Behavior Matters

Behavior Management Through Self-Advocacy A Strategy for Secondary Students With Learning Disabilities

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 42, No. 6, pp. 22-29. Copyright 2010 CEC.

Ronen Sebag Implementing a behavior management model that focuses on student selfdetermination and self-advocacy can improve students’ understanding of themselves and their strengths and weaknesses as well as support their ability to formulate strategies and goals for behavior improvement. Such a model promotes student buy-in and provides the student with behavior management tools, strategies, and experiences that could serve him or her beyond the classroom. At its core, the self-advocacy behavior management (SABM) model is student centered: It puts the student in charge of identifying the areas of conduct struggle; devising a strategy to successfully tackle the struggle; and reflecting on success, progress, and areas in need of improvement. How often does student behavior hinder teaching and learning in your classroom? Disruptive student conduct is an issue most teachers, both veteran and novice, deal with every school year. In a 2004 study conducted by the nonprofit research institute Public Agenda, 77% of teachers acknowledged that disruptive student behavior negatively impacts their ability to teach effective22

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ly. A teacher survey conducted by the Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education (2006) found that classroom management is of central concern to most teachers. Effective behavior management is an essential aspect of a productive teaching and learning environment, and behavior management often presents tremendous challenges to students, teachers, and administrators. Although there are a variety of behavior management approaches to helping students improve their conduct in the classroom, no single strategy fits all situations and/or all students; educators require varied and diverse tools to achieve effective behavior management. The self-advocacy behavior management (SABM) model is one tool that might be included in a diverse behavior management toolbox. At its core, the SABM model is student centered, student directed, and student driven. The model departs from conventional behavior management models in which the educator is the sole author of the strategy—observing, collecting and analyzing data, and devising intervention strategies. In the SABM model, the student who experiences conduct struggles is the lead

author and principal of the behavior management process. Through the process of self-monitoring behavior management tools and strategies and frequent student-teacher conferences, the SABM model puts the student in charge of (a) identifying the conduct struggle, (b) devising a strategy to successfully tackle the struggle, (c) reflecting on the effectiveness of the strategy, and (d) making necessary adjustments for further progress. The teacher has a vital role to play in this process as well: as a guide and a coach to scaffold the student through the process. The SABM model is based on self-advocacy literature. Self-Advocacy and the SelfDetermination Approach Self-advocacy is a component of the broader concept and approach of selfdetermination. The concept of selfdetermination is “based on the belief that all individuals have the right to direct their lives. It encompasses a broad set of knowledge, skills, and behaviors that enable an individual to seek goals, make decisions, explore options, solve problems, speak up for himself or herself, understand what supports are needed for success, and

evaluate outcomes” (Test, Aspel, & Everson, 2006, p. 160). Over the last 2 decades, self-determination has become a major focus in research and practice regarding educating students with disabilities. Self-determination programs have been shown to promote higher levels of achievement and success rates, both academic and social, for students with disabilities as well as prepare them for life outside and beyond school (Agran, Blanchard, & Wehmeyer, 2000; Shogren, FaggellaLuby, Bae, & Wehmeyer, 2004; Wehmeyer, 1999; Wehmeyer, Baker, Blumberg, & Harrison, 2004; Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000; Wood, Karvonen, Test, Browder, & Algozzine, 2004). Self-determination teaches students to “set goals, make decisions and choices, solve problems, and self-advocate” (Wehmeyer et al., 2000, p. 439). The key to self-determination is that it empowers the student to become a causal agent in his/her life; students who are self-determined become “actors in their lives instead of being acted upon” (Wehmeyer et al., 2000, p. 440). Further, self-determination practices enhance students’ understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses, improve their communication and socialization skills, and develop their ability to formulate goals for increased school success. By promoting problem-solving skills and agency, selfdetermination strategies grant students greater control over their environment and hence boost student motivation and efficacy. Wehmeyer et al. (2004) explored the applicability of the self-determination approach regarding student involvement in the functional assessment process as a form of positive behavior intervention. The authors argued that It seems logical that promoting self-determination, either by creating greater opportunities for persons to exert control over their lives or by teaching people more effective skills with which they could solve problems, set goals, or participate in decisions, would be a beneficial positive behavior intervention. (p. 30)

Self-determination and self-advocacy are sometimes used synonymously, and they do share an overarching goal: to move the student from the passenger’s seat to the driver’s seat of life. Yet self-advocacy is a more particular component of self-determination, and it usually refers to students gradually assuming greater say in and control of their individualized education program (IEP) and transition planning as well as speaking up for what they want and need. Self-Advocacy = Students Taking Charge for Success and Progress Self-advocacy models that promote student participation in and contribution to IEP and transition planning have

been a focus of special education not only because this is the right thing to do—it is obvious that students should have a say in matters that impact their lives—but also because schools are legally required to do so. According to the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), students with disabilities should be included as active participants in the development of their IEP and transition planning. The student should be “the focal point of transition planning” and “should be integral to the process of developing the IEP/transition plan and should be prepared to participate in meetings to the extent possible” (Kochhar-Bryant, 2007, p. 39). In other words, students should be able to understand and articulate their strengths, needs, and

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goals in order to be an integral part of the IEP/transition process. Technically speaking, teaching and implementing self-advocacy is essential in order to successfully realize the IDEA mandate. Evidence of the benefits of the selfadvocacy approach for increased participation in and contribution to IEP and transition planning abound. Hammer (2004) found that the self-advocacy strategy (SAS) was effective in promoting the ability of middle-school students to identify and reflect on strengths, needs, goals, and preferences; to create goals based on these considerations; and to self-advocate during the IEP meeting. Lancaster, Schumaker, and Deshler (2002) also found the SAS model effective in training students to identify and reflect on strengths, needs, goals, and preferences, and in instructing students on how to create goals based on these considerations. The authors indicated that the SAS model is suited to “help students prepare for and participate in any type of conference situation” (Lancaster et al., 2002, p. 281). Test and Neale (2004) also analyzed the effectiveness of the SAS method in increasing student participation in IEP conferences, focusing specifically on students’ “quality of verbal contributions” to their IEP meetings as an indication of self-advocacy ability (p. 137). The results of this study indicated a clear and positive “relationship between the Self-Advocacy Strategy and the quality of students’ contributions” to their IEP meetings (Test & Neale, 2004, p. 143). The research on self-advocacy clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of placing the student in charge of identifying goals, devising strategies to achieve them, and reflecting on as well as making adjustments based on progress. These findings support the merit of approaching behavior management from the perspective of self-advocacy. If the self-advocacy approach works well in advancing students’ academic, transition, and communication goals, and in promoting their knowledge of self, strengths, and needs, why not utilize it to promote self-managed and self-directed behavior? 24

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I developed the SABM model based on the self-advocacy approach and implemented it with high school students in a special education resource room at a Title I urban high school. The model proved successful for 13 of 21 students during the fall 2008 semes-

and identify the areas of conduct that are a struggle for them. The daily conduct monitoring form, termed the weekly grade report (WG; see Figure 1), is a record of the points the student earns (or loses) on four conduct domains that identify the conduct con-

If the self-advocacy approach works well in advancing students’ academic, transition, and communication goals, and in promoting their knowledge of self, strengths, and needs, why not utilize it to promote self-managed and self-directed behavior? ter (62%), and for 3 of 6 students during the spring 2009 semester (50%). When success rates are calculated only for the students who attended class on a regular basis (i.e., were exposed to the model and to its process on a consistent basis), 15 of 16 students made progress (94%). SABM’s 5-Step Process The SABM model comprises five steps (see Table 1). The student is the primary author in each step of the process, and the teacher acts as a facilitator, guide, and/or coach. The five steps are: Step 1 The Weekly Grade (WG) Report: Student and teacher complete daily conduct forms that address major areas of concern. Step 2 Student–Teacher Conference: Student identifies/names conduct struggle by reviewing and reflecting on conduct forms during student-teacher conferences. Step 3 Develop Goal & Strategy: Student devises a strategy to address the struggle. Step 4 Follow-up Conference: Student reflects on the effectiveness of strategy. Step 5 Adjustment(s) to Goal & Strategy: Student makes necessary adjustment(s) to goals and/or strategy for further progress. Step 1: The Weekly Grade Report

To make progress in improving conduct, students need to first monitor

cerns that the majority of my students have displayed: 1. Arriving to class on time. 2. Completing warm-up activities. 3. Turning in homework or projects/ assignments. 4. Participating in class and observing the “classroom code of conduct” (respect, responsibility, community). Each domain is worth 5 points, and the maximum total weekly points per WG is 100. Students can also earn bonus points for going “above and beyond” expectations (e.g., helping a peer, helping the teacher, keeping focus on the lesson despite noise and disruptions outside the open space classroom). At the end of each week, the WG provides each student with a visual and numeric representation of what is going well and what areas need improvement. The student-monitoring step is most successful when three routines are used. First, the teacher marks the WG in the presence of the student. Second, the teacher provides the student with a brief verbal rationale and feedback while marking the student’s WG (e.g., “you have lost five points for your ‘on time’ column because you are 12 minutes late for class today”; “good job for helping Jane with proofreading the editor’s message, you have earned two bonus points for conduct”; “I’m sorry you chose to use profanity, you have lost three points from your ‘conduct’ column. You will lose the additional two points if you repeat this today.”) Third, the teacher makes a conscious

Table 1. Quick Reference Guide to Self-Advocacy Behavior Management’s (SABM) 5-Step Process

Step

The Student Should

1: The Weekly Grade (WG) Report

Always have WG form visible and accessible.

Monitor WG form and mark WG domains throughout the lesson.

Oral and written feedback on WG should be immediate and specific.

2: Student– Teacher Conference

Student and teacher hold oneon-one conference to review WG. See Step 3 below. Step 3 takes place during the conference.

Student and teacher hold one-onone conference to review WG. See Step 3 below. Step 3 takes place during the conference.

Make the conference a unique and welcoming experience for all students.

(a) Review WG and reflect. (b) Identify and name conduct struggle(s). (c) Devise goal and strategy.

Guide and coach the student through (a), (b), and (c) of Step 3. Articulate these only when student is unable to. The teacher should articulate any consequence.

Student should lead this process to the greatest extent possible. The teacher guides and scaffolds. The teacher might use follow-up questions in order to cognitively guide the student to articulate (a), (b), and (c) of Step 3.

(a) Reflect on goal and strategy from previous WG conference. (b) Repeat (a), (b), and (c) of Step 3 for current WG.

Same as Step 3.

Same as Step 3.

To the greatest extent possible, guide and coach the student through the process. Articulate these only when student is unable to.

Student should lead this process to the greatest extent possible and the teacher guides and scaffolds. Use follow-up questions in order to cognitively guide the student to articulate this.

3: Develop Goal & Strategy

4: Follow-up Conference

5: Adjust goal and/or strategy if Adjustment(s) original goal and/or strategy are not producing results. to Goal & Strategy

effort to state the rationale regarding points earned or lost in a calm and matter-of-fact tone. Any sign of impatience can easily lead to a power struggle and breakdown of the process. Notice the use of the terms “you’ve lost” or “you’ve earned” points when providing feedback to the student; this choice of words is deliberate as points are not merely added or taken away by the teacher. Rather, such wording clearly signals that the student loses or gains points as a consequence of actions. It is helpful to explain to the student why points are lost or earned, and the feedback should be immediate and as specific as possible. If it appears that the student does not understand the rationale, the teacher should repeat and/or reword the explanation. Also, write the rationale in the appropriate box on the WG for both student and teacher reference during the student-teacher conference

The Teacher Should

(see Steps 2 and 3). Communicate to students that the objective is to help them improve rather than to just take points off. To make this point clear to the student, the teacher should look for every possible opportunity to catch the student doing well and to give bonus points, thereby demonstrating that the ultimate goal of this process is personal improvement and celebration of success. Providing immediate feedback and rationales to students throughout this process promotes their buy-in and leads to behavior improvement. The importance of giving specific and immediate feedback to students has been documented to improve students’ progress academically and behaviorally, because it fosters students’ critical thinking and reasoning (Hargrove, 2005). Providing the rationale for points earned and lost on the WG not only ensures that students receive duly

Helpful Hints

deserved explanations about actions and consequences, but also helps them internalize positive and negative behaviors and includes them in the process of planning for progress and improvement. Step 2: Student–Teacher Conference

The student-teacher conference assists the student in identifying and naming the conduct struggle through reviewing and reflecting on the WG form. Student-centered conferences are an excellent tool for promoting student “buy-in” to academic success because they focus on goals set by the student. Student-centered conferences help students accept responsibility, communicate, and self-evaluate (Conderman, Ikan, & Hatcher, 2000). While the conferences are held, the rest of the class is engaged in independent reading or other independent activities. Early in

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Figure 1. Weekly Grade Report (WG)

Name: ____________________________________________________

On Time (5 points)

Domain


Warm-Up (5 points)

Homework (5 points)

Week of: __________________

Participation & Conduct (Respect, Responsibility, Community) (5 points)

Points

Monday

/20

Tuesday

/20

Wednesday

/20

Thursday

/20

Friday

/20

WG Total: ______ Out of: ______ = _______%

WG Grade ________

/100

Greatest strength this week: ___________________________________________________________________________________ Greatest weakness this week:

_________________________________________________________________________________

My goal: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ My strategy:

________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Consequence for failing: ______________________________________________________________________________________

the school year, I conduct the conferences at the end of every week. By mid-October, we hold conferences every other week or every third week, depending on the student’s progress. During the conference, the teacher guides the student in evaluating the WG and reflecting on what is going well and what areas need improvement. I provide feedback to students on a daily basis, throughout every lesson and activity. However, this cannot replace the formal student-teacher conference at the end of the week; the formality of the weekly conference distinguishes that feedback experience from the ongoing feedback experiences, and hence produces a more focused discussion and goal planning. The teacher should open every conference with a general question before the student is directed to analyze and reflect on the WG. The first question to the student should be: “How do you think you did this week?” Most students tend to be 26

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very accurate at assessing their performance. Whether they do very well or are at risk of failing, they usually know precisely how they are doing. The follow-up questions presented to the student during the conference are specific to the WG. Carefully review the WG prior to meeting with the student and prepare the questions ahead of time. The follow-up questions should mirror the WG format (e.g., “What was your greatest strength this week according to your WG?”, “What was your greatest weakness (or which area do you need to improve)?”). More often than not, the WG indicates weekly patterns; some students lose most points in the “On Time” column, others lose most points in the “Homework” column, and still others struggle with “Conduct.” Step 3: Develop Goal & Strategy

After the student identifies the area of greatest struggle, he or she devises a

goal and a strategy to tackle the struggle (e.g., goal: “next week I will turn in homework at least four out of five times”; strategy: “I will set aside at least 1 hour at home for homework”). The strategy and its outcome should be specific, measurable, and observable so that they are clear to both teacher and student. Next, the student and teacher articulate a consequence if the student does not meet the goal (e.g., “If John does not meet his goal, then he will be suspended from band practice for 1 week”). The primary purpose of the conference is for students to articulate their own goals for improvement and to understand the consequence that will result from failing to realize a goal. This process requires students to consider choices in terms of cause and effect, and encourages them to think critically about their actions and associated consequences. Also, this selfregulated and reflective process helps

students become mindful of their actions and devise goals based on an informed and increasingly internalized knowledge of self. Gradually, students become more aware of actions and hence are more likely to self-regulate successfully. This ability to mindfully “think about thinking” and develop self-awareness of conduct is known as metacognition. The development of metacognitive skills is very important for all students, and especially for students with learning disabilities (Vaidya, 1999). Kuhn and Dean (2004) indicate that metacognition and critical thinking are highly correlated and entail selfawareness, reflection on self, and selfmanagement which are all crucial life skills. Intrinsic to the SABM model is an element of choice: The process fosters student ownership of behavior struggles and promotes choice in developing strategies for improvement—although teacher guidance and input play a major role. Choice making promotes a student’s right to express preferences and make decisions on issues that affect his or her life (Shogren et al., 2004). In addition, it has been demonstrated that choice-making opportunities result in positive academic and social outcomes for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (Dunlap et al., 1994; Jolivette, Stichter, & McCormick, 2002; Jolivette, Wehby, Canale, & Massey, 2001; Shogren et al., 2004). Specifically, providing students with opportunities for choice making

their actions and associated consequences (Jolivette et al., 2002). Finally, choice making provides a student with self-regulation and problem-solving opportunities, which in turn can increase the student’s sense of control over the classroom environment. Step 4: Follow-up Conference

The follow-up conference, which takes place 1 to 2 weeks after setting the goal and implementing the WG, allows the teacher and student to have a reflective and evaluative conversation about the student’s success in meeting the goal. If the student did not meet the goal, he or she accepts the consequences. The goal and/or the strategy to meet that goal might need to be adjusted. Note that two processes take place beginning with the second student-teacher conference: (a) Student and teacher evaluate and reflect on goals set in the previous conference, and (b) student and teacher review and evaluate the current week’s WG. The review of the current WG will indicate whether there is a need to add additional goals. Step 5: Adjustment(s) to Goal & Strategy

Adjustments to goals and/or to strategies are often necessary from one conference to the next. It is quite common for students to set goals and strategies that they fail to meet, especially early on in the SABM process. It is important for the student to reflect on such expe-

This self-regulated and reflective process helps students become mindful of their actions and devise goals based on an informed and increasingly internalized knowledge of self. promotes “increased level of functional and prosocial student behavior” (Jolivette et al., 2002, p. 24). Research indicates that “providing opportunities for people with problem behaviors to make choices result in the reductions of those behaviors” (Wehmeyer et al., 2004, p. 29). Further, by relinquishing some of the decision-making power through choice availability, the teacher offers students opportunities to own

riences and build on them. Reflections on accomplishments and failures regarding the goals that the student set, as well as periodic goal adjustment, teach the student that errors are common in any learning process and that we can reflect on and learn from errors on our path for success and achievement. Further, learning from errors and adjusting goals and strategies based on experiences and reflec-

tions further bolster metacognitive and self-monitoring skills. Final Thoughts A primary purpose of teaching is to provide students with the tools necessary to become self-sufficient and independent agents in their lives—academically, personally, and socially. The SABM model advances that purpose; it is a tool, first and foremost, for the student. The SABM model is designed to develop self-management and selfadvocacy, crucial skills that can support improved conduct and self-determination. SABM’s ultimate purpose is to provide students with the knowledge and skills needed to effectively handle their behavior struggles, which can affect their lives both in and out of school. Further, the SABM model is relevant to students of racial and socioeconomic minority backgrounds; these students tend to be overidentified as students with emotional and/or behavioral disorders (EBD; Harris-Murri, King, Rostenberg, 2006). The SABM model offers an intervention that could precede the special education identification process. From both policy and best practices perspectives, the SABM model could be implemented as a response to intervention approach for students who grapple with behavior struggles. In the long run, such an approach might not only provide helpful solutions for students and teachers, but might also decrease the overrepresentation of minority students in the EBD category. The SABM model was developed, implemented, and evaluated in only one classroom at a Title I urban high school (see box, “Self-Advocacy Behavior Management in Action”), so further research should establish its generalizability. The model proved successful in a special education resource room for students with special needs, most of whom were identified with specific learning disabilities. Further research, especially experimental in nature, is necessary in order to establish the applicability and value of the model in varied environments and with diverse student populations. Yet,

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Self-Advocacy Behavior Management in Action

Weekly Grade Report Points

vented her from getting anything accomplished and it negaPicture the following scenario: A teacher invites a student to tively impacted the entire class on a daily basis. During the sit at the conference table. When she does, the teacher second week, Jane failed to use her strategy of signaling to greets her warmly, offers her a choice of apple juice or me when her peers were “looking at her funny.” Many of water, pours the beverage for her, and hands it to her. The my comments on her WG during the second week were student, also given a slice of freshly baked banana bread, is “use our signal: tap your pencil.” Jane’s goal from the secbeaming. The teacher says, “Good morning, Jane. For our ond conference was to “remember to signal the teacher” conference today, I’ll start with a general question: How do when classmates “look at her funny.” During the third you think you did this week?” There is nothing out of the week, Jane used our signal frequently, yet she still shouted ordinary in this scenario. But what if I told you that Jane profanities immediately following the signal. My comments has spent the previous 4 days of the week disrupting the on her WG during that week were along the lines of “good class, did not complete any class work or homework, and job for using our signal, but wait for me to handle it.” frequently shouted profanities at her peers? Although Jane had a difficult time waiting for me to address This scenario describes “Jane’s” first 3 weeks in my class her frustrations, on a couple of occasions during the third (out of a 9-week course). Jane, a student identified with a week she did hold the profanities and gave me the opportulearning disability, was assigned to my reading development nity to address her concerns. As a result, Jane witnessed my resource room. The self-advocacy behavior management ability to address her frustrations and she developed trust in (SABM) model implemented in the classroom helped Jane me. That was the breakthrough—for me and for her. improve her conduct as well as her academic performance Although Jane concluded the third week with only 20 in my class. Her weekly grade report (WG) average during points, during our third conference I focused primarily on the first 3 weeks of the quarter was 22 points. Her average celebrating with her the fact that on a couple of occasions during the last 3 weeks was 92 points (see Figure 2). During her first week, Jane earned 20 points on her WG. She lost points for failing to complete warmFigure 2. Jane’s Weekly Grade (WG) Report Points During ups, class work, and homework, and 9-Week Course for constantly using profane language directed at her peers. When I asked, 100 • “How do you think you did this • • 90 • week?” at the first conference, she • 80 said, “I messed up.” I pointed out • 70 that she did have one area of 60 strength: attendance. When asked to 50 • Series 1 identify her greatest area of weak40 ness, Jane responded: “I’m loud and I 30 • cuss.” I acknowledged her honesty 20 • • and self-awareness, and explained 10 that her behavior was disruptive and 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 that we would develop a goal to help her improve. Jane’s Week 1 goal was Week to stop using profane language in class. She stated that she was not she successfully used our signal and waited for me to sure she would be able to “stick to my promise”; she address her frustrations. explained that she cussed “because people look at me The fourth week was a turning point. Jane consistently funny.” We decided that it might be helpful for her to sit used our signal and waited for me to address her frustracloser to me and to give me a signal (tap her pencil on her tions. Equally remarkable was the fact that she dramatically forehead) if anyone was “looking at her funny” so that I improved in all other domains on that week’s WG. Clearly, could address it. Although I would not witness improvement her social/emotional frustrations had been getting in the in Jane’s conduct until Week 4, this first conference was key way of her academic performance. Beginning in Week 6, for my ability to address Jane’s frustration and behavior Jane also earned bonus points for assisting a struggling peer struggles from an informed and sympathetic perspective. in class. In a matter of 6 weeks, Jane progressed from a The description of Jane’s first WG and her first conferhighly disruptive and failing student to a highly dedicated ence recurred almost verbatim for the next 3 weeks. and valuable student who was a role model for the entire Although she lost points on the warm-up, homework, and class. conduct domains, conduct was her greatest challenge: It pre-

the theoretical foundations on which the model is based—focusing on selfdetermination, self-advocacy, and metacognitive skills—suggest that the approach could be potentially beneficial for other student populations in varied educational settings. References Agran, M., Blanchard, C., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2000). Promoting transition goals and self-determination through student selfdirected learning: The self-determined learning model of instruction. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35, 351–364. Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education. (2006, August). Report on the teacher needs survey. Washington, DC: American Psychology Association, Center for Psychology in Schools and Education. Retrieved from http://www.tne.uconn. edu/Announcements/tns_execsummary. pdf Conderman, G., Ikan, P. A., & Hatcher, R. E. (2000). Student-led conferences in inclusive settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36, 22–26. Dunlap, G., DePerczel, M., Clarke, S., Wilson, D., Wright, S., White, R., & Gomez, A. (1994). Choice making to promote adaptive behavior for students with emotional and behavioral challenges. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 505–518. Hammer, M. R. (2004). Using the self-advocacy strategy to increase student participation in IEP conferences. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39, 295–300. Hargrove, K. (2005). What makes a “good” teacher “great”? Gifted Child Today, 28(1), 30–31. Harris-Murri, N., King, K., & Rostenberg, D. (2006). Reducing disproportionate minority representation in special education programs for students with emotional disturbances: Toward a culturally responsive response to intervention model. Education and Treatment of Children, 29, 779–799. Jolivette, K., Stichter, J. P., & McCormick, K. M. (2002). Making choices—Improving behavior—Engaging in learning. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 34(3), 24–29. Jolivette, K., Wehby, J. H., Canale, J., & Massey, N. G. (2001). Effects of choicemaking opportunities on the behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 131–145. Kochhar-Bryant, C. A. (2007). What every teacher should know about transition and IDEA 2004. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Kuhn, D., & Dean, D. (2004). Metacognition: A bridge between cognitive psychology and educational practice. Theory Into Practice, 43, 268–273.

Lancaster, P., Schumaker, J., & Deshler, D. (2002). The development and validation of an interactive hypermedia program for teaching a self-advocacy strategy to students with disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 277–302. Public Agenda. (2004, May). Teaching interrupted: Do discipline policies in today’s public schools foster the common good? New York, NY: Author. Retrieved from http://commongood.org/assets/ attachments/22.pdf Shogren, K. A., Faggella-Luby, M. N., Bae, S. J., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (2004). The effect of choice-making as an intervention for problem behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6, 228–237. Test, D. W., Aspel, N. P., & Everson, J. (Eds.). (2006). Transition methods for youth with disabilities. Columbus OH: Pearson. Test, D. W., & Neale, M. (2004). Using the self-advocacy strategy to increase middle graders’ IEP participation. Journal of Behavioral Education, 13, 135–145. Vaidya, S. R. (1999). Metacognitive learning strategies for students with learning disabilities. Education, 120, 186–190. Wehmeyer, M. L. (1999). A functional model of self-determination: Describing development and implementing instruc-

tion. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 14(1), 53–61. Wehmeyer, M. L., Baker, D. J., Blumberg, R., & Harrison, R. (2004). Self-determination and student involvement in functional assessment: Innovative practices. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(1), 29–35. Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Agran, M., Mithaug, D. E., & Martin, J. E. (2000). Promoting causal agency: The self-determination learning model of instruction. Exceptional Children, 66, 439–453. Wood, W. M., Karvonen, M., Test, D. W., Browder, D., & Algozzine, B. (2004). Promoting student self-determination skills in IEP planning. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 36(3), 8–16. Ronen Sebag (Virginia CEC), Special Education Teacher, District of Columbia Public Schools, Washington, DC. Address correspondence to ronen.sebag@ gmail.com. TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 42, No. 6, pp. 22–29. Copyright 2010 CEC.

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