  erection of buildings, equipment and installations.

Two types of protection zones around breeding sites and regular presence of the European pond turtle and Aesculapian snake have been created: 

all year round zone - valid within 200 m of the breeding places and places of

regular presence; 

seasonal zone - valid within 500 m of breeding places and places of regular

residence; which is valid from 1 March for the European pond turtle (1 April for the Aesculapian snake) to 30 September. The provided size of the protection zone for the smooth snake: 

Up to 100 m throughout the year;



Up to 500 m in the period from 1 March to 31 August.

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Fig.17. Marking of the European pond turtle protection zone in the Sobiborskie Forests (Lasy Sobiborskie), photo by J. Holuk In situations dictated by the need of species protection, the regional director for environmental protection may issue a permit to derogations from the prohibitions concerning cutting down trees and shrubs as well as changes in water conditions. Many people involved in nature conservation, including foresters, avoid designating protective zones in their area, because of the prohibitions and administrative procedures associated to the necessity of agreeing on any treatment in the zones, and above all, of the excessive length of the proceedings. These concerns, unfortunately, tend to be justified. It should be remembered, however, how greatly the species of European pond turtle, Aesculapian snake and smooth snake are important for our native fauna and how they are threatened. Do we have the right to subject the conservation of these species habitats to such an extent only on the goodwill of people? Shouldn’t the foundations of these species and their habitats protection be permanent, not subject to various, sometimes even conjunctural interests? Proper planning of the potential protective area may prove to be free from obstacles for the local residents and users of the area, and what is more, it may even be advantageous (e.g. protection against land investments of an educational or recreational value). In practice, the designated area may have a smaller area than listed in the regulation on animal species protection. Therefore, this type of protective treatments must be properly consulted with specialists who may offer an optimal, compromise solution. Any unnecessary difficulties in communication should be tackled through dialogue between the concerned parties to the proceedings. The parties mutual respect and understanding is the foundation of a good cooperation. Area protection is a stable security of the given area, which does not mean, of course, that in every case of a turtle, Aesculapian snake, or smooth snake presence there must be such a zone designated, or a nature reserve set up. In some cases, the designation of the zone may not be necessary, e.g., when the use of a given area reinforces the occurrence of snakes, and the protective regime of the zone prohibits performance of certain tasks. For

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example, in the area inhabited by humans, e.g. at the villages, some anthropogenic structures such as piles of wooden planks, branches or construction waste may constitute advantageous hiding places for the smooth snakes and Aesculapian snakes; grazing cattle, in turn, prevents the overgrowth of open areas, etc. Clearly, however, the protective zones provide a good protection for positions of the discussed reptile species in situations of an imminent threat of habitat, e.g. a planned construction investment. The position of the species mentioned above, to which it was considered not to be protected in the form of nature reserves or protective zones, can be protected in other forms, such as ecological ground. According to the act of 16th April of 2004 on nature conservation, ecological grounds are remains of ecosystems worth protecting which are important for the conservation of biological diversity - natural water reservoirs, mid-field and forest ponds, clumps of trees and shrubs, swamps, peat bogs, dunes, areas of unused vegetation, old river beds, rock outcrops, slopes, rocks, natural habitats and habitats of rare or protected species of plants, animals and fungi, their refuges and reproduction places or places of seasonal residence. Currently, the resolution of the municipal council establishes and abolishes this form of nature protection. It specifies the name of the given object or area, its location, supervisor, the specific objectives of protection, if necessary, the arrangements for its active protection and prohibitions applicable to this object, area or its part. The project of such a resolution requires to be agreed with the competent regional director for environmental protection. The abolition of ecological ground occurs in the event of a loss of natural values, for which the form of conservation was established or, if necessary, the implementation of a public purpose investment or ensuring public safety. The full text of the act of nature conservation can be found in the Online System of Legal Acts - isap.sejm.gov.pl.

Permissions for derogation from the prohibitions In the case of planning the protective measures concerning smooth snake, Aesculapian snake and European pond turtle, it may be necessary to obtain the appropriate permits. Specimen applications for the derogations from the prohibitions can be found on the pages of the

Regional

Directorate

for

Environmental

Protection,

General

Directorate

for

Environmental Protection or the Ministry of Environment. The application must clearly define the actions which are to be implemented with justification for the selection of these and not other methods. The information such as an estimated number of specimens which will be

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caught (if they will), a description of the planned procedures, time and place of works, the names of the people involved and the significance and potential effect of the proposed activities on the populations should also be provided. It is necessary to obtain additional permits in the case of planning works on protected areas. Applications are usually examined by people who do not specialize in the biology of reptiles. Therefore, placing the vast and intricate descriptions stating the validity of the planned activities should be avoided. Descriptions and justifications of the proposed procedures should be concise and clear. In some cases it may be helpful to enclose a copy of an article or other text which confirms the reliability of the chosen activities.

III.2 ACTIVE PROTECTION OF EUROPEAN POND TURTLE Active protection measures were forced by the pressure which people put on the particular species and ecosystems and the changes in the habitats which are the effect of human activity. Active conservation complies with the latest trends, programs and documents about active conservation, i.e. Convention on Biological Diversity signed in Rio in 1992, which assumes that the species extinction to the "natural" level should be stopped; the strategy of EU sustainable development targeted to stop the decline in biological diversity till the end of 2012 using the network Natura 2000, etc. It seems to move in the right direction because non-intervention management attempts on some ecosystems do not work, for example, xerothermic grasslands do not exist any longer. Meanwhile, active conservation has its desired effects. However, is it always the case? To answer the question if active of passive conservation is better Dr Krzysztof Wojciechowski from The Pope John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin (KUL) wrote that “we should do one thing and do not neglect another one”. The interference in nature, natural processes, especially in Polish environment has been so developed that passive protection would not work properly on its own anyway. If we excluded the active conservation, we could not admire many species by now or in the near future, including perhaps the European pond turtle. Identification of turtle occurrence The European pond turtle is a reserved and skittish animal. Its observation in its natural environment is quite difficult and requires a lot of patience. The relatively easiest period to observe the turtles is the springtime when they bask in the sun after the winter on the tussock grasses or on the wood logs which are left on the surface of water. It is much easier to observe them in the period of laying eggs, i.e. between the middle of May and the middle of June-sometimes slightly longer. The females leave the bogs and sometimes migrate even

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several kilometer long distances from the source of water to their nests, but most frequently these distances are between several dozen to several hundred meters. Most often the place of laying eggs remains the same for many years, however, this is not the rule. These places are local "hillocks," southern slopes, plantation, dirt roads through forests or fields, sandy verges of asphalt roads or arable lands which are exposed to the sun as well as being well warmed up. Sometimes they are only the small mid-forest glades in the old tree stand which cover an area of several hectares or the area under the power line. There are also cases when of building the nests in the backyard just near the detached house or in the orchard or on the wild sand excavation. The observation in this period should be carried out very carefully because the female which leaves the nest then is easily startled. The return of the female to the nest may last from several to several dozen days. Such a long loss of time during the incubation of eggs may result in losing the brood when the weather conditions are adverse (cold or humid summer). For the same reason we should not approach the female and under no circumstances can we capture the animal. The good indicator of the turtles' presence in the particular area are the remnants of the nests which have been damaged by the predators (Fig. 15). It is usually a small hole which is 12 cm deep with the white eggshells’ remains which can be scattered within 1-1.5 m from the nest. Plundering the nests by the predators occurs most often up to several days after the eggs have been laid and also in the final stage of the incubation and the hatching. Yet another method of searching for the turtles’ presence in the area is to look for prints which are left by the adult individuals on the ground. The best places to observe such prints are sandy roads and the ploughed field. There the prints may be very clear (Fig. 18).

Fig.18. The print of the European pond turtle on the sandy road, photo by J.Holuk Active Conservation of the broods a) protection of the nests by using steel mesh during the incubation

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Active conservation of the broods consists of two basic stages: the spring one (the period of laying eggs) and the autumn one (during the hatching). The spring stage is based on the observation of the breeding places, looking for the females of the European pond turtle, observation of the process of laying eggs, protection and marking of their nests (Fig. 19). In order to protect the nests the metal, galvanized mesh of the size of 50 x 50 cm is used. It is anchored to the ground with the rods from the ribbed reinforcing bars which are from 40 to 60 cm long (Fig. 20, 21). Protected laid eggs should be inside the mesh. A sheet of paper with the description of the nest or the female which nested there should be put into the plastic ziploc bag in order to prevent it from getting wet. Then, we should place it under the mesh in such a way so that it does not overshadow the laid eggs. Now, the nest can be camouflaged with the thin layer of the conifer needles, the leaves and the sand. The female can be captured to measure or to brand when we have the competent body of nature conservation permission and only after the eggs have been laid.

Fig. 19 and 20. The nests of the European pond turtle protected from the predators with the usage of the metal mesh. On the right there is an example of the additional protection which is used in the places where the predators have learnt how to destroy the nests which are covered with meshes, photo by J. Holuk The observations of the breeding place ought to be conducted from 4 p.m. to dusk. The most females appear in the breeding place between 5 p.m. and 8 p.m. but there are also females which come at dusk. The penetration of the breeding place in the period when the females are looking for the proper place to nest, which is signalized by the upstretched head and the observation of the surroundings, should be done carefully and from the distance and the best way to do it is using the binoculars. During this time the females are very skittish. At the final stage of laying eggs it is the right time to approach the female but what must be remembered is the fact that it should be done with caution, as only in that way it is possible to evaluate the

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stage of the process and to predict time which is needed to complete the process. At this time we can mark with the sticks the detailed localization of the nest using the method of the equilateral triangle. The base of the triangle is composed of the sticks and the vertex of the triangle is a place where the nest is located. When the female leaves the nest it is easy to place the mesh properly. It should be remembered that during the warm day 10-15 minutes after the female leaves the nest is enough time to lose the place where the eggs are laid and this place could be very difficult to track.

Fig. 21. The scheme of the protected nest of the European pond turtle, photo by N. Juras During summer the breeding places should be monitored. Camouflage of the nests should be supplied and the protective mesh should be controlled. In this period the rods and the protection meshes disappear most often. In the middle or at the end of August the sticks which are 2-3 cm thick should be put under all meshes to avoid the mesh directly touching the ground. It aims at creating the space for young turtles which leave the nest on their own. The sticks can be placed in two different ways, depending on the expected number of the incubation controls. If we assume that the control will take place at least once a day but the best option is to control the incubation more than once, the sticks can be arranged in a square in the way which will allow the young to leave the nest. It is the best way to monitor the number of the young. The nest should be inside the mesh between the sticks. As a result, it is absolutely necessary to monitor the nest since the young under the mesh are in danger of being overheated in the sun or attacked by predators. In the case when we are not sure if we are able to control the nest at least once a day, two sticks should be placed parallel to each other and the nest should be in the middle to allow the young to leave the mesh on their own (Fig. 22).

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Fig.22. Thanks to two sticks arrangement under the mesh the young turtles can leave the nest freely, photo by J.Holuk

Fig.23.Young turtles in the nest, photo by J. Holuk The autumn stage may begin at the end of August but it most often begins in the first half of September. One should remove the camouflage and observe the nests to set a date of incubation. The young turtles after hatching (Fig.23) are taken from the mesh and brought to the chosen reservoir of water. Bringing the young to the reservoir of water is crucial, especially in the period when the water table is low and the watercourse or the closest swamps are dried up. Otherwise, the young need to cover a long distance during which they are vulnerable and have little chances to survive.

b) nuisance of predators Theoretically, much simpler method of reducing the loss in the brooding would be limitation of the number of predators by hunting them. This method may be the only right solution in the areas where the meshes do not work because the predators learn how to avoid the protections. Such situation occurs in some breeding places in Sobibór forests on Polesie. In practice, the

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case is much more complicated. We must take into account ethics because the hunting would be the most effective during the turtle's incubation period and it is also most often the period during which the predators bring their young up and organization issues are of concern here. Only particular predators who prey on the breeding places should be hunted. The two year period of hunting the predators in Sobibór forests has had no satisfactory effects yet. We can distinguish two probable causes of this situation. Firstly, the predators which do not prey on the breeding places are eliminated. Secondly, the population of the foxes is reduced in too small numbers when we take into consideration their whole size in the particular area. To verify these assumptions we should observe the situation for a longer period of time. Active conservation of the breeding places a) keeping the proper amount of sunlight in the breeding places (reduction of afforestation and planting bushes) Keeping the proper amount of sunlight in the breeding places of the European pond turtle is the most basic method to guarantee the survival of the species in the particular area. The breeding places which become overgrown with plants seem to be an even more difficult problem than the loss of the wetland habitats even if from the local point of view it may appear differently. The clearance of the plants can be carried out in two periods: in late autumn- winter or during summer after the period of laying eggs. Moreover, two aspects ought to be remembered. Firstly, in the breeding place in summer as well as in winter no heavy vehicles that can destroy the eggs or kill the young turtles left in the ground for winter are permitted. Especially, the clearance of the bushes and the suckers of the trees should be carried out just above the ground to gain the best sunlight of the area. Most often people who carry out the clearance of the larger areas of land omit the smaller and very numerous plants. All plants which are removed should be taken from the breeding place area and managed according to the law. The land clearance should provide the good sunlight for all places where the females lay eggs during the whole day.

b) fencing in the breeding places which are in danger of being destroyed by the machines We can observe more and more often that the breeding places which become overgrown with plants makes the females lay eggs on the verges of the roads or even in the centre of the dirt roads. The best solution would be to forbid the traffic in this area during the incubation period but it is not always possible. Other possibilities include fencing off the nests with the wooden

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dowels to prevent them from being destroyed by vehicles or to mark out an alternative road. The dowels can be put into the ground next to the nest or placed on the ground in such a way so as to make the vehicle go round the nest.

Preservation of the migration routes Creating an opportunity for the turtles to move between the places of their summer and winter stay and the breeding places is a crucial factor to preserve the survival of the species in the particular area. We should focus on two aspects of this problem: creating an opportunity for them to move now and in the future, even in the distant one. In the first case we should concentrate on removing the obstacles on their walking way and to guarantee the optimal habitat conditions of the wildlife corridor, etc. In the second case the most important is to analyze planning documents, for example, Study of the Conditions and Directions of the Spatial Management of a Commune, Local Spatial Management Plan of the area with the aim of establishing how to eliminate the possible threats to the turtle as soon as possible- that is when the planning documents are in the process of creation. Preservation of the wetland habitats by improving the hydrographic conditions Preservation of the wetland habitats as well as the other habitats which are necessary for the European pond turtle to live is a crucial element as far as the survival of the population of this species is concerned. This aspect of the preservation is most often mentioned during the conservation practices in the areas of Poland. Most of the projects which are realized to protect the turtle are connected to a greater or to a lesser extent with the improvement of the hydrographic conditions. Most often it is building or rebuilding of the ponds, stopping the uncontrolled water outflow from the hydrographic basins by building dams or rebuilding of the existing ones to stop the water. Projects presented in this publication are the affirmation of this practice. The detailed procedure of the investment preparation to improve the hydrographic conditions depends on the scope of the planned activities and the other conditions, i.e. local regulations. However, the general scheme is very similar and may be useful during the process of work planning. The example of the correctly planned order of the initiatives in the investment process which aim at preservation and improvement of the hydrographic conditions in the valuable natural areas:  carry out wildlife inventory (description of natural resources);  carry out natural valuation (evaluation of natural values);  describe the objectives to achieve;  work out the idea of work realization;

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 carry out the public consultations;  carry out the project outline and submit it to the right institution;  obtain the necessary opinions and agreements (carry out environmental impact assessment, if required);  carry out the necessary technical documents (documents to obtain the permit required by Water Law Act, building permit design);  obtain a permission to begin the construction project (construction notification or construction permit);  select the work executors and the execution of the work;  provide the appropriate technical and environmental supervision;  reporting the end of the work (if required) and begin to exploit the object;  monitor the achieved ecological effects.

Ecological education of the local community and the policymakers in the area populated by the European pond turtle. Nature conservation which is not supported by some initiatives including ecological education of the local community and the popularization of the issues connected with the need to protect the particular species or habitats does not bring about such effects, especially during longer periods of time, than the one which is supported by such initiatives. People who are aware of the urgency to protect the animals are more likely to give up on some privileges or rights in order to support the more important cause. There are many methods to achieve this aim but the best of them, especially for children and teenagers, are didactic paths which have an adequate and attractive infrastructure, e.g. observation towers, lookout points, announcement boards, footbridges, etc. Tourist infrastructure makes the place more attractive for tourists and as a result the local authorities express their approval.

The examples of the educational initiatives which are used to protect the European pond turtle:    



lectures about European pond turtle, the threats, the needs and the methods of protection for the adults who live in the area where the European pond turtle occurs; contest organization: art, music, literary-which popularize protection of the turtle and the other rare plant and animal species; issuing different publications which popularize the need to protect the endangered species and the natural habitats: folders, brochures, calendars, etc.; printing small gifts to popularize the endangered species, e.g. bookmarks, stickers, pocket diaries which can be gave out during the lessons and the meetings devoted to the protection of this species, preparing different kinds of gadgets with the inscription which popularize protection issues,

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e.g. the T-shirt with printed design, mugs, pens, etc..

III. 3. ACTIVE PROTECTION OF AESCULAPIAN SNAKE Conservation – improving habitat conditions The Aesculapian snake is a typical thermophile. Therefore, it lives in the habitats which have an intense sunlight and where the thermoregulation is possible. Over the years, in the Bieszczady Mountains progressive overgrowing of the half-open and open spaces has been observed. Such a problem is one of the most important causes of the progressive isolation of the particular habitats because of the fewer possibilities of migration between them. Therefore, preventing the excessive succession is a key element of the conservation of this species in Poland. Preserving the half-open and open spaces is based on the regular mowing and removing the bushes. Flushing the snakes out or catching them till the end of the work should precede the mowing. People who want to flush the snakes out should walk on the chosen area from one side to another or from the inside to the outside. It prevents the snakes from going to the central part of the grassland where they may be killed during the mowing. In order to avoid killing the snakes which escaped the area earlier one should mow the ground on the particular level (at least 30 cm) not just above the ground. A good idea is to mow larger areas of the land, which is usually a mechanical process, after mating season or laying eggs in August. As far as direct mowing of the breeding places (natural or anthropogenic)- mounds is concerned, it can be done twice in the season (at the turn of May and June or August and September). However, it should be done manually and after flushing the snakes out. Removing the bushes should take place before the activity period of the snakes, which is between the end of September and the end of April, to minimize the danger of killing the snakes during the works. Performing such works later requires much more caution. It is similar to the mowing because we need to flush the snakes out or catch the snakes temporarily. Removing the bushes should be carried out without using heavy equipment. The branches and the boughs which are left after work can be used to enrich the habitats in terms of additional hiding places and the places where the snakes can bask in the sun (Fig. 24, 25).

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Fig. 24, 25. The heap of the branches and the trunks after removing the bushes and the trees in the area. Photo by K. Kurek, G. Baś Improving the habitat conditions should not be limited to the places of living of the Aesculapian snake. In many cases the places are isolated from each other, sometimes completely. The isolation can be partially eradicated by preparing some additional glades in the forest or lighting the shaded valleys of the watercourse which are used for the migration by the Aesculapian snake. New glades should be located between the familiar places for the Aesculapian snake in order to create a sort of migration corridor which links the places where the snakes live. Conservation – enriching the habitats

Enriching the habitats of the snakes is creating new hiding places for them which protect them from the predators and people, appropriate places to bask in the sun, laying eggs and microhabitats which are used as the food base, e.g. rodents and lizards. Research which was done in the Bieszczady Mountains in the San Valley at the foot of Otryt shows that the Aesculapian snake is often met in the anthropogenic areas, e.g. in the country where it uses secondary microhabitats such as wooden buildings, organic waste landfill (e.g. the branches, grasses, sawdust) and construction waste landfill (rubble, planks, slates, etc.). In such places the Aesculapian snake can hide, hunt, lay eggs and bask. The structures which are to enrich the natural habitats of the Aesculapian snake should be planned on the basis of the research observations. The rest of the work is based on lighting the habitats and the fragments of the trees and the bushes can be used to create the secondary hiding places. The bigger the heap of the branches and the boughs is, the better it is for the snakes. Such hiding places should not be located in the centre of the open space but on the border (the border of the forest or the grassland). Because of such arrangement of the heap of branches, the snakes are not forced to move in the

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open space where the risk of being attacked by the birds of prey is very high. The good solution is to link the breeding mounds with the heap of branches or to locate the branches in such a way that they are the link between the mound and the closest fragment of the heterogeneous habitat with plenty of hiding places (e.g. border of the forest, bushes, Fig. 26, 27).

Fig. 26, 27. The heaps of stones, branches and the reproductive mounds on the border of the ecotone, 'Krywe' reserve, photo by K. Kurek

A different way of creating the hiding places for the Aesculapian snake is making a stone mounds. It is similar to the heap of branches because the bigger the heap of stones, the better it is. A good idea is to combine two structures - the heap of stones and branches. It makes the microhabitat larger and more diversified. One of the elements of the Bieszczady landscape are remains of the stone walls and wooden buildings. To make the walls useful for the Aesculapian snake it is advisable to provide them with light which is based on the regular removal of the bushes and mowing (Fig. 28a, b, c). Wooden buildings, especially these which are the parts of the infrastructure of the State Forests, like shanties, utility rooms, wooden sheds, etc. should have the same form when the snakes can be found there. All works connected with preserving such buildings can be done but it is important not to destroy the habitat of this species because of the renovation. When the building has to be demolished or modernized and the snakes cannot use this places any longer there is an obligation to create a different structure in a similar shape which may be a replacement for the snakes. It should be remembered that preserving the wooden buildings applies to exceptional cases in the area managed by the State Forests inside the forest complexes, therefore, the decision about preventing measures of such buildings should be made after consulting foresters as well as specialists.

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Fig. 28a. Exposed stone walls, inside them there is a heap of branches, photo by K. Kurek

Fig. 28b. The mound and the heap of branches during their supplementation in the winter in 2011- on the heap the sack with sawdust can be seen. The mound and the heap of branches are located inside the stone walls in the area of the former village called Tworylne, K. Kurek's photo

Fig. 28c. The stone walls in the former village called Tworylne, K. Kurek's photo All activities listed above are favorable not only for the Aesculapian snake but also for different vertebrates, mainly small mammals and lizards which are the food base for the

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snakes. The mounds, the heaps of branches and trunks are also useful for different types of reptiles which the Aesculapian snake coexists with.

The examples of the structures which enrich the habitats of the Aesculapian snake : a) the heaps of branches - branches, boughs and small trunks. Such structures should be arranged in the neighborhood of the habitats of the Aesculapian snake or they can be built when the forest works are carried out, e.g. on the border of the clear-cutting area where the species occurs. European beech (buk zwyczajny) Fagus sylvatica and Grey alder (ochla szara) Alnus incana are the best types of trees to form the heap of branches. However, different types of deciduous trees can be used to build the structures. The heap of branches should be at least 5 m long, 3 m wide and 1.5-2 m high. 60% of the boughs and branches have > 20 cm in diameter. b) the heaps of trunks The more solid structures are built from heavy trunks and boughs in the similar way as the heaps of branches. 40% of the heaps of trunks consist of the cut trunks which are up to 1 m long and > 30 cm in diameter and the boughs and branches > 15 cm in diameter which are arranged in a heap on a circle base 6-10 m in diameter and are 1.52.5 m high. The smaller branches should be put on the heavy trunks. The other types of such structures are more or less regular heaps of the heavy trunks (Fig. 26, 27). The heaps of trunks should be located in the light places and should be combined with other structures which enrich the habitat of the Aesculapian snake.

Fig. 29, 30. The heaps of trunks and branches, K. Kurek's photo

c) Structures (platforms) from the trunks and the branches in the area which is mowed regularly.

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The structures should be supplied regularly with the straw bales and the hay in the large area of the grasslands and the glades which are mowed. On the substructure from the heavy boughs, trunks and branches the straw bales or dried hay are put. Such structures must be flat in order to pile up the layers of the hay, which are the roof of the structure and the boughs and the branches are to isolate the hay from the ground and prevent from forming a tight anaerobic zone in the rotten material. The structures should be at least 8 m long and wide and 1.5 m high. The boughs and the trunks must be relatively thick (diameter about 20 cm) in order to increase the durability (Fig. 31, 32)

Fig. 31, 32. The platform from the trunks and the branches, K. Kurek's photo d) the heaps of stones The heaps of stones should be arranged from the big and flat stones at least 30 cm in diameter in the shape of the cone on a circle base about 3 m in diameter and 1.5 m high. Active conservation – supporting the reproduction One of the most serious threats to the Aesculapian snake in Poland is a low level of reproduction caused by the difficult climatic conditions. The Aesculapian snake ends the hibernation relatively late (the end of April and the beginning of May) and begins the mating and laying eggs later. As a result the incubation takes place late in the summer and at the beginning of the autumn. In this period in the Bieszczady Mountains it gets cooler and the first ground frost occurs which may lead to disruption of the incubation and the death of the eggs. Moreover, the number of reproductive microhabitats in which the temperature is constant and high regardless of the weather conditions is limited. The situation may be improved by creating the secondary places of eggs incubation. The most common way is to create the mounds of the straw, the sawdust and the branches which during the putrefaction have the adequate thermal conditions and water content. Consequently, the incubation can be finished and the young can hatch out. Firstly, the heap of boughs and branches should be arranged on the mound. They are the base on which the hay

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and then the sawdust is put. When the sawdust is added to the mound, it is advisable to add more branches. In this way we can avoid forming a tight accumulation of the sawdust which is not beneficial to the eggs development because of the anaerobic conditions inside the mound. Moreover, preparing the mound in such a way helps to create many spaces and holes which provide a good ventilation of the mound as well as a hiding place for the snakes and other small vertebrates (Fig. 33,34).

Fig. 33, 34, 34a. The stages of creating the fenced mound - on the heap of trunks and branches in the metal hutch the hay and the sawdust are added. Then the mound is fenced with the timbers, K. Kurek's photo. The size of the mound is also important. The smaller mounds lose their properties quickly and the snakes are less willing to use them. The rule "the bigger the better" is the best as far as the mounds are concerned.

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The wire netting around the mound may be a necessity since the animals which take the eggs (e.g. boars and bears) as well as people who catch the Aesculapian snakes for private purposes penetrate the snakes' habitats. It is also important that the meshes of the net should be wide enough to enable the pregnant females to slither through them. The fence around the mound should be padlocked. It is an additional safeguard and when we open it, it is an opportunity to supply the mound with new substratum after the old one is used.

Construction of the reproductive mounds: a) The reproductive mound without any fence (parameters) On the substructure from the branches and the boughs (European beech and Grey alder are recommended, 60% of the branches used should be > 20 cm in diameter),which are at least 1.5 m high, 3 m wide and 5 m long, 1.5 m of the hay should be piled up. Then, about 15 m3 of the sawdust should be put on such structure.

Fig. 35. Unfenced sawdust mound, photo by K. Kurek

b)Fenced reproductive mound In the places particularly valuable for Aesculapian snake, exposed to increased human penetration and the destruction caused by other animals such as wild boar, deer, bison, bears, mounds can be fenced in two ways. The first involves the construction of a metal structure lockable from the top, in the dimensions of 2x3 m, height of 1.3 m, surrounded by fencing of logs measuring 3x4m, height. 1.5 m. Spaces between the logs total at 10-20 cm. The mound should be built on the principles specified for the unfenced mound but to the dimensions limited by the size of the structure. The second possibility is a mound fenced with logs with

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spaces of approx. 5 - 7 cm, with metal top closure in the dimensions of 2.5 x 3.5 m and a height of 1.5, (Fig. 36, 37)

Fig. 36. The dimensions of cages for fenced mound, author: B. Najbar

Fig. 37. Fenced reproductive mound, photo. K. Kurek

III.4 ACTIVE PROTECTION OF SMOOTH SNAKE Diagnosis of population status and threats – inventory and monitoring Inventory a) The search for snakes in the area In the second half of the twentieth century, there was the view in a national herpetological literature that the best conditions to seek smooth snake are hot and sunny days (e.g. Juszczyk 1987). Such weather conditions are undoubtedly very favorable for snakes, but form the point of view of field research they may pose a holdback, because the reptiles are more hidden during day when their activity is the most intense, they spend less time soaking up the sun on the exposed surfaces, and they move faster while fleeing. Observations made i.a. in Ojców National Park (Wiśniowski, Rozwałka 2007) and in Bieszczady Mountains (Bury 2009)

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indicate that warm, sunny or with partial cloudiness, but not hot days are convenient conditions for smooth snakes search. Smooth snakes are encountered quite often also during cloudy weather, for example, preceding rain or storm. For the best result, it is advised to search in the morning, during forenoon hours, or in the afternoon. Binoculars may be helpful during searching for snakes, for example, when we search in open but inaccessible piece of land, such as rocky cliffs, slopes of glens, etc. The area of potential presence of smooth snakes should be penetrated slowly and carefully, so as not to shy the snakes. While searching you should check the various types of potential hiding places, such as flat stones, rock crevices, boards, pieces of foil, sheet metal, construction waste, under which snakes can hide. Please remember to restore all the structures to the state in which they were found after controlling, so that the animals can continue to use them. Snakes use diverse, ecotonal habitats most willingly (Fig. 38), so we can find them in places such as the peripheries of the fields and forests, balks, borderline of various vegetation groups, bushes, stone mounds, wood piles, fallen logs of trees, railway embankments, slots under rail decks, etc.

Fig. 38. Potential hiding places of smooth snakes: 1 - tangle of roots, 2 – overhangs of land, 3 – clamps of grass, 4 – shrubs, 5 – stone mounds, 6 - heaps of stumps and branches b) Artificial hiding places In the case of large areas, for example, meadows, heaths, a search of the whole area can be difficult. Moreover, dense vegetation and a small number of hiding places on the ground surface (stones, pieces of wood) make it difficult to find snakes. In such places laying of artificial hiding places can be helpful. To create an artificial hiding place it is possible to use

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fragments of roof felt, sheet metal, plastic plates, boards, tiles, eternit and other materials, depending on their availability. The proposed panel size is 0.5 x 0.5 m, or 1 x 1m. Secondary hiding places should be arranged regularly in the research area with up to 10 units per 1 ha (Najbar 2011). It is recommended to do it before the start of the reptiles activity season, i.e. in early spring, so that snakes can take them as a natural part of the habitat. These structures may, however, be used by smooth snakes even after a few weeks of their placement in the field, and the later they will be placed the more this period of time may extend. Objects used for hiding places should not be placed in watery places, since it decreases the probability that smooth snakes will use them. The use of artificial hiding places brings the best results at the beginning and at the end of the season, when the ambient temperature is lower, and prepared hiding heats up quickly and facilitates easier reptiles thermoregulation. During summer, it is best to control secondary hiding places in the morning/in the forenoon and in the late afternoon. Controls should not be carried out too often (the same hiding place every day) because notorious shying of snakes may discourage them from using the hiding place. It is advisable to use two types of artificial hiding places – ones that heat up fast, and others that heat up slow (e.g. light and dark). This increases the chance of finding snakes at different times of the day (in the morning – in quickly heating up ones, during the day – in ones that heat up slowly). In areas abundant in natural hiding places (e.g. quarries, rocky slopes, boulder fields) artificial shelter may be useless. In Pieniny Mountains, on rocky slopes and screes use of these methods has not brought the expected result (Rybacki 2008a). Attention! If you decide on the use of this method of inventory, you should take into account the possibility of penetration of land by people who exterminate snakes or who catch them for private farming. Taking into consideration the possibility of such risks, it is advisable to locate hiding places in places hidden or less frequented by people. Additionally, you can paint them with the paint in colors that will make them difficult to spot (e.g. brown, green). After the finished inventory the used items should be removed from the area. In order not to reduce the number of hiding places thereby (especially in the case when smooth snakes start to use secondary hiding places willingly) you can, in view of the further protection of this species, enrich habitat with structures that are more durable and difficult to penetrate.

c) Dead specimens

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A valuable source of information on the occurrence of smooth snakes in the area are dead specimens. Dead smooth snakes can be usually found on communication routes where they die under the wheels of cars. The largest number of snakes are killed on the roads in the spring. Smooth snakes show then an increased activity connected with the end of hibernation and mating season, therefore, during migration and in search for reproductive partner, they often go across communication routes. What is more, on the heated asphalt roads they can soak up the sun and hunt for lizards. A lot of snakes die also in the late summer and autumn, often including this year’s young snakes. It is advisable to look for dead snakes at least twice a day - in the morning and in the afternoon. These are the periods of time when the reptiles bask in the sun, and begin or end a daily activity moving into hiding places, what makes them more exposed to be run over by a car. It is good to remove found specimens out of the way in order to avoid re-counting of the same animal during the next inspection. The search for dead snakes on the road is unfortunately burdened with some problems. Namely, dead specimens may be eaten by other animals, e.g. birds or hedgehogs, and thus would not be detected. In addition, in heavy traffic they can be quickly destroyed, or transferred over longer distances attached to car tires. Taking that and the aforementioned reasons into consideration, it is recommended that controls are carried out at least twice a day. When possible, it is advisable to control the mortality rate throughout the entire season of snakes activity. Thanks to that you can accurately determine the periods in which mortality is greatest, as well as select the most neuralgic sections of roads. Please note, however, that the activity of snakes is heavily dependent on the prevailing weather conditions, and therefore there can always occur certain deviations, e.g. due to delayed end of hibernation caused by a long winter.

d) Exuviaes/moults The evidence of snakes occurrence are also their exuviaes. Smooth snakes moult 2-4 times per year (young snakes moult more often due to faster growth). The first moulting takes place in the spring after the end of hibernation. In the late summer, snakes shed their skin once again. Also this year's young snakes moult at that time. Snakes usually moult in hidden places, e.g. under stones, in the heaps of branches, in dense vegetation. Searching in these places increases the chance of detecting an exuviae. After finding the exuviae, you can attempt to identify it. It may be necessary to use a magnifying glass for smaller exuviae. In the major part of the Polish area it is possible to quickly determine whether found exuviae belongs to a smooth snake, or a viper or a grass snake (Fig. 39), since smooth snakes’ back scales are devoid of kila (visible on the exuviate as a dark line along the scales) in contrast to rebate

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scales of the two other species. In the areas inhabited by Aesculapian snake, that also has smooth scales, other features should be taken into account in addition (look: Tab. 2.). Tab. 2. Characteristics of domestic species of snakes’ exuviaes (according to: Głowaciński, Rafiński 2003). Back scales (number of scales in a row) 19 smooth

Ventral scuts (counted separately)

Under-tail scuts (counted in pairs)

Anal scut

Head scuts

150-200

40-70

2

9, regular

132-156

24-46

1

many, irregular

19 rebates

Grass snake

153-193

47-89

2

9, regular

19 rebates

Aesculapia n snake

195-248

60-104

2

9, regular

23 (21) smooth

Smooth snake Common adder

Fig. 39. The scales of snakes and the method of calculating. A1, A2 – ventral scuts; B1, B2 – anal scut; C –under-tail scuts; D – back scales; E1, E2 – rebate (E1) and smooth (E2) back scales. (From: Głowaciński, Rafiński 2003, slightly modified, with the permission of the authors) e) Surveys and questionnaires Collecting the data on the occurrence of smooth snake on one’s own can be often very difficult. Lack of encounters of individuals from this species does not necessarily mean that it does not occur in a given place. In order to facilitate work in field, it is advisable to carry out surveys that concern the presence of snakes, among the local community and the people working in the area, e.g. foresters. The best way to carry out the survey is to talk directly with people, and note obtained information. Thanks to that, you can avoid the risk that the

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questionnaire in paper form will be lost, or will not be sent back by someone who has received it.

The most important data that should be collected is as follows: - date of observation - place of observation - habitat where the observation was carried out - observed species (description of features) - number of specimens that has been observed - observer’s names and contact Unfortunately, it frequently happens that people confuse smooth snakes with vipers so it is advisable to ask detailed questions about the appearance of snakes. Much of the data will be inaccurate, e.g. date ("about three years ago") or the number of specimens ("a lot", "a few"), but even such information may turn out to be useful and should not be cast aside. All collected data should be verified in the field, because, as mentioned, it is possible that inexperienced observers could have caused a mistake. Monitoring Monitoring of the population is an important element of the activities related to the protection of the species. Collecting the data on a number, habitat conditions and threats throughout the years will allow to determine precisely the actual population trends, and to select effective methods of protection of the species. The monitoring involves regular controlling of smooth snakes’ habitats over consecutive seasons with the use of consistent methodology. The data obtained for each season is compiled together afterwards in order to get a picture of the changes that might have occurred in the population and/or the habitat. General principles of monitoring: a) Controls in consecutive years should be conducted using consistent methods of inventory. Each method differs in terms of precision and efficiency. Consequently, applying various methods alternately may lead to obtaining outcomes of different quality, and therefore, their comparison is inadvisable, since it might result in erroneous conclusions. Sometimes, however, the efficiency of finding smooth snakes might change slightly for other reasons, for instance, when the structure of habitat changes (e.g., after enrichment of habitat during active protection). Creation of sustainable artificial hiding places by heaping up mounds of trunks and branches will lure smooth snakes. Thanks to that, it may be easier to find them in such

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places. In other words, the greater number of smooth snakes found may not only be due to an increase in their numbers in relation to the active protection, but also due to their facilitated detection. Please keep this in mind so as not to make mistakes when interpreting the results. b) Controls should be carried out in the same periods of the year. This is justified by the fact that the traceability of smooth snakes may vary in different phenological periods of the species. One should remember to carry out controls in similar weather conditions and times of day. c) The number of controls in subsequent seasons should be similar. The chance of find smooth snake depends on the number of visits to a given position. Therefore, in order to make the results of the individual seasons suitable for comparison, controls should be carried out with a similar intensity. The proposed number of monitoring visits is 3-5 in the season. Particular places may differ in terms of ease of finding the snakes so the number of controls should be adapted to the conditions prevailing in a given location. Population and habitat parameters (based on: Najbar 2011) a) Size of the population. During estimating the size of the population, without personal identification, one can determine the average or the maximum number of specimens of all counts in the field. Using a good camera or binoculars, you can try the non-invasive way to identify individual animals, which is useful when trying to estimate the population. Smooth snake is characterized by high variability in coloration, especially at the front of the body (Fig. 40a, b, c, d). One can distinguish between specimens of this species on the basis of photos or drawings of the head area. Collecting more accurate data on the number of snakes may require invasive procedures such as regular catching and marking snakes. These activities, however, require appropriate permits due to the legal protection of smooth snake. It is advisable to consult with professionals experienced in the field studies of snakes.

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Fig. 40 a, b, c, d. Variability of blotchiness of smooth snakes’ heads, photo. J. Mazgajska b) The age structure – proportion of young snakes For a reliable determination of the age structure, it is advisable to plan the controls over the course of the entire season, instead of carrying them out in only one period. It allows to take into account both last year’s young, after the first wintering, as well as those who were born in late summer or autumn of current year.

c) The degree of the position’s shadiness The diverse vegetation is beneficial to smooth snakes because it provides shelter for the snakes and potential victims. However, high and dense shrubs limit the amount of sunlight that reaches the position. This is an important factor that may limit the possibility of smooth snakes’ occurrence in the given area. Monitoring of position’s overgrowth over the years makes it possible to determine the rate of succession and appropriate planning of treatments aiming in providing more sunlight (removal of shrubs and trees).

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d) The availability of hiding places It is a very subjectively estimated parameter. Generally, it refers to the position’s abundance in lairs, assessed primarily on the basis of potential hiding places located on the ground (heap of stones, debris, fallen trunks of trees, piles of branches, the ruins of buildings, etc.). It will be much more difficult, and in many cases impossible, to determine the availability of underground hiding places, such as burrows of small mammals. The use of artificial shelters used for inventory can serve as an indicator of the availability of hiding places (look: Inventory). In the areas rich in natural hiding places, smooth snakes can hardly, or very rarely use hiding places that have been laid. e) The abundance of food supply – lizards The density of lizards can be determined by making counts along transects set earlier 3 - 5 times a year (the best in time of searching for smooth snakes) (Najbar 2011). f) Threats Various factors that may have a negative impact on the population’s and habitat’s state. For instance, presence of pets (cats), penetration of land by humans (e.g. mushroom pickers), grass burning, etc.

Attention! The nationwide monitoring of smooth snake has been introduced in Poland in recent years. The full version of the monitoring methodology can be found on the website of Chief Inspector of Environmental Protection (www.gios.gov.pl/siedliska/). The study is directed mainly to specialists, and therefore, for the purpose of local activities related to the recognition and protection of smooth snake, it is possible to focus only on the selected monitoring parameters, depending on chosen objectives.

Active protection: the preservation of habitats’ sustainability and improvement the of habitat conditions One of the major threats for smooth snakes it excessive overgrowing on semi-open and open space. Preventing succession (e.g. mowing) ensures the maintenance of habitat in the state appropriate for smooth snakes requirements, and removal of bushes and trees increases the amount of sunlight in the position. Mowing of meadows and xerothermic greenswards

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should be conducted in the same way as in the case of operations for Aesculapian snake protection, taking into account shooing or temporary catching of snakes from the surface to mow, and maintaining a direction from the center to the meadow’s periphery or from one side to the other, not from the edge of the area to the center. After finishing the work, snakes should be set in place where they had been caught. The removal of trees and shrubs should be done in the winter or early spring, before the start of the activity of snakes. If later, it is advisable, as in the case of mowing, to shoo or catch snakes for the time of work. Boughs, branches and heaps of bushes left after the operation, can be used for constructing secondary hiding places for snakes. Active protection: enrichment of habitat More diverse habitats are more beneficial for snakes because they provide them with a rich food base and good availability of hiding places. Enrichment of smooth snakes’ habitats mainly involves construing shelters and places to soak up the sun, that serve as a safe haven from predators and humans. It also requires creating microhabitats used by potential victims, such as lizards. Tree trunks, limbs, branches arranged in heaps (popularly called "Heaps of trunks" or "Heaps of branches"), and piles of stones are used most frequently for that purpose. a) Heaps of trunks and heaps of branches Creation of artificial hiding places made of wooden elements involves constructing the structure using trunks, limbs and branches of trees (Fig. 41, 42), in which the dominant part is formed by thick elements (approx. 30-50%) that is, the pieces of wood of a thickness exceeding 20 cm. Heap of trunks should be laid in irregular stacks of height min. 1 m, a width of not less than 1.5 m, and length from 3 to approx. 10 m. Smaller elements - the branches and limbs, should be placed not only between the thick trunks, but first of all on the top of heap of trunks. Tangle of branches will provide additional protection against catching and attacks of predators. The base of the structure should be in, more or less, rectangular or oval shape. In order to maintain the sustainability of heap of trunks, the following upkeep of them may be needed: - Adding new elements regularly when the old decaying trunks and branches perish - Avoiding excessive overgrowth (and consequently shading) of piles of trunks and branches

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Fig. 41, 42 Examples of heap of branches, photo by M. Piotrowski b) Mounds of stones In addition to the hiding places constructed of wood, it is also possible to lay heaps of stones and debris, that are also keenly used by reptiles. Piles of stones should have roughly oval base with a minimum diameter of 3 meters. The height of the mound should not be less than 1.5 meters. It is best to locate heaps of stones similarly to Heaps of branches – in ecotonal areas of significant sun exposure. It is good to combine these structures with each other, in order to increase the diversity of the developing microhabitat (Fig. 43).

Fig. 43. Pile of stones and stumps heaped up near the forester's lodge. Habitat of this type are keenly occupied by smooth snakes.

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Attention! Please note that the places where we collect the stones can be themselves the places of smooth snakes’ occurrence. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that collecting stones will not impair the quality of habitats, from which they will be taken (it is advisable to obtain stones from the active quarries and goafs).

Of course, the construction of secondary hiding places described above is dependent on the availability of mentioned materials. Larger, more diverse and complex structures are more likely to be inhabited by snakes. Secondary hiding places built of stones and pieces of wood should be placed in places that are sunlit throughout most of the day, especially in ecotonal areas (glades, peripheries of fields and forests) (Fig. 44), and under high-voltage lines. Heaps of trunks prepared and maintained in that way will serve as hiding places not only for smooth snakes, but also for lizards (food base) and other small animals.

Fig. 44 Scheme of heap of stones and branches located on the border of the forest, along with the approximate dimensions. Active protection – protection of communication routes Reducing the mortality of the snakes on communication routes involves first of all the creation of fences along the road that prevent snakes from slithering onto the road, and passages through which animals can move from one side of the road to the other. In general, such changes in road construction are introduced for the protection of also other small animals, threatened by traffic. In some cases, large viaducts are constructed in order to allow the migration of large animals, which can also be used by small vertebrates. Transporting animals across the road does not make much sense in the case of snakes. Snakes in general do not have as intense and concentrated periods of road deaths as amphibians

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during spring migrations. In addition, routes may themselves be a part of the reptiles’ habitat, and therefore they may occur in the roads’ vicinity throughout the entire season of activity. Attention! You can find clear guidelines on protecting amphibians by transportation routes in Guidebook on Protection of Reptiles (Kurek R. T., Rybacki M., Sołtysiak M. 2011) published by Workshop for All Beings, available on the website in “Publications” bookmark (pracownia.org.pl).

Active protection: empowerment of the population Activities aiming at empowerment of rare population of smooth snake are difficult, require appropriate permits, and collaboration with experts in the field of snakes’ protection and breeding. Moreover, they should only be implemented if other treatments bring effects too slowly, and the population is on the verge of extinction. Such methods may be risky, since there is the possibility of errors in breeding, that may result in high mortality of snakes, and therefore, the received effect may be the opposite of what was expected. Empowerment of the population is defined as introducing the occurrence of the specimens born in captivity to the natural location of this species. Such specimens are usually obtained from pregnant females caught in the wild, and transferred to a terrarium, at least until birth time. If the farming is run properly it is possible to reduce postpartum mortality of females (labour is a large energy expenditure, which often can result in death of the female), and increase the survivability of young snakes by keeping them in terrarium during the first winter (in natural environment the highest mortality of young snakes occurs during the first wintering). After wintering and feeding, young should be released in the spring of the following year in the place of the local population’s occurrence. Females are usually released after they have given birth. It is advisable to feed the female before her release. It is also possible to winter female in a terrarium, and to release her in the spring. But in that case we cannot eliminate the possibility that her fertilization during the mating season will decrease due to the stress caused by keeping in captivity and release. The alternative to this method is a long-term keeping of breeding pairs and releasing their off-spring into the environment. Nonetheless, we should take into account that reproduction of the same specimens may lead to the impoverishment of the gene pool of already rare population. Besides, triggering the reproductive activity of snakes in captivity can be difficult to achieve due to the stress caused by keeping in closed conditions. Environmental education

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Although listed at the end, environmental education is one of the most important elements of protection of reptiles. Legless reptiles - snakes and slowworm are commonly confused with common adder which due to exaggerated stories about its venomous, is in many places intensely exterminated and killed. A clear lack of basic knowledge about reptiles, their utility for humans, significance in nature, distinguishing of the particular species and the need to protect them can be seen in the society. All species should be cover during educational activities, including common adder. It can be even said that common adder is a species of major significance in the context of environmental education, since negative attitude towards this species has an influence on the rest of legless reptiles in the country. It is mainly the effect of exaggerated opinions on the strength of its venom whereas in fact the threat posed by the snake is inappreciable, and fatal cases of biting are much less frequent in comparison to wasps’ or hornets’ stings, and domestic dogs’ bites. Adder’s venom is dangerous mainly for children, the elderly and the ill, and frequently the attempt to kill a snake itself is connected with a higher risk of bite. Educational activities should target at different age and social groups. It can be realized in various ways, for instance: - lectures and lessons at schools; - lesson in the field; - educational boards by tourists trails; - educational leaflets and brochures; - articles in newspapers and on websites; - photographic exhibition; - television programs and radio broadcast.

IV. Protective measures undertaken in Europe and Poland IV.

1. Protective measures undertaken towards European pond turtle In Poland, as well as in other European countries, the first action in the field of active

protection of the European pond turtle and its habitat began in the mid-80s of the twentieth century. Initially they included only the area of Polesie and region of the Zwolenka valley, then they were realized in Warmia, Masuria and Ziemia Lubuska. Below we outline a brief

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presentation of the selected projects of active protection of the European pond turtle in Poland. One of the first, pioneer projects in Poland, was "Active protection of the European pond turtle in Polish" developed and directed by Andrew Jabłoński. It took place in the 90s of the twentieth century, in several regions of Poland (Polesie, Radomskie, western Poland) by the Polish Society of Friends of Nature "pro Natura" and it initiated many later projects of the turtle’s protection. Its purpose was to carry out the inventory in places of the turtle’s breeding, to learn about the turtle’s biology and ecology, the active protection by protecting breeding lairs and habitats, farming and reintroduction of young turtles taken from the destroyed nests, as well as educational activities. The result of this project was 26 locations and 6 breeding lairs of the turtle found in Polesie, and 54 of them found in Western Poland, mainly in Duchy of Pomerania. This enabled, beside the protection of these locations, the development of the strategies for reintroduction of the turtles in subsequent years to the areas along the river valleys. The results of the programme have been developed in the form of reports to the Provincial Conservators of Nature which greatly facilitates the organized flow of information and protective activities. In addition, 11 records of the protection zones for breeding liars have been prepared. a) “Active protection of the European pond turtle in Chełmy Landscape Park” The project realized in Polesie, in Lubelszczyzna. It was inspired by Dr. Mark Keller of Warsaw University of Life Sciences- an organizer of scientific camps in Forests of Sobibór who drew attention to the size of the European pond turtle’s occurrence in this area. The protective activities included the monitoring of the population, protection of breeding lairs and turtles’ clutch from predators, protection of swamplands through water holding, and widely conducted environmental education. b) “Protection of the European pond turtle’s habitat in the Valley of Zwolenka river" The project realized in central Poland by Mazovian-Świętokrzyskie Ornithological Society Protective activities included: desludging of the existing ponds and digging of new ones of the surface area of about 3 ha, cutting of trees and shrubs on an area of over 5 ha in the places of the European pond turtle clutch and by torf ponds, cutting of cane in the reservation in Borowiec (about 1 ha), raising the water level through the construction of two dams (steps) on Zwolenka and on one of its tributaries, carrying out educational activities.

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c) “Protection of the European pond turtle in Warmia and Mazury” Realized by the Polish Society for the Protection of Birds. The project involved the protection of the European pond turtle breeding lairs in Warmia and Mazury. Since 2005, the activities were carried out in the framework of international projects financed by LIFE "Protection of the European pond turtle and amphibian of lowlands of northern Europe”. During the program, ponds were cleaned and the new ones were dug, their surroundings and places of the turtles’ breeding lairs were nursed, and new wintering grounds were created.

d) “Protection of the European pond turtle in the Polesie National Park (Poleski Park Narodowy)” Active protection of the European pond turtle in the Polesie National Park is carried out since 1998 and it involves, among others, observation lairs of female turtles, localizing and protecting eggs laid by them from predators, and, moreover, protection of the European pond turtle habitats by keeping a high level of water, reconstruction of small, shallow bodies of water in places of the turtles living, or removal of bushes in the lairs. In the structures of the Park European Pond Turtle Protection Centre functions, the task of which is to care for the young turtles during the winter. In the Park, there are also observations and scientific research conducted in order to deepen the knowledge about the reptile’s biology. A significant element that supports the protection of the European pond turtle is environmental education and popularization of this species and of issues of its protection. Contact: Polesie National Park, 22-234 Urszulin, ul. Lubelska 3a, tel. 82 571 30 71, 82 571 30 72; e-mail: [email protected] e) “Protection and regeneration of habitats of the European pond turtle and other endangered species in Maskulińskie Forest Division" The project realized in Masuria by the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate. The actions were based on reconstruction of turtle habitats by building and restoration of small reservoirs and the constructions made for damming up the water. f) “Protection of the European pond turtle, the European fire-bellied toad and the warty newt populations in the areas of Nature 2000 in the Western Poland” The project is realized by the Naturalists Club in cooperation with forest inspectorates working in the area of the western Poland. The tasks realized were based on reconstruction of

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water reservoirs, considered as life environment of turtles and amphibians, turtles' nests care and creation of educational paths in the forest inspectorates.

The European pond turtle has been included in the active protection since 1980s, also in many other European countries: France, Spain, Germany, Italy and in Lithuania. Within the framework of the protective operations, after incubation in natural conditions turtle cubs are taken from the territory and kept in artificial conditions. Most often in the next year's spring they are let out into water reservoirs near the places where they were taken from. Owing to this proceeding, mortality rate, which is caused by predators, decreases. Also eggs are collected in September when the year is colder, which circumscribes the mortality rate caused by the climate conditions. Restoration of the European pond turtle to the places, where it practically became extinct in the ancient times, has been carried out in Italy. In order to protect the turtle, it is necessary to protect all kinds of indispensable for its life habitats. That is why in the framework of the turtle protection programmes the works are being conducted the aim of which is protection and renaturalization of places of its occurrence (Najbar 2001).

IV. 2. PROTECTIVE MEASURES UNDERTAKEN TOWARDS AESCULAPIAN SNAKE Identification of distribution, state of population and living requirements of the endangered species is one of the most important tasks allowing for an effective protection of them. The aesculapian snake is a difficult object to examine scientifically due to its secret way of living; however, in the course of the newest technical achievements and free exchange of information it has become possible to know the biology of these snakes more precisely. There are various actions undertaken in Europe, connected with knowing the distribution, specifying the population parameters, the specimen’s areas and habitat demands of the aesculapian snake. The examples of countries where such examinations have been conducted in the recent years are: Germany (Waitzaman 1989, Gomille 2002), Austria (Hartwig and Mittelehner 2011), the Czech Republic (Musilova and others 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010) and France (Lelièvre and others 2010). An essential element of the species protection is spreading the basic knowledge and collecting of information on a current occurrence. Such role is served in for

example

by

the

(www.naturschutzhaus.de,

websites

in

Germany

and

in

the

www.naturschutzhaus-wiesbaden.de/,

Czech

Republic

www.nabu.de,

www.zamenis.wgz.cz).

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In some of the European countries, the initiatives connected with an active protection of the aesculapian snake's habitats have been undertaken. In the Czech Republic, in the valley of the river Ohri, the region of occurrence of a desolated about 200 km from dense reach aesculapian snake population, the projects aiming at preservation of the habitat’s condition are being realized, i.e. by exposing stone parapets, creating places of reproduction (mounds of various kinds of materials fenced with wire netting, aiming at protection against predators) and education. An active protection of the species, carried out simultaneously with scientific examinations on its biology, has been undertaken also in France. In the forest reserve Chize, in order to improve incubative conditions for eggs, there was a pile of hay made, where deposits of eggs are being observed every year; they may consist of even a few hundreds of items (www.bocian.org.pl/artykuly/waz-eskulapa-we-francji). One of the most important European documents for the aesculapian snake protection, issued in recent years is „Action Plan for the Conservation of the Aesculapian Snake (Zamenis longissimus) in Europe” issued on 27th October 2006 in Strasbourg (Edgar and Bird 2006).

In Poland, from among the actions for the aesculapian snake protection, one should enumerate the creation of the reserve „Krywe” in 1991 (Fig. 45) and working out the scientific bases of this species protection (Głowaciński 1996, Głowaciński and Witkowski 1996). In the further years there have been attempts at creating the programs of an active protection of the species undertaken. (Najbar 2002, 2004 a, b, Kurek and others 2010), however, not until 1999 - 2001 the Lutowiska Inspectorate realized the program of an active protection of the aesculapian snake habitats by improvement of reproductive conditions of this species and preservation of habitats condition (i.e. the creation of 8 reproductive mounds of the piles of stones and mowing of the meadow and glades in the area of the reserve „Krywe”) (Kurek and others 2011). This project was co-financed by the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Economy in Warsaw.

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Fig. 45. The view on the former village Tworylne in the reserve „Krywe”, phot. by K. Kurek One of the latest initiatives of the Nature Protection Institute PAN in Cracow, connected with protection and identification of distribution of Polish herpetofauna population, is reactivation of „Atlas płazów i gadów Polski. Status – Rozmieszczenie – Ochrona” edition. There has been an internet database created (http://www.iop.krakow.pl/plazygady) in the framework of this undertaking.

The fear of snakes, which is unfortunately permanently existent in human-snake relations, is one of the reasons for killing them thoughtlessly. A merciless extermination of the aesculapian snake by human probably caused complete disappearance of a numerous yet in the beginning of XX century population of this species on Roztocze (Bayger 1948, Najbar 2004). Facing the need of increasing the social awareness concerning the protection of snakes and overcoming the fear of these animals, 2 educational projects by the Main Board of Polish Ecological Club in Cracow were realized in 2005-2007. The first one, 'Educational programme - protection of the local species of snakes in the area of Podkarpackie province', had a regional character. The other one, 'Protection of snakes in Poland - educational packet destined for teachers on various levels of teaching' had the nationwide character. The projects were financed by the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Economy in Warsaw and by the Provincial Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Economy in Rzeszów. As a result, 3800 educational packets were worked out and sent out to the teachers from elementary schools, junior high schools and upper secondary schools, which constitutes a group of about 2700 schools in the provinces: podkarpackie, małopolskie, śląskie, lubelskie and świętokrzyskie. In order to evaluate the

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program, the questionnaires were sent out for the teachers. In total, 224 questionnaires with a positive evaluation of the teaching aids along with the information about using them in the further years of teaching were sent back. Additionally, the aforementioned issues were promoted by organization of the nationwide art competition under the auspices of the Małopolskie School Board and the Polish Association of Pedagogy Animators Celestyna Freineta. For the contest entitled 'Not so scary the snake...' („Nie taki wąż straszny…") about 1050 art works from 356 schools were sent in (Fig.46) (Kurek and others 2009, mat. unpubl., Kurek 2008 b).

Fig. 46. The art works sent in for the contest 'Not so scary the snake...', phot. K. Kurek

IV. 3. PROTECTIVE MEASURES UNDERTAKEN TOWARDS SMOOTH SNAKE The examples of the operations connected with examination and protection of the smooth snake in Poland and Europe. a) The inventory of the smooth snake positions in the area of the Włocławek Forest Inspectorate in 2012. b) The protection of the smooth snake in the Middle Poland in the years 2000 - 2002 by the Łódź Club of Polish Society for Nature Protection 'Salamandra' in cooperation with the Łodź Zoological Garden. (the aforementioned projects were described precisely in the chapter concerning the best practices of the smooth snake protection).

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c) Snakes protection on the Lubuskie Land 'The protection program for snakes and their habitats on Lubuskie Land' was co-financed by the Program for Small Subsidies of Global Fund for Environmental Protection UNDP. The project was realized by the Lubuski Naturalists’ Club in the years 2000 - 2002. The main premise of the project was identification of the snakes occurrence (the smooth snake, the common European viper, the grass snake) in the Lubuskie Province, protection of the most valuable stands and educational activity. The inventory of positions was carried out with the aid of the questionnaires concerning the snake occurrence. The data gained from the questionnaires underwent subsequently the verification in the field. 140 positions of snakes, in 14 of which the occurrence of smooth snakes was identified, were found in the course of works. With the legal protection in the form of ecological usage the positions in the commune Cybinka and in the Forest Inspectorate Trzciel were covered. The attempt of setting the ecological usage in a valuable position of the smooth snake in the region of Słubice hasn't worked out. Instead of this, a part of the position area was bought from the Agricultural Cooperative Farm in Rybocice. Beside the field works there was a number of educational actions organized, such as didactic classes in schools, courses for foresters, a photographic exhibition, a printout of educational materials. (Najbar 2002) d) The inventory of the smooth snake in the area of Cracow city In 2011, there was an inventory of the smooth snake positions of occurrence carried out in the area of Cracow city. The inventory was the answer to the appearing notices of this snake's occurrence within administrative boundaries of the city. Two regions of Cracow were included in the research – Tyniec and Zakrzówek. While the observations, smooth snakes were found in a couple of places. It is a rare case of snakes settling in a city environment. The smooth snakes were found primarily in the parts of xerothermal grasslands which have remained despite the extension of Cracow. One of the inventory premises was evaluation of the creation of protective zones for the smooth snake in Tyniec and in Zakrzówek. Taking into consideration a significant probability of conflict situations appearance, the zones haven't been recommended. The works were completed at the order of the Regional Authorities of Environmental Protection in Cracow. There is an addition of information concerning the possibility of the smooth snake protection being planned currently in this area. (Bury 2011)

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e) The grant from the Museum and Institute of Zoology PAN, concerning ecology and genetic changeability of the smooth snake in Poland, with implications for the species preservation. In 2011 the realization of the grant entitled 'Environmental preferences, population dynamics, genetic and morphological changeability of the smooth snake Coronella austriaca implications for the species preservation' was launched. The project is being conducted by the Museum and Institute of Zoology PAN in Warsaw. The main goals of researches include the specification of habitat preferences of the smooth snake, the chosen population parameters and estimation of genetic changeability on the scale of the whole country and on the level of chosen populations from the Solska Primeval Forest terrain. The results gained, beside pure pragmatic value, will be useful in the context of an active protection of the species and its genetic quota preservation, for example by identifying the differentiation of population from various parts of the country and the level of population changeability from the Solska Primeval Forest terrain. The research is co-financed by the National Centre of Sciences. f)

A nationwide monitoring of the smooth snake

The project of the nationwide monitoring was realized in the years 2009-2010. The attempt to specify the status of the smooth snake population from various parts of Poland was undertaken with the use of a uniform methodology. Unfortunately, only an inconsiderable part of the country was included in the works; however the results gained allow to specify, to some extent, a real state of this species population in Poland. In the biogeographical continental region the number of respective populations is inconsiderable. Habitats of the smooth snake are in a better condition, which gives better prospects for the protection. A part of these habitats has the anthropogenic character, which poses a threat itself, as regards the human and domestic pets presence. In biogeographical alpine region, the state of the smooth snake population is less beneficial. The number of population is generally lower than in the continental region. The state of habitats is relatively good; however, a significant level of the respective positions’ isolation draws the attention. (Najbar 2012). The further editions of monitoring will cover a bigger part of the country. One should express hope, that the program of nationwide monitoring of the smooth snake will allow to specify precisely the status and possibilities of this species survival in the area of the country in the future. The project has been ordered by the Main Inspectorate for Environmental Protection.

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g) The monitoring of the smooth snake in the Netherlands The project of nationwide monitoring of amphibians and reptiles, including the smooth snake, was realized by Reptile, Amphibian and Fish Conservation (RAVON). RAVON is a non-governmental organization consociating herpetologists and volunteers from the whole Netherlands. The monitoring of the reptiles was being conducted in the years 1994 - 2006 on 550 transects in the area of the whole Netherlands. Each of the transects was controlled 7 times a week during the season, and a single control lasted about two hours and it took place in the weather conditions which maximized the chance for finding the reptiles. The smooth snake was being observed on 59 transects. It has been found that it is the rarest representative of the reptiles’ fauna. Very valuable and curious data on the subject of detectability of the respective species have been collected. The smooth snake, next to the grass snake, was found to be the most difficult species to seek out (Janssen, Zuiderwijk 2006). h) Sand Lizard and Smooth Snake Species Action Plan in Europe In the years 2009 and 2010 the document entitled „Sand Lizard and Smooth Snake Species Action Plan” was elaborated; it concerned the protection of the sand lizard and the smooth snake in the area of Great Britain. The study includes basic information on the subject of the sand lizard and the smooth snake status in Great Britain, the threats and protecting recommendations. It specifies the possibilities of protection of these two species and it is a frame for all the security works. Each type of the operations has been ascribed to a proper scale (country, region, local area). The study refers to a few aspects connected with protection of the species: - legislation; - active protection of populations and habitats; - advice and communication between units connected with protection of the aforementioned species (e.g. local governments, land owners, media); - populations researches and monitoring The study is easily available in the Internet and it may be helpful while planning the protecting operations not only in Great Britain, but also in the other European countries. Notice! Full content of the document may be found on the Amphibian and Reptile Conservation

association

website

(www.arc-

trust.org/Resources /Arc%20Trust/Documents/Rare-Reptiles-SAP-Aug09.pdf)

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V. Description of best practices V.1. DESCRIPTION OF BEST PRACTICES FOR EUROPEAN POND TURTLE The best practices will be characterized on the basis of three chosen projects realized in different parts of Poland: in Masuria, in the western Poland and in Polesie.

Protection and regeneration of the European pond turtle and other endangered species habitats in the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate. The project 'Protection and regeneration of the European pond turtle and other endangered species habitats in the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate' was realized in the area of Nature 2000 the Masurian Refuge of the Turtle Baranowo PLH280055, situated in the northern periphery of the Pisko Primeval Forest – one of the biggest forest complex of Poland. The relief of the Masurian Lake District is characterized by a big variety of terrain and relatively inconsiderable average yearly precipitation, amounting to about 600 mm. The hills in the area of Baranowo, where protecting operations were undertaken, are included in the group of the highest ones in this region and they reach 192 m above sea level, and the remainder of the terrain ordinates reaches over 65 m. The whole area between Mrągowo and Mikołajki has been known for over 150 years as a place of constant occurrence of the European pond turtle, which has survived in this area until the present times. There are observations carried out every year, aiming at localization of nests, places of foraging and hibernation. The number of population in this part of refuge is estimated at 30 specimens, but until now there have been about 20 specimens marked individually, including 11 of them in the area of the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate. There are probably a couple of nests where the turtles lay eggs, but reproduction was hitherto confirmed only in two of them. The drainage was constructed in this area, yet in XIX century and in the beginning of XX century it caused a very big loss of the swamp terrains surface. Practically all of the concavities and midforestry valleys in the forest complex called Cudnouchy, where the project was realized, were joined with a net of ditches and drains buried in the bed. These operations have caused drying up of huge areas of the forest complex, hydrogenic habitats degradation, including mainly alder forests, water meadows and turfs. Also the surrounding turfs were

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included in the dehydration. The analysis of data showed that beside the lakes, a natural retention had been practically non-existent in this area. Additionally, the situation was intensified by the decrease of rainfalls in spring – summer period, and the ones which have occurred had primarily the character of tempestuous rainfalls, from which big amounts of water flow away and only an inconsiderable part of it seeps into the ground. Further fall of surface waters could have caused a huge threat for places of occurrence and reproduction of a number of animal species, including also the European pond turtle. The protection of the European pond turtle and other endangered species habitats required then inhibition of water in catchments. The Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate worked out a comprehensive project of small retention, and one of its elements was the preservation of remains and regeneration of destroyed habitats of the European pond turtle. Aiming at possibly best identification of natural conditions, a few studies were carried out in the years 2005-2008, i.a.: 

a natural-technical conception of small retention rebuilding;



natural valorization of wetland habitats;



valorization of habitats and species including the turtle, the European fire-

bellied toad and the warty newt; 

soil analysis of nests used by turtles.

On this basis in March 2008, technical documentation was drawn up for the project 'Protection and regeneration of the European pond turtle and other endangered species habitats

in

Maskulińskie

Forest

Inspectorate'.

It served for reporting the construction works to the district governor's office. Such quite a model order of the worked out studies made a huge possibility that the built system of small retention will factually contribute to preservation or reconstruction of the endangered animal species habitats and it will improve hydrological conditions of swamps in this part of inspectorate and in the refuge Nature 2000. Members of the North Podlasie Association for Birds Protection (bearing the name Polish Association for Birds Protection (since 2006), personnel of the University of Warsaw, personnel of the forest inspectorate and the experts hired by the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate took part in realization of preparatory works. There was also a constant cooperation

with

the Regional Nature Preservationist in Olsztyn.

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Creation of swamp habitats and cleaning (deepening) the existent water reservoirs Owing to the finance granted by the EkoFundusz Foundation, the construction works were completed in the years 2008-2009. They were located in the area of the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate, the forest district of Baranowo (Mikołajki district) and they included raising of 75 hydrotechnical buildings increasing water retention of this area and reconstructing biotopes of the European pond turtle, including: 6 earth ponds, 11 dykes, 7 rapids with falls, 48 stone rapids and 3 earth dammings (Fig.47). The dammings made have a constant rapid of overflow, causing that the ditch above a device is filled with water in the period of thaws or precipitation and the assumed level of damming is maintained for a long time. After reaching this level of damming, there comes an overflow of the excessive water by crown and it flows away through a ditch. The devices were often built in cascades i.e. one after another; owing to this the improvement of hydrological conditions occurred on the whole length of the course covered with the works. The existent drainage pipes were unearthed and subsequently disassembled and removed in a couple of places.

Fig.47. One of the stone rapids made on temporarily flowing water course, phot. by J. Holuk

The earth ponds dug specially for the improvement of hibernation conditions of pond turtles had the foregoing parameters: 

the areas of about 500m2 (2 objects), 800m2 (2 objects) and 1000m2 (1 object),



the maximal depth: about 1m (1 object), 1,5m (1 object) and 2m (3 objects).

Only one place, where turtles laid eggs, was known in this region in the period of construction of the devices which inhibit the water. It was located in private land adjoining directly the forest inspectorate lands. It was proposed to the owner of the land to buy the parcel from the Treasury, with allocation to the protecting purposes. In view of a huge

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difference between the expert's pricing and the owner's demands this transaction was not finalized. The parcel was afforested in a short time and the nest is getting more and more endangered every year due to the expanding shading of trees. In order to create a potential nest on the ground of the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate, trees and shrubs have been removed from the area of about 0.4 ha. The created in that way and well-illuminated surface was in the northern side of the slope, between the swamp, which the turtles inhabited, and the old nest. In the future it may replace the entirely overgrown old nest. Realization of this project has improved very significantly the conditions of the European pond turtle functioning by creation of 64 small wetland ecosystems, which were habitats for this species. Moreover, the water retention in this area has improved significantly and the constructed hydrotechnical devices positively shape the water proportions in the area of over 60 ha. Beside the increase of the habitat’s dampness, it is also important that water remains for a reasonable part of a year, sometimes even for the whole year, already after two years since the devices have been constructed. By reconstruction of a number of swamp habitats, availability of the area has also decreased, both for people and for predators. Such state favors the protection of the European pond turtle which is an especially shy animal. A number of different endangered and rare animal species tend to occur in the area covered with the project, including the birds connected with wetland biotopes, such as the black stork, the crane, the green sandpiper, the spotted crake, the little crake, for whom the living conditions have also improved. The changes occurring in habitats are being observed constantly by the science workers from the Terrain Station of Biology Department of the Warsaw University in Urwitałta. The studies carried out in the framework of a doctoral thesis, which aim at evaluation of the rebuilt small retention's influence on forest habitats are also in progress. In connection with the fact that the built objects were made in the depths of the forest, which is the area not often visited by the local habitants, the process of their creation wasn't accompanied by a common or special interest. The authorities of the Mikołajki commune, in the area of which the operations were realized, supported the realization of this projects from the very beginning, claiming that improvement of environmental conditions would improve the tourist attractiveness of this commune. The project 'Protection and regeneration of the European pond turtle and other endangered species habitats in the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate' has not been forgotten, even almost four years after its end. Pupils from the Forest Technical College and from the Landscape Architecture Technical College in Ruciane Nida help the foresters to maintain the objects of small retention.

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The works on improving the habitat conditions of the turtle are carried on by the Polish Association for Birds Protection (PABP) by realization of the own project of this species protection. Near the habitat of the European pond turtle, reconstructed by the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate, the PABP will restore conditions in the nest of the turtle on private lands; there is also a plan of digging another pond nearby. The next stage will be reconstruction of two other ponds and nest on the other (southern) side of the forest complex of Cudnouchy, on the lands administrated by the board of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Protection of the European pond turtle habitats was for the foresters from the Maskulińskie Forest Inspectorate the beginning of a big project from the range of small retention, which included building of 310 objects in the area of the whole forest inspectorate. The finish of the works was planned for the end of 2013. The project was financed by the European Union in the framework of the V Priority of Operation Programme - Infrastructure and Environment and it is a part of widely circumscribed operations of the State Forests, for increase of water retention in forests.

'Protection of the populations of the European pond turtle, the European fire-bellied toad and the warty newt in the areas of Nature 2000 in Western Poland' The aim of the project 'Protection of the populations of the European pond turtle, the European fire-bellied toad and the warty newt in the areas of Nature 2000 in the Western Poland' was preservation and strengthening the populations of these three animal species by maintenance or reconstruction of their habitats; in the case of the European pond turtle also providing the isolated populations with cubs bred of the eggs taken from destroyed nests. All the enumerated in the project species belong to the fastest becoming extinct reptiles and amphibians of Europe; they also need water reservoirs of proper parameters for living and reproduction. Local populations of the European pond turtle and amphibians are under similar threats, among which the most important ones from the area included in the project were:  little knowledge about distribution and number, which led to destruction of places of reproduction while carrying out various kinds of works e.g. afforestation;  degradation of water habitats - dehydrations, regulations of watercourses, overgrowing or filling up small reservoirs caused the loss of reproduction places of amphibians and places of turtles' habitation;  degradation of land habitats – as a result of overgrowth, the turtles' nests were destroyed, 

destruction of egg deposits by predators.

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The project was realized in the western Poland in 6 areas being the most important refuges of the European pond turtle, the fire-bellied toad, the warty newt, which are included in the Nature 2000 chain as the projected special areas of habitats protection:  The estuary of Ilanka PLH 080015 - Lubuskie province, Słubicki district, the Rzepin Forest Inspectorate;  The Młodno peat bog PLH 080005 - Lubuskie province, Słubicki district, the Cybinka Forest Inspectorate;  Pszczewskie Lakes and the Valley of Obra PLH 080002 - the Lubuskie province, the Międzyrzec district, the Międzychód Forest Inspectorate;  Nature reserves of the Drawska Primeval Forest PLH 320046 - the Lubuskie province, the Strzelecko-Drezdenecki district, the Smolarz Forest Inspectorate;  The Western Krzywińskie Lake District PLH 300014 - the Wielkopolskie province, the Leszczyński district, the Karczma BorowaForest Inspectorate;  Gogolice-Kosa PLH 320038 - the area located across the valleys and the rivers Myśla and Kosa, the Mieszkowice Forest Inspectorate. This project was a part of international Lithuanian-Polish-German programme 'Protection of Emys orbicularis and amphibians in the North European lowlands', which gained the subvention from the European fund LIFE-Nature (LIFE05NAT/LT/000094). The Naturalists Club had in this program the status of the Partner responsible for implementation of necessary operations in the western Poland; the finance support on the Polish side was provided by the EkoFund Foundation. The rules of cooperation between the partners from different areas were figured out on the work meetings, which took place in the beginning of the project realization. The members of the Polish group used the experience of partners from neighboring Brandenburg, who led a course on the methods of turtles catching and the usage of telemetry in searching of turtles' nests and places of their wintering. Owing to the borrowed equipment from German colleagues, yet near the end of 2006 the location of two winterings of turtles was discovered. The subsequent meetings were led by the members of the Naturalists Club in order to introduce the problems of amphibians protection and the hitherto results of the programme realization to the workers of provincial offices, who are responsible for nature forest inspectorates protection, which are the hosts of areas included in the project. In 2006 - 2008 (the period of preparatory works and beginning of the project realization) the occurrence of the European pond turtle in 15 places, the warty newt in 10 places, and the European fire-bellied toad in 16 reservoirs was noted. Each caught specimen of the European

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pond turtle was precisely measured and weighted before letting it out (by the method of Fritz), also photographed and individually branded. There was also a detailed characteristic of 28 reservoirs made, which were included in the project. In the breeding season of the turtles there were observations carried out, aiming at localization of the nests and also in the autumn-winter period, in order to specify the places of hibernation. The effect of inventory works was documentation of nests in two areas (Rybocice and surroundings of Leszno) and hibernation in three areas (Rybocice, Drawiny, Drzeczkowo). All the areas in the western Poland where the species included in the project occur in significant, presently documented populations were chosen for the improvement of habitat conditions. The preparatory works, following the construction works, lasted over 2 years; in order to work out premises of the project, the expert experiences of the members of the Club and people cooperating with them were used. Before starting the works, the Naturalists Club signed proper agreements allowing for carrying out the works with all the administrators of the areas (forest inspectorates). There was a separate technical documentation prepared for each object, which is necessary for application to the proper territorial district governor, since such course of administrative proceeding turned out to be a sufficient one as regards the character of planned labors.

Creation of swamp habitats and cleaning (deepening) the existent water reservoirs. Threats connected with deterioration of water proportions belong to the most frequently enumerated ones for the areas covered with protection of the European pond turtle and amphibians. Fast pace of swamp habitats loss forces the undertaking of urgent sanative operations. That is why a considerable part of operations was focused on improving the habitat conditions. In the framework of the project eighteen small reservoirs (miniponds) were reconstructed or deepened, which might have the function of amphibians' places of reproduction or the places of turtles' living (hibernation); there was also one pond which was reconstructed. The depths of dug or deepened miniponds measured from 1 to 2 m, and their areas were from 500 m2 to 2000 m2. In order to increase retention, seven dammings were made, which inhibited water flow from catchment. The biggest reservoir used for turtles hibernation in the nature reserve of the Drawska Primeval Forest was made in the area of 1600 m2 and it is a part of a private fish pond of the area 5, 5 ha. The owner of this pond has built a dam and thus, separated the area destined for

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turtles hibernation from the main part of the fish pond. The dam allows for maintenance of good conditions for hibernation by inhibiting water while it is let down from the remained part of reservoir for the winter. The other, smaller pond nearby has been reconstructed in a similar way and there was a reservoir of 25 m

2

designated for hibernation. These reservoirs

have been deepened and there were also three miniponds which were deepened. There was also a dimming made nearby, which improves humidity of other water reservoirs. Within the biggest turtles' refuge, 'Ilanka Estuary' from among the known ones in the western Poland, three reservoirs were created for hibernation, including one in old bed of the river and two in the ponds which were deepened to 1,5 - 1,8 m. The ponds for hibernation were dug near the places where wintering of turtles was confirmed. The three cascade-shaped dimmings were made in the place located a bit further to the north from the course, where turtles inhabit during the summer season and from which they come out to the nests. One of the dug reservoirs is on the ground of the Naturalists Club, the other ones are on the grounds of the Rzepin Forest Inspectorate. Within the area of Nature 2000 of „Młodno peat bog” located in the Cybinka Forest Inspectorate, there is a vestigial population of the European pond turtle. With the aim of improvement of habitat conditions 3 miniponds were deepened. The works were carried out on the peripheries of a big peat bog, in the neighborhood of nature reserve „Młodno” located in the vicinity. There were also two miniponds deepened, as places of hibernation in the refuge of Pszczewskie Lake and the Obra Primeval Forest. The works were carried out on the grounds of the Międzychód Forest Inspectorate. In the winter season of 2006-2007, there was a female turtle found during the hibernation in the midforest swamp, dehydrated by a ditch running through its middle, which is completely overgrown with the sedges, the reed, the cattail, the willow and the alder. A considerable part of this swamp dries up almost completely. The station is in the 'The Western Krzywińskie Lake District' refuge, within the boundaries of the Karczma Borowa Forest Inspectorate. In the effort to improve habitat conditions two dimmings were performed on the ditch, one pond was reconstructed and one minipond was deepened as a place of hibernation. Yet six specimens of the European pond turtle were observed in the next year. The next important station for the turtles, where an active habitats protection was undertaken, is located in the boundaries of the current West-Pomeranian province's area of Nature 2000 „Gogolice-Kosa”. It includes the valleys of two small rivers: Kosa and Myśla; also complexes of eutrofic water reservoirs, rushes, meadows and lower peat bogs belong to the area. One of

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the most serious threats for this area is overgrowth of sand turfs, which are important places of turtles' reproduction as well as changes of water proportions and its contamination. Due to lack of agreement of some land owners, where the turtle occurs, there was only one water dimming made, localized on the grounds of the Mieszkowice Forest Inspectorate.

Phot-13-14 missing Fig. From p. Holuk new numbers of illustrations, according to the text, are the illustrations: 48, 49 Protection of breeding grounds One of the basic principles which have to be fulfilled in order for the population of European pond turtles to be preserved for a long time is proper insolation in places where turtles lay their eggs. The two most important reasons for the loss of turtle’s nesting site are abandonment of farming on so-called marginal lands and their afforestation, as well as the natural succession that stands for overgrowing of not utilized lands. It is important to remember that even after the loss of nesting sites, European pond turtles as a long-lived species may occur at the certain area for a long time, providing that they have something to eat. Such population, however, will be doomed to extinction. Preservance of breeding grounds based on the removal of trees and bushes overgrowing nesting sites is in this way the most important activity aiming at the species protection. Nesting grounds were not successfully created on every area included in the project. Protective measures were undertaken wherever nesting grounds were created or there was a high possibility for the existence of such sites. Trees and bushes were cut down on 5 grounds of total area of ca. 2,0 ha, including:  Ilanka Estuary refuge, Rzepin forestry management grounds – deforestation on the area of 0,2 ha on one breeding ground,  sanctuary Młodno moor, Cybinka forestry management grounds – deforestation on the area of 0,38 ha on one potential breeding ground ,  sanctuary of Drawska Forest nature reserve, Smolarz for estuary management grounds- deforestation on the area of 0,2 ha on five potential breeding grounds  sanctuary Krzywińskie West Lakeland, Karczma Borowa forestry management grounds-deforestation on the area of 0,2 ha on one potential breeding ground,  sanctuary Gogolice-Kosa, Mieszkowice forestry management grounds – deforestation on the area of 1,2 ha on one potential breeding ground The real threat existed before staring the project that the population of species for which measures were undertaken may disappear from the West of Poland or that its occurrence will shrink significantly. The population size of European pond turtle in this region is estimated at

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only 200 specimens. Due to the project implementation, habitat conditions for European pond turtle were improved in its biggest sanctuaries in that part of the country. Improvement of habitat conditions is of great importance for other endangered species, like fire bellied toad (kumak nizinny) and crested newt (traszka grzebieniasta) whose population increased in the next year after project implementation. New water reservoir enables amphibians to continue their reproduction and provides a place for living and hibernation for European pond turtles, and breeding sites cleared from tree and bush fur boost breeding success of the species. The creation of a database which simplifies monitoring of European pond turtle population, will be useful in the elaboration on next projects and will help to stop the realization of investments threatening the valuable ecosystems. Education initiatives will contribute to the improvement of social knowledge of the need and methods for turtles and amphibians protection. Database includes all information collected during project realization connected with European pond turtle in the West of Poland: West Pomerania, Lubusz and Greater Poland voivodeships): the description of habitats, details on observation, reproduction, morphology and distribution. 133 locations of European pond turtles, 569 locations of crested newt and 1778 locations of fire bellied toad have been worked out so far. The project was mainly conducted on grounds of State Treasury under the management of State Forestry Administration. As it was previously mentioned, all works had to be approved by the hosts of grounds. Thanks to the active help and kindness of foresters the realization of works developed very efficiently. Ecological education of local communities played an important role for the whole project. 12 lectures in which 550 participants took part on biology, ecology and protection of European pond turtles and amphibians were held at schools and in forestry managements. On the area of state forests 3 educational paths and 8 information boards were set on 6 areas included in the project. Every board shows the life of European pond turtles during the whole year and other amphibians that the project refers to. Except the main board, on the path there are 12 stops illustrating 12 months of year. Leaflets with description were compiled and printed for every object and they are placed in special containers at the starting point of the path. New touristy-educational infrastructure increased the tourist attractiveness of these areas. One of the main factors that caused troubles in organization is a difficulty in the field of communicating among particular partners. It was caused by the complicated management structure of this huge, multi-national project and relatively little experience of some partners in the implementation of LIFE projects.

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„Active protection of the European pond turtle in Areas of Outstanding Beauty in Chełm” Areas where the project „Active protection of the European pond turtle in Areas of Outstanding Beauty in Chełm” is carried out are situated in the East of Poland, within the administrative boundaries of Lubusz voivodeship, in Włodawski and Chełmski poviats. Considering geo-physical regionalization, it is the area of Polesia’s subprovince- flat and vast land, situated between heights in the North and uplands in the West and South. The area where protective measures are undertaken belongs to the valuable ones on the scale of the entire country and of the voivodship, and that is why it is implemented in various forms of nature conservation, e.g. nature reserves (Żółwiowe Błota, Sobowice mooors), landscape parks: Sobiborski and Chelmski and landscape protection areas: Poleski, Chelmski i Pawlowski. Majority of them is situated within the boundaries of special areas of breeding sites protection Natura 2000: Sobiborskie Forests PLH 060043, Dobromyśl PLH 060033, Pawłów PLH 060065, Sobowice moor” PLH060024. Significant part of the area lies within the boundaries of cross-border, tri-country West Polesia biosphere reserve. The purpose of active protection was to present various but commonly known threats for the European pond turtle in our country: devastation of forest by predators, overgrowing of breeding sites, dried-up wetland habitats. Increasing the awareness within a range of species’ protection was a serious challenge. However, while getting to know the local specificity in this region, new dangers essential for European pond turtles appeared. One of them was the building plan for water tank on moors, which were thought to be the important sanctuary for European pond turtles and phoxinus percnurus (strzebla błotna) on the scale of the whole country. The second was the huge single-family housing pressure that was likely to cross the European pond turtle migration route (the one and only which is known in that surrounding) from their hibernation and summer place for breeding sites. Project carried out in 2010-2014 by Regional Directorate for Environmental Protection in Lublin is in significant part the continuation of previous activities in the range of the European pond turtle active protection and its habitats, implemented by The Polish Society for Nature Conservation ‘pro Natura’, Sobibór forestry management Landscape Parks of Polesie and the Local Initiative for the Environment of Chelminski Region. Works on identification of the European pond turtle’s habitats on the areas implemented in the project were carried out in different time. In the North of Sobiborskie Forests, research was started in the mid-1980’s. Through several years of observation, the most important breeding sites, migration routes and partially nature and habits of European pond turtles were

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identified. Captured species were specially marked. At the beginning of 1900’s, active protection of breeding sites was started. In fact, methods of active protection of the European pond turtle were mapped out right here and now they are in use throughout Poland. Information and experience acquired significantly simplified the start of protection works in 2001 by the new group, which emerged from employees of Sobibór Forestry Management and the Management of Landscape Parks in Chelm (ZChPK). The situation was worse in the southern region, called ‘chełmski’ On the base of conducted inventory in 1991 and information collected from the local residents, only single places of adult species occurrence and only one breeding site were known. Since 2002, search for potential breeding grounds and their control in breeding season has been started. Simultaneously, found nests were secured by the use of wire netting. Since 2003 works have quickened because of the formation of new group consisting of employees of ZChPK, foresters of Chelm forestry management, inhabitants of the area and other members. Fieldworks preceded organizational meetings and training courses as well as strategy of conduct arrangement and establishment of the range of works with the Voivodeship Nature Conservationist in Lublin. Necessary written agreements were accredited by Environment Minister. During several years of project’s implementation, a few proposals were drawn in reference to the fund of protective measures, which were different dependently on time and conformed to protective needs and financial abilities. Financial support for protective measures was granted by Provincial Fund for Nature Conservation and Water Management in Lublin, SGP/GEF, Landscape Parks in Chelm Management, Sobibór forestry management and Chelm forestry management, Sawin commune and Wola Uhruska commune. The Strategic sponsor in this period was EkoFundusz foundation. In the last period (2010-2014) activities connected with active protection for the European pond turtle were funded by Regional Directorate for Environmental Protection in Lublin and European Regional Development Fund within the scope of Vth priority Environment protection and shaping of pro-ecology attitudes of the Operational Programme Infrastructure and Environment. Formation of wetland habitats The area of Sobiborski Landscape Park is an ecologically-valuable region on the scale of the entire country, particularly due to the Polish biggest population of European pond turtle protection and the occurrence of the minnow- a fish that is registered in The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Moreover, huge populations of endangered plant species like swamp willow (wierzba borówkolistna ) and dappled willow (wierzba lapońska), dwarf birch (brzoza

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niska), common sundew (rosiczka okrąłolistna) and long-leaved sundew (rosiczka pośrednia) occur here. All these species are strictly connected with wetland habitats. Natural habitat of Sobibór Landscape Park, like the whole Polesie, is exceptionally strongly dependent on the structure and density of the water system and the depth of underground water lingering. The size of atmospheric power has a considerable influence on water supplies on this area. The Landscape park is characterized by growing water deficit caused mainly by drainage activities, regulation of rivers including the Tarasienka river and a long-term tradition to reduce precipitation. Deepening deficits of water find their reflection in disappearance of midforest marshes, rotting of peat soils and direct degradation of many habitats for protected species of plants and animals. The aim of the project was to maintain the exceptional high biodiversity of Sobiborski Landscape Park through the protection of marsh ecosystems endangered with the increasing water deficit, caused by its outflow through old irrigation systems. The basis for the active protection were the results of research conducted by the interdisciplinary team of scientists from KUL and UMCS within the KBN grant, requested by Chelm voivode (PBZ-006-08-96), on application of Voivodeship Nature Conservationist in Chelm entitled ‘’Guidelines for the protection of ecosystems in Sabiborski Landscape Park based on the optimization of water connections in the Tarasieńka’s catchment’’ The aim of the research carried out in 1996-98 was to determine water resources in the Tarasieńka’s catchment and physio-chemical and biological factors in surface water of the catchment. An analysis of the quality structure and distribution of phytocenosis, ichtiofauna and the European pond turtle population was carried out. Attention was paid to the habitat conditions that ensure the existence of protected and rare species and recommendations for nature conservation in SPK were worked out. For the process of work planning in 2001, monitoring of water level in 11 lakes located in the area of SPK and its lagging and a land map for the use of SPK grounds, made on the faith on aerial photography at a scale of 1:10k were prepared. Before taking the actions by the Regional Directive for Environmental Protection in Lublin in 2012 on the area of Sobibór forest management it was necessary to sign the agreement between two entities that would give the permission to enter the area and to obtain license required by law (decisions on building conditions and a report on construction works for the Wlodawa municipality). Technical project worked out at request of the investor was the basis for obtaining necessary permissions. In 2001, three buildings with adjacent waterhole of a few acres each were completed. All buildings were equipped with the permanent towering and extra-regulation by the use of mobile

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closing, called stoplogs (Fig. 50). These objects were created at Rowek Kosynski on the Jewish Channel (along with the strengthening of embankment on the length of 122m that blocks the water outflow from Żółwiowe Błota reserve) and on the outflow from Buzornica marsh. Concrete culverts were masked by the use of wood and stone, and waterholes were very attractively and precisely integrated into the surrounding forest stand. Each waterhole has a recess of approximately 1,5 to 2 m designed as a shelter for European pond turtles and amphibians. All the investments were built on the areas of State Forests, and even though the main beneficiary of the Project was ZChPK, Sobibór forestry management partially incurred costs connected with the organization of tender for services and the costs of new-made devices maintenance that were taken over after the accomplishment of the initiative.

Fig. 50. Waterhole with the culvert towering the water made in 2001 as a shelter for European pond turtles during drought, Fig. J. Holuk Immediately after the completion of the construction works, towering devices began to stop the water outflow from the catchment. Also waterholes adjacent to the construction were filled with water. The situation was different from that of the autumn in 2000, when most of the watercourses on this area had dried up due to the water outflow, lack of precipitation and very high temperatures in summer. In June, 2002, in Kosynski Rowek waterhole, a few (1-2 years old) European pond turtles from natural incubation were observed. Direct and indirect area of towering buildings’ impact was several hundred hectares. In 2012, a repair of 420m embankment on ponds that play a key role for the European pond turtle protection was conducted. Moreover, the only pipe draining the water from the largest pond was renovated. Former ponds are located in the central park of the Żółwiowe Błota

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nature reserve (Nature 2000 Sobiborskie Forests area) and serve ecological functions like maintaining proper water systems and preserving the place of existence, particularly in winter, for European pond turtles (Fig. 51, 52). Former ponds are located in the central part of Żółwiowe Błota nature reserve (programme Natura 2000 site, Sobiborskie Forests). Bad technical condition of towering devices and dams (numerous craters, hovels, dam’s branches falloff for water flow) threatened to break out the dim by the pressure of the high level of surface water and dim’s drop from the catchment. The effects of such an incident could be difficult to estimate for the environment. In 2013 works were being continued and the repair of the next three towering devices as well as the repair of 150m dims on pounds was done.

Fig. 51, 52. Dims in Żółwiowe Błota nature reserve before and after the repair done in 2012 pfoto by J. Holuk Protection of breeding grounds One of the biggest threats to the preservation of the European pond turtle population in Polesie are changes within their habitat that take place in the environment in a natural way, e.g. through breeding grounds undergrowing and by succession or in an artificial way, e.g. afforestation of grounds where husbandry is not profitable. The threat resulted from excessive shading of breeding sites is eliminated by the removal of trees and bushes that shadow turtles’ breeding sites. (Fig. 53, 54). These treatments are performed when necessary, averagely once every few years. They have been performed four times so far. (2003, 2006, 2008. and 2012.) on several breeding sites in Sobiborskie Forests sanctuary and in Dobromysl sanctuary for the first time in 2012. The total area where shrubs were removed is greater than 5 ha.

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Fig. 53, 54. European pond turtle’s breeding sites before and after care treatment. , photo by J. Holuk

Nests protection The rule of minimum interference into the natural process of reproduction was adopted as a main principle for the European pond turtle active protection in Polesie programme. Particular attention was devoted to the nests localization and to provide the safe place for eggs incubation and their hatch as well as helping cubs reach their natural habitats (waterholes, alders etc..) However, the possibility of interference into the natural process of recreation was admitted in the instances of direct threat for nests ,particularly in Chelm region, where the turtle’s population is more dispersed than in Sobiborskie forests. (Holuk 2004). In the case of tumbled nests, eggs were collected and incubated in the Breeding Centre for European pond Turtle in Polesie National Park. Polesie National Park implements the European pond turtle’s protection programme as a separate activity. In particular stages of project implementation, the team conducting the protection of clutches were subjected to changes and adapted to the financial means. Generally, the active protection of European pond turtle was conducted by two co-operating teams: so-called “’Sobiborski”, in the North, and “Chelmski’’ , in the South. Both groups in the period of the most intensive works cared for more than 20 breeding sites each. In 2001-2005, measures were funded by own resources of forestry managements, ZChPK and WFOŚiGW in Lublin. The teams consisted mainly of forestry managements’ foresters: Sobibór and Chełm, employees of Management of Chelm Landscape Parks and other members, including a huge group of volunteers. On a yearly average, 30 people worked in both teams. In periods of greater financial disposition, like in 2006-2008 and 2001-2014, breeding sites were cared for by employees working on commission. Almost always, employees were working in pairs in order to ensure greater safety. The element that makes protection works more efficient is gaining

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practical experience by the individual members of a group. The best results are gained by the work conducted by the same members on the breeding site for a long time. In 2001-2005, the active protection of breeding sites was carried out on 9 breeding grounds in Sobiborski region and on 6 breeding grounds in Chelmski region. The aim of this was to secure with wire netting more than 880 nests where at least 2700 European pond turtles hatched. They were transferred to the waterholes. It must be remembered that the significant part of young turtles left the nest and reach water unassisted. These turtles are not included in the statistics. In 2006-2008, the active protection covered 44 breeding sites , and on 37 of them reproduction of European pond turtles was confirmed. These areas were secured with 495 wiring nests, and more than 3100 European pond turtles left the nests.

At the requests of Polesie Landscape Parks and Local Action for the Chelm Region Environment in 2006-2007 as much as 10 new protection zones for European pond turtles were designated. Within two years (2011-1012) of project implementation by RDOŚ in Lublin, the active protection was carried out on 7 breeding grounds ( 15 breeding sites in total). 378 nests were secured with wiring nests where at least 790 young turtles left the nest.

Reduction of predators Predation is a one way of the natural nutrition of organisms, so theoretically we should not worry too much when foxes prey on turtles. Turtles have developed protective cuirass which protects them from foxes quite effectively, but it hardens after 5-6 years from birth what makes them completely vulnerable up to then. The serious problem begins only when the excessive growth in predators population starts to threaten the sustainability of victim’s population. Even more serious problem is when victims are the endangered species. Now, we are forced to start the active protection. In most cases, securing of European pond turtles’ nests with metal nets is an efficient method of protection of eggs and cubs from predators. However, predators, mainly foxes, learned how to skip them. We had to deal with such situation on two breeding grounds in Sobiborskie Forests. During many years of active protection, various protective measures were taken, e.g. installing the nets to the ground not with 4 but with 8 or 12 bodkins, installing the big net (1x2m/3m) on the smaller one (50x50cm), the use of various repellents and their combinations, but they turned out to be ineffective. When all the secured nests were being destroyed more and more frequently, the decision was made to reduce the amount of

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predators. For this purpose, RDOŚ in Lublin signed contracts with hunting clubs for fox hunting that were breeding in the neighborhood of breeding sites. The hunting is not carried out in the closed season for foxes. Despite the fact that in 2011-2012 the population of foxes near 3 breeding sites was reduced by 70 specimen, it is still too early to assess the effectiveness of this method.

Maintaining the patency of migration routes European pond turtle is a two-environmental animal. For the greater part of the year the turtle exists in the aquatic environment, but once or twice a year it leaves the wetlands and heads for ‘land’ to lay its eggs. The length on migration depends on the local terrain conditions and ranges from a few hundred meters to several kilometers. On the forestry or agricultural areas, such migration does not pose a significant problem, but on the urbanized areas European pond turtles are exposed to many dangers. Certainly, one of the biggest are busy roads where part of turtles is killed, but housing estate development is even more dangerous. They separate breeding sites from turtles’ permanent seats continuingly. Such situation occurred in the neighborhoods of Chelm. Fast building development directly adjoining the town caused the serious threat of building up the main, and perhaps even the only migration channel for European pond turtles living in water reservoir in Stańków that connects them with breeding sites located ca. 1 km away. So far, despite many years of the research, it is the only known breeding site of the population. In order to confirm the role of known channel and to find new breeding sites, research attempt by the use of telemetry devices was made. The telemetry is a research based on tracing the animals with radio transmitters (Fig. 55). Observations are conducted from the distance, and in this way animals are not aware of the presence of an observer. Due to the huge amount of information that can be gained by the use of telemetry in a relatively short time, that method is commonly used for the study of vanishing and endangered species. In May, 2012, telemetry research on European pond turtles living in Dobromyśl sanctuary and in the southern part of Landscape Park in Chelm near Stanków water reservoir was started. In both of these places, quite numerous, local populations of European pond turtles occurred. Simultaneously, these places differ in the type of European pond turtles environment and the presence of different dangers for turtles. Telemetry focuses on the recognition of their environments, identification of living area, traces, migration and hibernation places. The main objective of the research is highly effective species protection through the proper identification of threats. 20 telemetry transmitters were applied in the first

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year of the project implementation. The next 10 transmitters are planned to be applied in 2013. Initial observations pointed to an evident trend of turtles migration through the already known migration channel in Stańków. Turtles use natural overflow areas and wetlands in the depression, the Uherka river, as well as a channel made by humans as a communication route. They move over land as well. Gained information led to the very comprehensive but at the same time long and difficult negotiations with municipal authorities of Chelm and the team of experienced spatial planners that were preparing the new directives entitled ‘Study of spatial conditioning and development’ of the municipality. Migration route along with the prohibition of its building-up was listed in planning documents.

Fig.55. European pond turtle female with radio transmitter stuck out on its carapax., photo by J. Holuk In Dobromysl sanctuary turtles move in different directions and that is determined by the availability of environments. In this region turtles reside in more fertile and deeper alders and mid-forest waterholes. They move mainly in their breeding season. There is no need for protection measures in the range of migration routes for the time being.

Education and popularization One of the most crucial goals of the project was to raise the environmental awareness of local communities, with particular attention to the communities that live in the direct neighborhood of European pond turtle’s sanctuary. LAŚ association prepared a multimedia presentation and series of lectures in two versions : for smaller children (up to 10 years of age) and teenagers that were shown and held in almost every school near the European pond turtles’ sanctuaries.

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The object was to broaden their knowledge on European pond turtles, main threats and needs and methods for protection. At the end of the 2006-2008 project implementation, an art contest was organized for primary and middle schools. 430 art works from 25 schools were collected. In 2012, series of lectures were conducted for adults, mainly for the farmers who live near European pond turtles’ refuges. To popularize the protection of European pond turtle, folders about this species, t-shirts with programme’s logo, bookmarks, stickers, diaries and calendars were prepared and distributed as souvenirs for the members of lectures and meetings. On selected breeding sites huge information boards with photos that make the topic clear were installed.

V. 2. DESCRIPTION OF BEST PRACTICES FOR AESKULAPIAN SNAKE Aeskulapian snake is a vanishing species with the poorly recognized occurrence. The largest Polish population of the species is in the central part of the Bieszczady Mountains, in the valley of San river, in the neighborhood of the Otryt mountain range, from the region Dwernik/Dwerniczka-Chmiela to Rajski. Apart from that place, few populations isolated from one another occur mainly around Soliński lagoon. The main causes for the current condition of population are as follows: killing, progressive succession on the population area, lack of places for incubation (natural or anthropogenical). Due to the critical condition of population, it was necessary to take actions the main aims of which were its maintenance and expanding and preservance of the proper structure of habitats. The example of the best practices that refer to Aeskulapian snake protection is the project entitled: „Active protection of habitats and the recognition of Zamenis longissimus Aeskulapian snake habitat’s condition in the West Bieszczady’’ carried out in 2009. The basis for project planning were provided by Lutowisko forestry management’s experiences from 1999 in the field of the creation of breeding sites, the exposure of ledges, forest glades’ clearing and removal of natural forest succession as well as available elaborations. (Najbar 2004a 2004b, Błażuk 2007). The project lasted a year and was funded in 85% by EkoFundusz foundation and The Regional Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management in Rzeszów. The project was implemented by the employees of the Institute of Conservation PAN in Kraków in strict collaboration with a specialist, dr B. Najbar from Zielona Gora University and Lutowisko forestry management.

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Before applying for the fund of the project, it was necessary to identify threats, distribution of the population and methods for active protection of the species. (Kurek 2008a). On the basis of literature data, the first collective map of species distribution that served as a base for inventory exercises was drawn. Beside literature review, consultations with specialists and Lutowisko forestry management employees who were involved in the first project of the protection of species were held. Thereby, the area of identification of population distribution was mapped out. On the grounds of collected information and awareness of species life needs, inventory exercises were mapped out for the area across the whole of the Western Bieszczady, and measures connected with active protection were located in the region of the most numerous population of Aeskulapian snake in the San valley of the Otryt range. Key tasks and project implementation 1. Aeskulapian snake’s habitats marking for the active protection in Krywe reserve, its immediate vicinity and the inventory of new habitats. Locations where active protection was performed were marked according to literature data, consultations with specialists, employees of Lutowisko forestry management and direct observations were made as part of conducted inventory. On the basis of published elaborations, 4 main regions of Aeskulapian snake occurrence were identified. Field research, along with the inventory, helped to find habitats where active protection in 1999 was performed. In 2009, only remains of the activities were fund in the form of stones (Fig.56) and several other places of Aeskulapian snake’s occurrence. As a result, activities of active protection like building of mounds made of stones and sawdust were planned for 17 locations, 5 of which coincide with the habitats from 1999 on grounds of possibility of snakes’ occurrence on these areas. By the use of GPS, bearings of locations, measures, microhabitats, potential and actual place of occurrence were taken. Collected information were used for the preparation of maps presenting the distribution of measures and actual occurrence of Aeskulapian snake.

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Fig. 56. In 2009, remains of Aeskulapian Snake active protection from 1999 were found in a form of mounds of stones., photo by K. Kurek

2. Implementation of active protection of Aeskulapian snake’s habitats In June, 1009, the construction of the first breeding mounds was started. The next 5 mounds were to be built in other regions, based on consultations and visitations in the forest. The mounds were monitored permanently. At the same time, the inventory was being continued for the identification of the next locations of measures. For every habitat, maps of measures were designed and you can see it on Fig. 57.

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(The tags in this drawing: Tworylne Mistrz-Tworylne Mistrz Str. 1-page 1, Zabiegi i obiekty na stanowisku-Actions and objects within the position, Wykaszanie-mowing, Gałęziowiskoheap of branches, Odkrzaczanie-descrubbing, Pniakowisko-heap of trunks, Kopiec-Mound, Piwnice, studnie-cellar, wells, Sterta kamieni- heap of stones, Km-km)

New breeding sites were located in accordance with the requirements of the species in places of direct observations and habitats occupied by Aeskulapian snake known from a few years ago, and experimentally in places chosen in a way so that isolation of distant habitats can be broken through. Attention! It should be noted that some of the measures, according to the obtained permissions, were being conducted in the season of the species’ activity. Such situation was an exception. Now, it is essential to meet the late autumn, winter and early spring deadlines of the measures. 29 breeding mounds were piled up in 17 locations, The area of 2 ha was removed from bushes and 32 ha of meadows were mowed in the former Trywolne village. On exposure areas, a part of the materials from trees and bushes cut down were used for the formation of additional structures like heap of trunks and heap of branches. 3. Inventory and monitoring of Aeskulapian snake’s habitats in the Otryt range a) Inventories of Aeskulapian snake’s habitats Considering the poor recognition of Aeskulapian snake’s distribution, a precise inventory through the direct observations of habitats in the area of the occurrence of the most dense population was planned. Outside that region, on the area of the Bieszczady Mountains, inventory works were based on the review and analysis of literature data, surveys and interviews with State Forests employees and residents of the area and, if possible, verification of information directly in the field. The purpose of the inventory was not only to identify the distribution of the population, but also the determination of new places for further active and zonal protection. Methods of conducted inventory works Direct observations were conducted in areas where snakes can potentially appear, i.e. in the vicinity of mounds, ruins of old buildings, rocky and sunny river shores, quarries, old wooden buildings, composters etc. The whole valley of the San River (with its tributaries), berms and clearings from the Chmiel village to Rajskie and the region of Zatwarnica village were

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penetrated in detail. During the stocktaking, rangers, local residents, forest workers and tourists were directly interviewed. During the interviews, the respondents were asked about the place and date of meeting the snakes, characteristic features distinguishing a species, characteristics of dwellings and approximate length of specimens. News about appearances of the Aesculapian snake was considered credible when the information provided mentioned seeing the snakes high up on trees because this species climbs very well. The interviews were held mainly in the region of “Krzywe” nature reserve and in the area of surrounding forest inspectorates from Lutowiska and Baligród forest districts, and the acquired information was verified with direct observation in the field. The polls, directed mainly at the workers of the State Forests, consisted of questions concerning location, approximate date of observation and size of observed specimens. The poll forms were distributed in the following forest inspectorates: Komańcza, Cisna, Lesko, Wetlina, Stuposiany, Baligród, and Ustrzyki Górne (Fig. 58). The most credible information acquired from the polls was verified in the whole Western Bieszczady Mountains. During the inventory works, information about dead snakes was gathered as well.

Day and hour of observation Name and surname: Contact (telephone, email) Name/Description of location:

Place

of

(superintendency,

forestry, branch / sub-unit)

(ie. trunks,

walls, branches, limbs, hives, wooden buildings, compost piles of rubbish)

observation

Species:

Number

of

specimens: Condition

of

alive/dead/ecdysis/eggs

specimen Young/adult

Size (age)

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Fig. 58 Examplary form for data collection about appearances of the Aesculapian snake

Results of the inventory As a result of conducted direct interviews, data about 50 encounters with snakes was acquired, and as a result of polls - about 17. Information about appearances concerned both the current observations and the historical ones, pointing at a wider reach of the species in the past years. Data obtained was divided into credibility categories, based on the subjective assessment of the respondents’ skills for distinguishing the Aesculapian snake from other species. Because of frequent mistaking of the Aesculapian snake (Fig. 59b) for the melanin version of the grass snake appearing in the Bieszczady Mountains (Fig. 59a), info obtained from outsiders is currently considered solid when it concerns dead specimens, photos of live specimen, and the snakes’ casts.

Fig. 59a. Melanin version of the grass snake, often mistaken for the Aesculapian snake, photo by K. Kurek.

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Fig. 59b. The Aesculapian snake, photo by G. Baś b) monitoring of the effects of active protection and population regulation of the Aesculapian snake The evaluation of the effects of active protection of the dwellings was carried out in the most intense period of activity of the Aesculapian snake. During the realization of this task, an attempt to assess the snakes’ usage of mounds and researched connected with assessing the parameters of the population, such as: number, age and sex structure (through observation and, as much as possible, catching and labelling them) was started. Data was collected at 20 sites selected for this undertaking (17 locations with mounds and 3 in the region of Zatwarnica village).

Methods of conducted monitoring works  Means of conducting direct observations Due to protective coloration and a secretive lifestyle, the Aesculapian snake is a hard to observe species. The most known methods of observing those snake is the “stalking” method, i.e. careful observation of known and potential places of appearance. The research was taken on sunny (but not hot) days, during the biggest activity time of the snakes, i.e. especially between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. Apart from sunny weather, observation could have been carried out also during warm days with clouded sky because snakes are active then as well. During the works, items that are potential hiding spots for snakes (planks, rocks, trunks, felt, foil, etc.) were checked. Also, stone ruins, wooden buildings and bridge abutments were penetrated. Places that were hard to get to, like cliffs, shores of watercourses and quarries had to be observed only from a higher-situated post. In such cases, the observation concerned mainly sunny rifts, hideouts near depressions, on the edge of rocks and vegetation associations (Najbar 2012). On surfaces overgrown with dense herbaceous vegetation and deprived of elements facilitating finding of snakes in order to obtain more accurate data, in the area of monitored surfaces several pieces of felt were arranged on sawdust mounds. The snakes keenly used them as hiding spots (Fig. 60, 61).

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Fig. 60, 61. Pieces of felt were put on the mounds, making the monitoring works easier, photos by K. Attention! The fact that snakes are caught by poachers should be borne in mind; therefore, pieces of felt can be placed only in places with human limited penetration. The best time to observe the Aesculapian snake is early spring, especially in the period of large differences in temperature between day and night - in the early hours, the rise in temperature activates the snakes and it is easier to observe them at the moment of leaving their hideouts, e.g. mounds and clusters of branches (Fig. 62). Limited growth of vegetation in this period also made it easier to spot the snakes. Late summer and, depending on the weather, early autumn days made it possible to observe young (this year’s) specimens, which are still quite active at this time of the year. Due to randomness of observation, as well as the large area of monitoring, counting the sakes took several or even over a dozen days.

Fig. 62a, b. The Aesculapian snake on a branch cluster and on a mound, photo by K. Kurek  Methods of assessing the parameters of the population In order to assess the size of the population, the standard zoological “capture mark recapture” method of counting was used. This method is based on capturing, labelling and releasing specimens in a strictly definite research area, and then on re-catching. The assessment of the size of the population is based on the proportion of labelled specimens caught in consecutive

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re-catchings. In the case of the Aesculapian snake, particular specimens were identified on the basis of their individual characteristics (irregularities of scales, injuries, scars, incisions on the abdominal scale etc.), (Fig. 63, 64). After catching, a photo documentation of specimens was created (especially scales and head anomalies). Data from the observation (day, hour, place of observation, observer, approximate length/age of specimen) was recorded in the appropriate form.

Fig. 63, 64. Anomalies in the scales on the abdominal side of the Aesculapian snake’s body (an additional scale near the anal scales - picture on the left; a scar on the tail - picture on the right) making it easier to identify specimens in the case of re-catching them, photos by K. Kurek Re-caught snakes were subject to measurement of the following morphologic characteristics: 1. Total length [cm] (3 measures with a tape) 2. Length of tail [cm] (1 measure) 3. Weight [g], using the PESOLA scale 4. Length and width of the head [mm] 5. Number of abdominal scales 6. Number of caudal scales After collection the abovementioned data, the snake was released in the exact spot of capturing him in order to minimise the amount of stress of the animal (fg. 65, 66).

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Fig. 65, 66. After measuring, the snakes are released in the place of capture, photo by K. Kurek Attention! It should be remembered that in order to perform activities connected with being near areas of procreation, capturing, labelling etc., appropriate permissions (personal in the case of i.a. being in the protection zones and capturing the specimens) and administrative decisions are needed. Those activities can be performed only by specialists or under their direct supervision! Traces of being in the form of casts and egg shells are also a sign of the species’ presence. Identification of a specimen is sometimes possible on the basis of its cast. Due to the secretive lifestyle of the Aesculapian snake, casts not only are highly important for the monitoring of the population but also they are sometimes the only proof of the species’ presence in a given area. Casts and egg shells are placed in paper envelopes (individually), and then the envelopes are described. Information that should be present on the envelopes are: the person who has collected the cast, day and place of finding it (name, geographical coordinates or GPS code).

Results of monitoring As a result of field works that were carried out, 13 specimens of the Aesculapian snake were captured and measures. Also, one dead Aesculapian snake was found, as well as 23 direct observations were made and 10 casts were collected. Almost all created mounds, right after creating them, were inhabited by other reptiles appearing in the region, mostly sand lizards Lacerta agilis, slow worms Anguis fragilis and grass snakes. The Aesculapian snake was not seen during the conducted works. Some specimens and traces of their presence in the form of casts were seen and collected in the direct vicinity of 5 mounds. 5. Creating maps of sites and distribution of the Aesculapian snake in the Western Carpathians. As a part of the project, creation of the map of current distribution of the Aesculapian snake, based on the results of the already mentioned inventory and literature data (Fig. 67), was planned. Moreover, maps of taken measures and dwellings were made. Those maps were created using the GIS system and digital map base (orthophotomaps from 2002) and ultimately consisted of the following thematic layers: - places of observation of the Aesculapian snake, - open spaces (clearings, grasslands), with mowing areas marked,

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- areas of afforestation and thick bushes, with de-bushing areas marked, - ruins of buildings, - distribution of mounds.

Rozmieszczenie stanowisk węża Eskulapa Zamenis Iongis imus na tle jednostek fizjograficznych Kondrackiego-Location of Aesculapian snake’s positions Zamenis Iongis imus compared to phisiographic units of Kondracki Aktualności i pewność danych- News and data validity Dane niepewne-Unverified data Dane pewne-Verified data Granice jednostek fizjograficznych-Borders of phisiographic data Fig. 67. Map of distribution of the Aesculapian snake based on literature data, interviews, polls and direct observations, created at the end of the project, compiled by K. Najberek, IOP PAN, Krakow 6. Creation of strategy of protection of the Aesculapian snake for the Western Carpathians. Inventory of the sites and the initial evaluation of the species’ reaction to active protection of its dwellings became the basis for creating the strategy of protection of the Aesculapian snake. The aim of it was to give recommendation for further protection of the Aesculapian snake in the last places of its presence in the Western Carpathians through: - creation of general planks based on existent legal footing, - presentation of results of inventory of sites and active protection of dwellings of the Aesculapian snake, - marking areas of monitoring areas of potential appearances of the species, - summary list of collected data and results of conducted works in the area of the most abundant presence of the Aesculapian snake in the area of Lutowiska forest inspectorate,

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- proposing actions that increase permanence and effectiveness of foregoing protection of the species, - continuation of education of the society about the necessity of snake protection. Because of information about precise location of areas of procreation and presence of the Aesculapian snake contained in the strategy, this document was introduced to the General Office of Environmental Protection, the Regional Office of Environmental Protection in Rzeszów and the Lutowiska forest inspectorate. This elaboration was used in preparing the next project, which is the continuation of the undertaken actions of active protection of the species.

Continuation of undertaken actions of active protection of the Aesculapian snake In order to increase and solidify the effects of protective action undertaken in 2009, which absolutely needed to be continued, Institute of Nature Conservation PAS in Krakow w years 2011-2014 realises another project entitled “Active Protection of the Aesculapian Snake in the Western Carpathians”. The project was financed in 85% by the EU (from the 5th Priority of Operational Programme Infrastructure and Environment and in 15% by the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management in Warsaw. In order to assess the parameters of population, such as size and age and sex structure, 38 sites of the Aesculapian snakes in the region from Chmiel village to Rajskie were taken under permanent monitoring in the years 201--2012. The controls were planned from April to September/October (once in April and September, twice a month from May to August) by a trained team of a number of people. In 2013, 20 locations with procreation mounds in the area of Baligród, Komańcza, Cisna, Ustrzyki Dolne, Stuposiany and Lesko forest inspectorates were included in the monitoring works. Representatives of given forest inspectorates were engaged in monitoring of those places. In order to assess the thermo-humidity conditions of the procreation places, loggers (sensors for measuring those parameters) was installed in the mounds. To check the level of inhabitancy of procreation spots, a few video cameras, monitoring activity of the Aesculapian snake and other reptiles using the mounds, were installed in places suitable for doing so. In years 2011-2012 more places of potential appearance of the Aesculapian snake were penetrated. Workers of the forest inspectorates involved in the project aided the inventory works. On the basis of collected data, distribution of subsequent actions improving living conditions of the Aesculapian snake in other parts of the Bieszczady Mountains was planned.

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The project presumed an increase of durability of created procreation and shelter spots through adding sawdust and hay to existing mounds and creating trunk shelters and branch shelters. In the region of appearance of the “otric” population 23 mounds were supplemented and 6 of them were permanently fenced. 29 branch shelters were created and supplemented and 20 trunk shelters were built. In the area of Lutowiska forest inspectorate, several clearings with trunk shelters between sites of the Aesculapian snake were recreated. Locations of those clearings, after field vision and orthophotomaps analyses, were deemed important for breaking the isolation dividing the places of appearances of the Aesculapian snake. About 3 ha of overgrowing clearings and grasslands were de-bushed and 10 ha of land were mowed. In order to protect new places of appearance of the Aesculapian snake (apart from rthe region of appearance of the “otric” population), increase of the area of activity connected with active protection of the species was planned. In the area of 7 forest inspectorates, actions aimed at assisting procreation and living of the Aesculapian snake were proposed. Additional mounds and other measures were localised mainly along the shores of the Solina basin (Ustrzyki Dolne forest inspectorate), in the valley of the San Riven from Rajskie city (Baligród forest inspectorate) to the border with Ukraine (Stuposiany forest inspectorate) and in places where reports about dead Aesculapian snakes come from, from the region of Komańcza and Cisna forest inspectorates. In the area of Lesko forest inspectorate, on the border of the Bieszczady Mountains and the Low Beskid, a single mound with parameters appropriate for the Aesculapian snake was built. In the project, actions raising social awareness about the necessity of snake protection were planned. At the end of the undertakings, making and placing of 15 educationalinformational boards in the area administrated by the State Forests was planned. Because of the nature of the boards, they will be placed mostly in the regions of frequented tourist trails. The boards, apart from the information about the Aesculapian snake, contain information about other snakes with indication of distinctive features of particular species. Additionally, the boards are supposed to collect information about the presence of the Aesculapian snake; that is why the boards contain contact information and means of transferring information about this species. Within

the

framework

of

this

task,

an

Internet

subsite

was

created:

www.

iop.rakow.pl/eskulap/. The culmination of the project is the creation of protection recommendations for the species. On the basis of research of several years and as a result of cooperation with the State

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Forests and the Regional Office of Environmental Protection in Rzeszów a document containing guidelines for further protection of the Aesculapian snake will be created. During the realisation of the project, attention was given to i.a. the need to regulate the issue of protection zones of the species, i.e. their update on the basis of data about appearance of the Aesculapian snake and the state of preservation of dwellings. In this document, recommendations on appearance and protection of the species will be presented as well. This information might be taken into account in the plans of arrangement of the forest for particular forest inspectorates (Kurek 2012).

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Summary A few years long activities connected with active protection and reconnoitre of population of the Aesculapian snake bring expected results. In 2013, the size of the population living in the valley of the San River in the Otryt range was estimated to be about 200-250 specimens. Currently, 17 out of 23 mounds and inhabited by this species. The youngest generation of this rare snake species can be observed more and more often. However, the effects of the active protection are not yet full because on the basis of research in the Otryt region it was concluded that mounds situated a few kilometres from places of numerous appearances of the Aesculapian snake are inhabited in 2-3 years after their creation. As a result of realisation of the abovementioned undertakings, an extremely valuable cooperation with the State Forests, Regional Office of Environmental Protection in Rzeszów and specialists working on behalf of the institutions financing the project was started. Direct cooperation with residents of areas where the Aesculapian snake is present translates into active protection of this species through actions of private persons. An example o such effective cooperation is Mr Daniel Żak from Zatwarnica, who takes care of supplementation and upkeep of the compost bin (procreation place of the Aesculapian snake) on his property. n this compost bin, in 2010, first since the beginning of the project freshly hatched Aesculapian snakes were found. Despite many positive aspects connected with the protection of the Aesculapian snake, starting with the positive reaction of the population to active protection activities, and ending with implementing tools that enable constant data collection about the presence of the species, the issues of stability of conducted works (Fig. 68) and the still incomplete reconnoitre of presence of the species and its population outside the valley of the San River in the Otryt range.

Fig. 68. Without supplementation (with sawdust, hay, and branches) mounds very quickly lose their thermal properties and they stop acting as incubators for the Aesculapian snake’s eggs. On the photo - a mound from 2009, before supplementation in 2011, photo by K. Kurek

V. 3. DESCRIPTION OF BEST PRACTICES FOR SMOOTH SNAKE

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“Inventory of Dwellings of the Smooth Snake Coronella austriaca for the Sake of Protecting the Species in the Area of Włocławek Forest Inspectorate” The “Inventory of Dwellings of the Smooth Snake Coronella austriaca for the Sake of Protecting the Species in the Area of Włocławek Forest Inspectorate” project was realised in 2012 in the area of Włocławek Forest Inspectorate, which administrates a part of a large forest complex situated in the Gostynin-Włocław Landscape Park. The area of the GWLP is characterised by diverse land form, which consists of i.a. moraine hills and dune ridges. They constitute the dominating element of the landscape, the distinctiveness of which is underscored by pine forests. GWLP, including the Włocławek Forest Inspectorate, was recognised as one of the most important places of being of the smooth snake in central Poland (Zielińska et al. 2002), and the foregoing research confirmed the significance of the discussed area for the protection of the smooth snake in Poland. This is caused by large presence of beneficial biotopes, shaped also as a result of human activity, i.a. through conducting forestry. This concerns mainly the dominating in this region dry pine forests, where clearcutting works are done. Thanks to that, new and intensively sunny dwellings are created. Clearcutting, including the complete ones, increases the chances of the species surviving in forest areas in the long term. Penetration of the smooth snake into anthropogenic dwellings near human settlements on small mid-forest clearings, where the species finds advantageous living conditions, was observed in the area of Włocławek Forest Inspectorate (Najbar 2000). Because of that, having in mind upkeep of known sites located near forester’s lodges, employees of Włocławek Forest Inspectorate undertook throughout the last years protective actions directed at preserving existing around the settlements natural hideouts and creating additional artificial shelters, mainly by stacking piles of wood (Fig. 69). Realised in this way, cost-free and easily, protection of the species contributed to the preservation of the local populations near several forest settlements. It was important to place the piles of wood outside the borders of the settlements in such a way so as to minimise the risk of pressure in reference to the snakes from the livestock. In 2004, from the initiative of Włocławek Forest Inspectorate, using a designated subsidy from the state budget for natural preservation, 3 artificial shelters near a forest settlement were created. Numerous sites of the smooth snake were found near them. Works were conducted as a means of compensation, due to the demolition of an old stable, which served the snakes as a place of procreation and frequent presence. Because of removal of the brick foundation, where young specimens had been seen numerous times, a surrogate

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shelter was also partially placed under the ground (ca. 1 m) in order to create potential winter camp for the snakes. Thick pieces of wood and stones were used to build the artificial shelters. Throughout the subsequent seasons, constant appearances of the smooth snake in this place were confirmed. Attention! It should be noted that the attempt to recreate a potential place of hibernation was made as a response to a clear loss of an already existing dwelling. Generally, creating hibernacula under the ground is rarely done because it might entail the risk of damaging the underground structures used by snakes, resulting in bringing an effect contrary to the expected one!

Fig. 69. Dwelling of the smooth snake with secondary shelters, photo by M. Piotrowski. In order to make a more accurate reconnoitre of appearances of the smooth snake in the area of Włocławek Forest Inspectorate, an inventory, which covered five subdistricts with its scope, was conducted in 2012. The works were financed from grants from the Provincial Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management in Toruń after gaining a positive opinion from the Regional Nature Conservator. In order to choose places for detailed field works, an initial reconnoitre, involving analysis of local settlement conditions, was conducted. The final choice of those places was made after carrying out local visions and taking into account all the information about the smooth snake statements from employees of the State Forests, Gostynin-Włocław Landscape Park and local naturalists.

Inventory works

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Propositions included in the elaboration concerning monitoring of the smooth snake were used in the field works (Najbar 2011). Penetrating the area and searching the snakes on the surface and under different kinds of items was accepted as the primary research method. Having in mind the specificity of forest dwellings in Włocławek Forest Inspectorate, which do not abound in natural elements which can serve as hiding spots, e.g. rocks, trunks etc., artificial shelters were created in order to increase the likeliness of finding the snakes (Fig. 70, 71). They consisted of about 0.5m x 0.5m waferboards. The waferboards were painted brown in order to improve its thermal properties (the rate of heating up), protect it from soaking and because of necessity to keep it hard to notice by outsiders.

Fig. 70, 71. Artificial hiding spots used during inventories of the smooth snake, photo by M. Piotrowski In total, 170 waferboards were placed in diverse distribution. he workers tried to place at least 3 hideouts in a given place. They were distributed in a distance of between ten and twenty meters from each other, and for the needs of later inspections, exact coordinates of their location were described by a GPS receiver. The areas, where artificial hiding spots were placed, were inspected 5-6 times. The places were penetrated not only during suny and warm weather but also, in order to increase the snake detection rate, in times of coll weather and after rainfall (Wiśniowski, Rozwałka 2007). During the field inspections, roads and their shoulders were checked for snakes run over by cars. The works were conducted by employees of the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Museum and Institute of Zoology PAS, State Forest workers and local naturalists.

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As a result, presence of the smooth snake was detected or confirmed in 20 places. Only in one place was the smooth snake found under a board imitating a hiding spot. Low detectability when using boards could have been caused by i.a. late distribution in the field. The snakes’ casts turned out to be valuable in gaining information about the places of appearances of the smooth snake. Locations, where active protection activities were planned, were designated. The activities were meant to prevent overgrowing of mid-forest clearings and prepare secondary shelters in the form of trunk, bough and branch mounds. As a continuation of protective activities Włocławek Forest Inspectorate received in 2013 a subsidy from the Provincial Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management in Toruń. Currently, another project entitled “Active Protection of Coronella austriaca in Chosen Areas in Włocławek Forest Inspectorate” makes the effective protection of local populations of this species possible. The issue of reptile protection was also included in the range of ecological education aimed at the local population, mainly children and adolescents and conducted by the workers of State Forests. Due to recorded cases of killing smooth snakes in places situated near human settlements, educational actions are needed. Coronella austriaca is a species which maybe should be protected in forest areas, where it is possible to keep the necessary quality of dwellings used by the snakes (Zieliński, Stanisławski 2006). In the case of this species, protection can be realised with little use of funds, on the occasion of forest management, mainly through preventing the overgrowing of mid-forest clearings and leaving fragments of wood and piles of branches as natural elements creating a biotope for that species. “Protection of Coronella austriaca in Central Poland” The project of Łódź Club of Polish Society for Nature Conservation “Salamandra”, realised in years 2000-2002, was one of the first undertakings in Poland focused on protection of the smooth snake, with the use of various methods of active protection combined with ecological education and reconnoitre of presence of this species in the central part of the country. The programme received a grant-aid from the Small Subsidies Programme of the Global Environment Facility UNDP, and its realisation was conducted in cooperation with the Zoological Garden in Łódź. The works were conducted after gaining permissions from the Ministry of Environment, Local Ethical Committee and the Regional Nature Conservator.

The main aims of the projects were: 

reconnoitre of presence of the smooth snake in central Poland;

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

assessment of dangers for the population of the smooth snake;

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active protection of dwellings through illuminating of spots and creating artificial shelters;

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legal protection of one of sites through the creation of an ecological use;

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assistance of procreation through capturing of pregnant females in order to get offspring, released after wintering at a site from which the female comes from;

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publishing of publications and creating a website concerning protection of herpetofauna;

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preparation of a photo exhibition on reptile protection (Zieliński 2003).

Reconnoitre of presence of the smooth snake Inventory of sites were conducted in 2001 and 2002 in the whole central Poland. Few-men groups were penetrating places of potential presence of the smooth snake. One of the sites was found in vicinity of Dębniaki village, where about 5 specimens of the species were spotted. Summary of the results of the inventory conducted within the framework of the project with data from previous years made it possible to recognise the area of GostyninWłocław Landscape Park as important for protection of the smooth snake. Existence of 10 sites of the species in the precinct of 6 adjacent atlas fields was recorder (Zieliński et al. 2002a). Active and legal protection of dwellings One of the sites of the smooth snake situated in Złoczew Upland was included in the active protection activities. The site was chosen for security works because of disadvantageous condition of the population of snakes that are present there, as well as their dwellings and no legal protection of this place, as opposed to other sites from Załęczyn and Gostyń-Włocław Landscape Parks and the Diabla Góra preserve. Lightening of the site was carried out in winter of 2001/2002, thanks to which avoiding the risk of killing the snakes accidentally during the works was possible. Bushes and trees causing overshadowing of the site were removed in the area of about 1 ha. Fragments of trees and bushes that were left as a result of removal were used to create secondary shelters. Additionally, 5 piles of stones were created. Their purpose was to act as hiding spots for the smooth snake and its potential prey. The site was given legal protection in the form of ecological use. Assistance of procreation In years 2001 and 2002 an attempt to assist procreation of the smooth snake at the site in Złoczew Upland was made. Enlarging of the population was done through capturing

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pregnant females and transporting them to the Municipal Zoological Garden in Łódź. Females were kept in terrariums until the birth. The offspring was fed, wintered and then released in spring in the place of capture of females. In June of 2000 a pregnant female was captured and transported to the Zoological Garden. After the birth, which took place in August, the female lost about 30% of body mass and was released 5 days later. The litter consisted of 14 individuals, 2 of which died just after birth. Young smooth snakes were wintered and released into the wild in May and July of the next year. At the time of release, about 50% increase of length and almost three times the weight gain since birth was recorded. In 2001, near the end of June, another pregnant female was captures. In August, she gave birth to 7 snakes and 1 unfertilised egg. The female was released 6 days after the birth. She lost almost 40% of her weight. The brood was released in the first half of May 2012. The length of the snakes’ body increased about 30% and their weight doubled. Unfortunately, during wintering young smooth snakes showed high mortality. 50% of snakes died. During the wintering, a large fluctuation of body mass, which could have been the cause of the worsening of the snakes’ condition, and as a consequence their deaths, was not noted. After the first hibernation, the conditions of keeping the snakes were changed a bit. That, however, did not bring any results. The cause of such high mortality of the brood is not known. During the wintering of the snakes, difficulties in finding food for the sand lizard were met with. Feeding the offspring with a different kind of food was accepted as risky since it could have encompassed habituation of consumption of food that is inaccessible in the natural environment, where they were supposed to be released. Due to the abovementioned problems, further attempts at assisting the procreation were decided against and further security works were limited to monitoring of the population and keeping and improving dwelling conditions (Zieliński et al. 2002b).

Monitoring of sites of the smooth snake Population of two sites (Złoczew Upland, Gostynin-Włocław Landscape Park) became monitored. In the area of Złoczew Upland in years 2001 and 2002, 2 out of 9 younglings which were released there were captured again. Mediocre results of monitoring were a result of difficulties in finding smooth snakes in their natural environment.

Educational and popularisational activity

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Educational actions were an important element of the project. Popularisational activity was realised through:  preparation of a publication entitled “Reptiles of Łódź Area”, co-financed from the Municipal Fund for Environmental Protection in Łódź;  publishing of an article entitled “We Protect the Smooth Snake” (by M. Stopczyński) in the Salamandra magazine;  printing of folders (the edition consisted of 1000 copies) on protection of domestic reptiles;  preparation of a website devoted to the project;  preparation of a photo exhibition entitled “Protect the Domestic Reptiles” in Middle School no. 28 in Łódź and in the Łódź Gallery (the exhibition was co-financed by the Provincial Fund for Environment Protection in Łódź);  radio programmes on protection of the smooth snake.

Thanks to the abovementioned activities and the cooperation with foresters and local authorities, an interest in snakes and the need to protect them was aroused.

What to do upon finding a pond turtle, an Aesculapian snake or a smooth snake? As mentioned, distribution and number of those species in Poland are not reconnoitred well enough. Because of that, all information concerning those statements are extremely valuable. In case of encountering any of the abovementioned species, please send a message to the Institute of Nature Conservation PAS in Krakow with following data: a) Full name of the author of the observation b) Location (province, nearest city, GPS coordinates if possible) c) Date of encounter d) Short description of dwelling (e.g. edge of a forest, clearing, a pile of stones on a meadow) e) Number of encountered specimens f) Approximate size of encountered specimens (large, small, this year’s) g) Information whether the specimen is dead or alive h) Photo documentation of encountered specimens is recommended

Contact info:

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Institute of Nature Conservation PAS Al. A. Mickiewicza 33, 31-120 Krakow E-mail: [email protected] Contact person: Grażyna Połczyńska-Konior All information concerning the presence of the Aesculapian snake (photographs of living and dead specimens) can be sent to: Contact person: Katarzyna Kurek E-mail: [email protected]

Sent data can help in creation of the currently in-the-making Atlas of Polish Amphibians and Reptiles and in supplementing a database on the distribution of the Aesculapian snake in Poland. All used reports are labeled with the author of the report’s name. In case of finding an injured specimen, one can try contacting local zoological gardens, veterinarians or specialists from the list below. List of veterinary offices which can help injured reptiles can be found in this website: www.terrarium.pl/cms/vet.

Planning an inventory, monitoring, active protection or creation of a protected area should be consulted with specialists who have experience in research and protection of a species. Below is a list of addresses of people dealing with protected reptile species in various parts of Poland (without their academic titles): a) Lower Silesia (Dolny Śląsk) Bartosz Borczyk, Faculty of Evolutional Biology and Ecology, University of Wrocław, ul. Sienkiewicza 21, 59-335 Wrocław Robert Maślak, Faculty of Evolutional Biology and Ecology, University of Wrocław, ul. Sienkiewicza 21, 59-335 Wrocław, [email protected], phone: 71 3754040 b) South, Lesser Poland, Lower Carpathians (Południe, Małopolska, Podkarpacie) Stanisław Bury, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, [email protected] Maciej Pabijan, Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University ul. Gronostajowa 9, 30-387 Krakow, [email protected] Piotr Profus, Institute of Nature Conservation PAS al. A. Mickiewicza 33, 31-120 Krakow, [email protected] c) Southern Poland, Świętokrzyskie Maciej Bonk, Society for Nature Research and Conservation,

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ul. Sienkiewicza 68, 25-501 Kielce, [email protected] d) Central Poland, Łódzkie Province Piotr Zieliński, Faculty of Ecology and Vertebrate Zoology, University of Lodz ul. Banacha 12/16, 90-237 Łódź, [email protected], tel. 42 6354434 Michał Stopczyński, ul. Radlińskiej 3/5, 91 – 848 Łódź, [email protected], tel. 509 148 958 e) Mazowsze Joanna Mazgajska, Musem and Institute of Zoology PAS ul. Wilcza 64, 00-679 Warszawa, [email protected] f) Lubelskie Province, Roztocze Przemysław Stachyra, Roztocze National Park ul. Plażowa 2, 22-470 Zwierzyniec, [email protected] g) North, Warmia and Masuria Grzegorz Górecki, Field Station of Department of Biology, University of Warsaw Urwitałt 1, 11-730 Mikołajki, [email protected], tel. 604 696 496

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