Drama - an inclusive form of teaching and learning Background – teachers strive to succeed with inclusive education Teaching and learning are complex processes and there is no simple way to fulfil the increasing demand for inclusive education. This demand was stated by the Salamanca Declaration (UNESCO, 1994) in the following terms: “The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children should learn together, wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have” (p. 11). It was accepted by Norway and nearly a hundred other nations, included New Zealand. Principles of equality, inclusive and adapted education are superior in Norwegian primary and secondary comprehensive education (KD, 2006; KUF, 1994), nevertheless research shows there is a long way to go to realize these principles (Haug, 2003). The effort to include all students in whole class teaching and learning activities must go further than students being together in a social and academic community, which primarily seems to emphasis students working individually according to their own plans and not at all really joining a learning community (Haug & Backmann, 2007). Norwegian research shows that today's teaching still is characterized by the same working methods as in the latter half of last century, regardless of curriculum revisions. The most important change that has occurred over the past decades is that teaching in a whole class context is reduced in favour of individual work. Further research shows this is a challenge in relation to pupils' social and academic learning because there is little room for a dialogue-‐based whole class discussion (Klette et al., 2008). This development is due to the demand for individualised education, and the challenges to fulfil this demand within whole class teaching. The challenge is to find a good balance between being included in a learning community and learning activities adapted to each student’s abilities and possibilities. This is not at all easy, and there is not one right way or method to success, but research suggests that qualities like variation in teaching and learning methods combined with a structured and well conducted process can be one out of many ways to provide quality in education for all (Dalhaug Berg & Nes, 2007). 1
Socio-‐cultural approaches to inclusive education Embedded in a socio-‐culturally perspective to learning is an understanding that learning is a social activity, and the ultimate goal for learning is a more successful and satisfactory participation in the practise of the social and cultural community (Bråten, 2002). The goal of satisfactory participation in the social learning community is anchored in the Core Curriculum for primary and secondary education. Here the chapter about The integrated human being is summed up to: “…realize oneself in ways that benefit the community” (KUF, 1996, p. 50). Pedagogy inspired by the socio-‐cultural tradition calls for a teacher that is proactive towards the students and gives them practical and intellectual challenges in the learning process (Lindqvist, 1999). Moreover the teacher needs to plan and take responsibility for the students’ creative experiences as part of the learning process (Madsen, 2006; Paludan, 2006). This correspond well with the chapter Effective Pedagogy in the The New Zealand Curriculum (New Zealand Ministry of Education, 2007). Norwegian research shows that the learning outcomes, in terms of motivation and welfare, are so low for some students that the school limits and hinders their development and learning. It is especially students that show problematic behaviour and students with learning disabilities that suffer in school (Nordahl & Sunnevåg, 2008). It is above all disquieting that the problems these students get in school show a clear coherence with the individualised and traditional teaching style that dominates in Norwegian classroom (ibid). This calls for education to be socially and culturally situated (Säljö, 2002). Moreover it calls for education to include creative/constructivist situated learning activities to engage all students in the learning process and find ways to do inclusive education as whole class teaching. In this article I look at how this challenge is met when students explore a novel through a teacher’s use of process drama, and how this process drama served as whole class inclusive education, focusing on the extremely shy students and on those who act up disruptively in class. Methodological approach In this action based project the researcher conducted drama based intervention in cooperation with three teachers from grade 9, teaching two classes each. In total 6 classes and around 130 students participated. Since many of the grade 9 students struggle with reading and others do not at all like to read a whole novel, the teachers participating wanted to explore to what extent teaching student active drama processes in a whole class context could motivate the students to read. A fictional work, a novel, Darlah, by Johan Harstad1 (Harstad, 2008) was selected to inspire reading in this age group. The students were able to get the novel for free through the library to read on their own, about a month before we started this project. The teachers wanted to integrate all students in this reading project, especially the students who normally went to specific assisted group lessons. The intervention was developed by the researcher, that is to say the researcher created a process drama consisting of six separate teaching lessons to be taught during a month in all six classes. The researcher and the class teachers decided to co-‐ The fiction novel Darlah is translated and published (or will be) in Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, The Faro Island, Germany, France, The Netherlands, Turkey, USA, Great Britain, Mexico, Brazil, Bangladesh, Taiwan, Vietnam and Korea. 1
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operate in the carrying out of the project, to order to build a learning community (Wenger, 2004). The researcher started to teach in three of the classes with the actual class teacher as observer and co-‐teacher, while the teachers taught on their own in the other three. Half way through this there was a change-‐over, so all classes experienced being taught by their class teacher and by the researcher in co-‐operation with the class teacher. The hallmark of action based research is an involved and participating field researcher; in this case the involvement was into the teaching and learning processes of the classroom, to improve relations and practice (Stringer, 2008). The role of action researcher is demanding and the researcher has to resist the temptation to mark findings in line with the expectations of the project and try to create the needed distance, particularly when researching into one’s own field (Tiller, 2004). This was especially in the researcher’s mind since there is a lot of international research that has already shown how integrating art based and aesthetic learning processes strengthen the learning environment and the learning result in a positive way (Andersen & Duun, 2013; Bamford, 2006; Erickson, 2005; Fiske, 2002; Podlozny, 2000; Simpson, 2006; Stevenson & Deasy, 2005; Sæbø, 2005, 2009). The research methods were observation of the teaching and learning process, reflective dialogue with teachers and various questionnaires to students and teachers. The students answered a one page questionnaire at the beginning and the end of the project, including both quantitative and qualitative questions, while the teachers answered a two page qualitative questionnaire some weeks after the project. For this article the main research method is a phenomenological discourse (Rendtorff, 2004) based on the researcher’s data as a reflective practitioner in addition to reflective dialogues with the teachers and data from the participating students’ and teachers’ questionnaire. All direct quotes are translated into English by the author. The “Darlah” teaching programme The fiction novel Darlah is about NASA expedition that will return to the moon to investigate something mysterious and terrible that happened in 1972. The venture seeks to gain publicity and money by inviting three adolescents to participate through a competition. Strange and mysterious things happen to each of the youngsters before departure, and after arriving at the moon one after another of the astronauts and the young ones mysteriously disappear. Finally, only Mia, the young girl from Stavanger is left. She understands that an alien monster replicates all it meets and kills them afterwards. Mia gets away from the moon and returns to earth, but eventually the reader understands that the Mia who returns is not at all Mia from Stavanger, and the book ends as a true horror novel should. The process drama was built up of ten sequences based on the stories of the three young people and foreshadowing some events in the book. The first and last sequence included teacher-‐in-‐role in a whole class improvisation. In the remaining eight sequences the students worked in small groups around in the classroom with a wide repertoire of drama strategies like role modelling, freeze frames with lines and thought tracking, and short improvised role plays to explore selected situations from the book. The results of these drama activities were shared in the process and finally 3
included in the whole class discussion on what happens in the book, how what happens can be understood and what the book is about: the goals of the teaching programme. When this project started a few students had read the whole book, some had read a bit and a lot had read nearly nothing. Since all students were to be included in the teaching programme, and many of the students are struggling with reading, it was not demanded that everyone should read this novel at home. But they were definitely encouraged to read alongside the teaching that went on over a couple of weeks. All sessions started with a whole class summing up by the teacher and the students that had read the actual chapter. Important key words, information, and frames for the drama work to be done, were written on the black board. All students are to be active and cope with the first learning activity The first chapter of the book tells of a secret meeting where the most powerful men in the United States are gathered to determine whether NASA should take on a new expedition to the moon. The teacher begins the class with a brief discussion and summary of the book's framework and content for this secret meeting. Having a clear frame for a drama situation to be improvised is one of the most important rules to ensure that all are active in the drama, and it is essential for shy and socially disruptive students. The shy need frames to dare to play, and the socially disruptive need frames to know what the limits are for the drama improvisation. The conversation continues about who these powerful people present at the meeting could be, and both students and teachers give suggestions. Students are then asked to imagine that they participate in this secret meeting, that the classroom is the meeting room and they decide who they will be at the meeting. The teacher knows that the start will mainly be about the pros and cons of inviting young people to go to the moon, and the students need only a general and superficial knowledge about the role they choose. The teacher announces it is just in time for a break in the meeting with fruit, coffee, water, etc., and the participants are asked to discuss, a second time, in groups of two or three what they think about getting young people to go to the moon. This drama strategy, to fabricate a pause in the meeting, was chosen to ensure that all students would actively participate in the improvisation. The fact that the entire class simultaneously improvise in small groups around in the classroom, creates both an opportunity and a learning pressure to argue for or against the proposal. This is because when everyone improvises simultaneously there is no audience for each group, except the two or three playing together. This is a great advantage for shy students who rarely will participate in whole class discussions because the focus here is concentrated on the one who is speaking. The teacher asks students to place themselves randomly around the room and says that she will be in the role as the secret leader DR, chairman of the meeting, and she displays a white long scarf that she will wear when she is in role as DR. It is a challenge for the teacher to make this instruction and planning conversation before the drama starts as short as possible and ensure that most students participate in the conversation. If it is too long, verbal and teacher-‐dominated, it is my experience that most students fall off the tracks simply because they are not mentally or physically active and creative in the learning situation. My research 4
and experience show that it is better to get the drama started and then stop the drama to give more information on the way, if needed. When everyone has found her/his starting position, the teacher gives the signal and the drama starts. Students improvise, while the teacher in role as DR observes that all groups get started in the discussion. If anyone has problems, DR gives help by talking to them in role. When the groups have discussed for some time, DR stops them by saying: "Gentlemen -‐ it is the time! Let us vote". DR conducts the voting, writes up the results on the board and ensures that all vote. In one of the classes I learned that a few students did not vote. Instead of asking who had not voted, and thus expose the students for their failure, for whatever reason, I respond in role as DR, making the lack of action a part of the fiction and say: "Yes, I understand very well if you think it is a difficult choice. But you know as well as me, that the contract for this meeting is that you all must vote. You can all think through once more and then we vote again”. And of course, now all students vote. DR comments on the results, thanks everyone for the meeting, takes off her scarf and is the teacher again, a clear signal that the drama is over. This first learning activity in the process drama worked according to its intentions. Teachers’ step by step structured introduction and limiting of the improvised drama's content and frames gave the students sufficient thematic and technical information to start improvising and ensured that everyone could participate according to their abilities and experience. This, I find, is the most important premise for the success of an inclusive whole class teaching and learning situation. In this first learning activity the teacher provides instruction for the task in ways that are clear and accessible to students with special social or academic needs to ensure that each student can experience mastery in the task. What is special is that this mastery is not hidden in any individual learning activities, which only the teacher and the pupil know about. On the contrary, there is an open adjustment of the task since it is all happening in the class community and gives all students the opportunity to show each other that they can participate in a dialogue based collaborative learning activity. The fact that each student can be successful in this first learning activity is important for two reasons. The most important thing is that it seems inspiring for each individual student and therefore motivates each student to put effort into his or her own learning process. In addition, the positive shared experience opens for an accepting learning environment, when students experience that everyone has something to contribute to the community, and that all must contribute in relation to their own competences. This is particularly relevant when students work in groups with small drama situations under teacher supervision. I will now look at a few examples. The inclusion of shy and withdrawn students in the learning community If there is a particularly shy and socially withdrawn student in a class, it is quickly evident when the pupils start with group activity and especially if the result is to be shown to the rest of the class. In one of the classes a very clever girl, according to the teacher, nearly never participates in group or whole class learning activities. I cannot remember that she stood out in the first teacher in role 5
activity. Maybe she was part of a group of three during the role play of the break discussion in the secret meeting and had the opportunity to just listen to the two other in the group. Maybe she was one of those who did not vote for or against going to the moon in the first place, but who voted after pressure from the teacher in role. The group activity following the first teacher-‐in-‐role sequence is to create a promotion for television to motivate young people to apply to join the moon team. Here the group that this shy girl joined experienced problems. The girl is communicating well with her peers, but will not participate in the game. Because the teacher is pro-‐active in giving guidance this is picked up quickly, even though at that point I knew nothing about the girl. The group asks me if everyone has to join the drama, and my answer is "Yes, for sure they should!" I understand the problem quickly, since the girl when I address her is listening and responding by shaking or nodding her head, and she is either looking down with a rather apathetic expression or staring blankly out into emptiness. After some discussion back and forth, I suggest that she could play a youngster who turns on the TV, looking at the advertising promotion that the rest of the group perform, and act that she is not at all interested. This she accepts, probably because she can sit with her back to the class during the presentation, and her role will only involve taking the TV control and turn on the TV commercial. This solution has a positive effect on the whole group since the girl still is included in the learning community and the group can succeed with their role play. The next lesson in this drama process starts with a learning activity where students in groups are to explore and present frozen images from the lives of the three young people who are selected to participate in the mission to the Moon. After the teacher's introduction of a frame and possible content for the drama work, students are divided into groups. The shy girl ends up in a group of students who are to work on and present the figure Mia, a young girl from Stavanger. The group chooses to work on the situation when Mia gets the message that she has been chosen to participate. Mia is playing in a girl band. She is not at all interested in going to the moon; it is her mother who has submitted an application for her. The situation the group chooses to create is a frozen image of the situation when the mother comes, cheerful and smiling, with the acceptance letter in her hand, into the room where the band is practising and interrupts the girl band in the middle of their playing. The group start out well enough, discussing, choosing and agreeing upon the situation. Then when the roles are to be distributed the same problem as last time occurs, and they ask again if everyone has to join the role play. Again, my answer is yes, and I suggest that she could be one of the girls in the band who think it is both foolish and stupid that the mother comes running in like that and that she thinks the whole situation is boring and uninteresting. That is like she plays out what she actually feels about the lesson situation, but she integrates her feeling into the action and role. I am very open and tell her with a smile that I do understand that she thinks what we are doing is both boring and uninteresting, but she can just bring these feelings into the role and the play, even though none of the girls in Mia's band responded in this way. It does not matter because the group can create the play the way they want. This helped the girl. She joined the frozen image and even spoke a brief line saying she did not like to be interrupted during practice.
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It is also appropriate to emphasize that there were several other groups who had similar problems with roles or with which situation to choose, and they were helped in a similar manner. However, this girl was the most shy and socially withdrawn of all students in these six classes. In the third lesson I taught this class, I cannot recall that there were any particular problems in the group that this girl joined, probably because the group itself found solutions. The class teacher, who observed my teaching, said that it was the first time she had seen this girl participating in group activities. It made a strong impression on this teacher, when observing my teaching, that it really was possible to include this girl in a meaningful way through process drama as a form of learning. The inclusion of socially disruptive students in the learning community Students who are socially active and who expect to be listened to whenever they speak, however they speak and whatever they are talking about, present a major challenge in an inclusive learning process. If the teacher does not consciously conduct and guide the learning activities, these students continue to dominate both class discussion and group work at the expense of the rest of the student group. These students need clear limits and close guidance during the entire learning process, but in such a way that their creative input and contributions are maintained in a constructive way. Since these students are socially outspoken they are not afraid to say what they mean, and because they have the courage to talk against the teacher, these students often work and function very well in teacher-‐in-‐role dramatic contexts (Sæbø, 2009). A very confrontational student in one of the classes was clearly totally dominating his group. He really liked working with drama and was certainly active, creative and enthusiastic. I had finished the starting conversation about the frame and content for the drama activity, the groups had started working and I was actively following up by going around and listening to the discussion. When I heard that he was dictating to his peers, deciding what roles they are to have and what to do, I asked him: “Is this to make agreement in the group about what to play and who to play the roles?” He replied that he has to decide all this since he is so creative and the others have no ideas. I asked the group how they liked that he decided everything, but they just shrugged their shoulders. They were probably either afraid or used to the way that if they did what he said, the group work was successful. The boy repeated that he has to be the director otherwise it will all turn into nonsense. I said that the best directors I have met are those who ask the actors which role they would like to play and let the actors help to develop how a situation can be played. Rather unwillingly, he asked his peers in the group one by one what role they wanted to play and was very happy when they responded with the role he had given them. "There you see, it turns out the way I planned it," he says. "Yes, but now you gave them the opportunity to choose again, even if they did not do it," I replied. I let them work on their own after this, and heard that he was more open and asked them what they thought about his proposal as they worked on. The group’s result was good and they seemed satisfied after having performed for the class. In the next teaching lesson he works together with a new group. The group has decided to make a frozen image of Mia returning from the moon, being found and rescued in the capsule. The group 7
agreed upon how they wanted to make this image. They placed themselves as planned, together with all the other groups around the classroom. The method now required that all students were in their frozen images, while the teacher asked them to work out silently what they think the figure they were playing may feel and think in the situation. This is a good way to develop students' understanding of the content of the situation, but clearly demanding for this boy. He could not concentrate on the task, kept talking, and poking his group mates, thus creating a conflict in the group. I solved this by placing myself quite close up to him in the frozen image and ask him to look after himself. He clearly did not like this, but did accept it. When the groups were to perform their frozen images, with thoughts and lines, to each other, he was clearly annoyed because I still stood by his side. He asked if I was to continue to stand there, and I answered, "Yes, as long as required". He said that he would manage to not mess around with the others if I moved away a bit, so I did and it went pretty smoothly when the group showed its frozen image with the improvised lines. My experience is that in order to prevent students with this kind of social behaviour destroying the teaching process for the teacher and the learning process for themselves and others, it is essential that teachers engage in active follow-‐up guidance and intervention when needed. In the final role play where the teacher was visiting the class in role as the author, the student above and some other socially disruptive students are amongst the most active. They had many good, sincere and interesting questions that drove the play forward. They asked what it is like to be a writer, how he got his ideas, if he has written other books, how much he earns, and what happened in fact with Mia, and so on. The interesting thing here is that if the frame for the role play and the teacher's role is clarified in advance, then the students easily accept this. Then the students are not so easily tempted to ask conscious "impossible" questions or make comments that are totally to the side of the topic, as they often do in a traditional teaching situation. Research shows that the function of teacher-‐in-‐ role is intriguing and attention-‐trapping for all students. To experience that the teacher plays a role, that the drama is improvised within given frames, seems to opens up a creative learning process where students are challenged to provide input. Moreover, this develops students' involvement in the process, and seems especially to motivate socially overactive and socially disruptive students to a more constructive effort in the learning process (Sæbø, 2009). Another very socially dominating and confrontational student in one of the classes was clearly disappointed when the last teacher-‐in-‐role activity comes to an end, because he wanted it to go on much longer. "Is it already the end?" he asks. "We have nearly just begun." He has contributed actively during the entire play and clearly had great pleasure and a great need to be in such a positive and constructive learning situation. Here he experienced success in the interaction, while in contexts with traditional teaching styles he often ended up in conflicts with teachers or peers. When I asked him about this after one of the teaching lessons, he said that the regular classes were so boring that he needed to do something outrageous to have fun. 8
Did the drama project motivate the students to read? When the drama project started a big majority (about 2/3) of the students had not , started to read the novel, or read very little. When it ended this was turned upside down. Now a big majority, (about 70 %) had read either the whole book (about 25 %) or made a good start (about 45 %). The group who had read nay or very little was reduced to under half the original number (about 30 %). In total the teachers were very pleased to see that half the students who had only just started to read the novel in the beginning had read a lot when the project ended. All students were not expected to read the novel. The percentage (around 30%) that read the least clearly were those with low reading competence. One student with big reading difficulties could not praise the project enough: “Now I have joined a learning process that taught me what this book is about. You see, I could never have read this book on my own”, he said. This boy had clearly experienced being part of a whole class inclusive learning community and enjoyed it. Several of the experienced readers, who had read the whole novel ahead of the project, read it once more. “I realised I had missed a lot” said one of them. And another said: “I was inspired to read it again to understand more”. In total the students' learning outcomes, related to the number of read pages and to what they learned about the novel by exploring the content of the novel through drama, were significant. The number of read pages was more than doubled through the project, and the two classes who had done the least reading ahead did have the biggest increase in read pages. The students’ answers about drama may explain this. About 85% of the students said they liked or enjoyed doing drama to explore the novel since drama is fun, creates variation from the ordinary school work and makes learning interesting and challenging. Moreover, among this group, around 70% said drama motivated them to read, while 15 % enjoyed doing drama, but did not like to read or were not motivated to read the novel. About 15 % found drama boring and silly and did not like doing drama, but several of these liked reading and read more or less of the novel. Of course the students may answer in a positive way due to teachers’ expectation or in a negative way due to being bored by all kind of schoolwork. But if we choose to rely on the students’ answers, is it less likely that traditional teaching would have given the same positive result. Teachers’ experiences The teachers found that the way the teaching and learning process in drama constantly varied between whole class, group and individual activities within the frame of one teaching lesson was exciting. At the same time they experienced it as very demanding, due to their lack of prior knowledge about process drama. One said: “It was hard to engage the students when I taught them on my own since doing process drama is rather new to me”. All teachers expressed that they had learnt more about inclusive education, and one said: “It was very good to learn about new teaching methods and new ways to include all students in whole class teaching”. They experienced that process drama gave a structure that could help all students to join into the learning activities. Moreover they especially liked that in process drama it is possible to find constructive ways to 9
include all students in a learning community, and especially those who usually do not participate or who create problems in traditional teaching in a whole class context. Some concluding comments Obviously the positive results of this project may be caused by the fact that a researcher takes over the teaching and conducts a project with high energy and strong will to succeed. When the researcher in addition has high pedagogical and drama in education competence, this will, according to research, increase the possibilities for success (Darling-‐Hammond, 2004) and consequently affects the result. But on the other hand research shows that process based drama motivates students to hard work in the learning process also when the class teacher is responsible for the teaching (Simpson, 2006; Sæbø, 2009). I find it very inspiring that the positive effect on students’ motivation and learning outcomes when integrating drama processes in inclusive teaching, is confirmed by New Zealand researchers as well (Searle, 2009; Staples, 2013). Integrating drama in whole class teaching is one out of several ways to fulfil the demand for inclusive education. The challenge is the class teachers' lack of drama competency. Process based drama is a demanding way of teaching and learning that expects the teacher to be a pro-‐active leader taking responsibility for a teaching and learning process that is structured so it is possible for all students to be active and participate in inclusive education. This calls for a teacher education where all student teachers develop good enough drama competence to continue their ongoing professional development when facing the challenges of the inclusive classroom.
References
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