Appendix: Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1917 ACADEMICIANS WHO EMIGRATED Nikolai I vanovich Andrusov (1861-1924), geologist and paleontologist Pavel Ivanovich Vaiden (Paul Walden) (1863-1957), chemist Pavel Gavrilovich Vinogradov (1854-1925), historian Vladimir Nikolaevich Ipat'ev (1857-1952), chemist Nikodim Pavlovich Kondakov (1844-1925), art historian and archaeologist Mikhail Ivanovich Rostovtsev (1870--1952), historian and archaeologist Petr Berngardovich Struve (1870--1944), specialist in economic theory, politician Ignatii Vikentevich Yagich (Vatroslav Jagic) (1838-1923), slavist

ACADEMICIANS WHO DIED BETWEEN 1918 AND 1920 Mikhail Aleksandrovich D'yakonov (1855-1919), historian Andrei Sergeevich Famintsyn (1835-1918), botanist and physiologist Aleksandr Sergeevich Lappo-Danilevsky (1863-1919), historian Aleksandr Mikhailovich Lyapunov (1857-1918), mathematician Ivan Savich Pal'mov (1856-1920), slavist Vasilii Vasilevich Radlov (Friedrich Wilhelm Radloff) (1837-1918), orientalist Mikhail Aleksandrovich Rykachev (1840--1919), meteorologist A\eksei Aleksandrovich Shakhmatov (1864-1920), slavist Yakov Ivanovich Smirnov (1869-1918), archaeologist, orientalist Vladimir Vladimirovich Zalensky (1847-1918), zoologist

OTHER ACADEMICIANS Dmitrii Dmitrievich Anuchin (1843-1923), zoologist and geographer Vasilii Vladimirovich Bartol'd (1869-1930), orientalist Aristarkh Appolonovich Belopol'sky (1854-1934), astrophysicist Ivan Parfenevich Borodin (1847-1930), biologist Vladimir Stepanovich Ikonnikov (1841-1923), historian Vasilii Mikhailovich Istrin (1865-1937), slavist Aleksandr Petrovich Karpinsky (1847-1936), geologist Evfimii Fedorovich Karsky (1860--1931), slavist Pavel Konstantinovich Kokovtsov (1861-1942), orientalist

188

Appendix

189

Nestor Aleksandrovich Kotlyarevsky (1863-1925), literary historian Aleksei Nikolaevich Krylov (1863-1945), mathematician, ship-building engineer Nikolai Semenovich Kurnakov (1860-1941), chemist Vasilii Vasilevich Latyshev (1855-1921), classical philologist Peter Petrovich Lazarev (1878-1942), physicist Andrei Andreevich Markov (1856-1922), mathematician Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr (1864-1934), archeologist, linguist Nikolai Viktorovich Nasonov (1855-1939), zoologist Aleksandr Vasilevich Nikitsky (1859-1921), classical philologist Nikolai Konstantinovich Nikol'sky (1863-1936), slavist Sergei Fedorovich Ol'denburg (1863-1934), orientalist Vladimir Ivanovich Palladin (1859-1922), botanist Vladimir Nikolaevich Peretz (1870-1935), slavist Aleksei Petrovich Pavlov (1854-1929), geologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), physiologist Aleksei I vanovich Sobolevsky (1856-1929), slavist Vladimir Andreevich Steklov (1863-1926), mathematician Fedor Ivanovich Uspensky (1845-1928), byzantologist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945), geologist, biochemist

Notes Introduction 1.

2.

3.

4.

Loren R. Graham, The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927-1932 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1967); Alexander Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1984); David Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Sciences: 1917-1932 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961); Robert A. Lewis, Science and Industrialization in the USSR: Industrial Research and Development, 1917-1940 (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979). F.F. Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na "velikom perelome,'" in N.G. Okhotin and A.B. Roginsky (eds), Zven'ya (Moscow: Progress, Feniks, Atheneum, 1991), pp. 163-238; M.G. Iaroshevsky (ed.), Repressirovannaya nauka (Leningrad: Nauka, 1991). David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1970); Zhores Medvedev, The Rise and Fall ofT.D. Lysenko (New York: Doubleday, 1971); George M. Enteen, 'Marxist Historians during the Cultural Revolution: A Case Study of Professional Infighting,' in Sheila Fitzpatrick (ed.), Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978) pp. 154--68; John Barber, Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928-1932 (London, Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press, 1981); Paul R. Josephson, Physics and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford: University of California Press, 1991); Douglas R. Weiner, Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation, and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988). Kendall E. Bailes, Science and Russian Culture in an Age of Revolutions. V.l. Vernadsky and His Scientific School, 1863-1945 (Bloomington, Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990); David Joravsky, The Vavilov Brothers,' Slavic Review 24, no. 3, 1965, pp. 382-94; George M. Enteen, The Soviet Scholar-Bureaucrat: M.N. Pokrovskii and the Society of Marxist Historians (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978); Aleksei Kozhevnikov, 'Piotr Kapitza and Stalin's Government: A Study in Moral Choice,' Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Science, no. 22:1, 1991, pp. 131-64. Among the most interesting recent Russian publications with biographical information on members of the Russian (Soviet) Academy of Sciences, are: N.A. Grigor'an, 'Obshchestvennopoliticheskie vzglyady I.P. Pavlova,' Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 10, 1991, pp. 74--86; V. Samoilov and Yu. Vinogradov, 'Ivan Pavlov i Nikolai Bukharin,' Zvezda, no. 10, 1989, pp. 94-119; V.M. Alpatov, 'Novoe uchenie 0 iazyke' i vostokovednoe Narody Azii i Afriki, no. 8, 1988, pp. 90-100; and the interview with G.P. Aksenov on his work with the personal archives of V.1. Vernadsky in Chelovek i priroda, no. 3, 1989, pp.3-21.

190

Notes 5.

6.

7. 8. 9.

10.

11.

1

191

L. Stone, 'Prosopography,' Daedalus, 1971, pp. 46-79; S. Shapin and A. Thackray, 'Prosopography as a research tool in the history of science: The British scientific community, 1700-1900', History of Science, no. XII, 1974, pp. 1-28; L. Pyenson, "'Who the guys were": Prosopography in the history of science,' History of Science, no. XV, 1977, pp. 155-88. Kendall E. Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978). For the discussion of the cooperation of intellectuals with the Soviet regime, see, for instance, Vladimir Shlapentokh, Soviet Intellectuals and Political Power (London, New York: LB. Tauris, 1990); Boris Kagarlitsky, The Thinking Reed: Intellectuals and the Soviet State from 1917 to the Present (London, New York: Verso, 1988); Dietrich Beyrau, 'Die russische Intelligenz in der sowjetischen Gesellschaft,' in Dietrich Geyer (ed.), Die Umwertung der sowjietischen Geschichte (Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 1991) pp. 188-209. See, for instance, Fitzpatrick (ed.), Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931; and Fitzpatrick, The Commisssariat of Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970) pp. 68-71. Jeremy R. Azrael, Managerial Power and Soviet Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966) p. 50. See, for instance, Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, arguing in his description of the academy in the 1920s that Pavlov and Vernadsky were 'isolated academicians ... who did not conceal their anti-Marxist leanings. Occupying the middle position, the vast majority of academicians pursued a line of "ideological neutrality"'. (p. 82). The list of the academy's full members as of 25 October (7 November) 1917, published in G.K. Skryabin (ed.), Akademiya Nauk SSSR. Personal'nyi sostav, vol. 2 (Moscow: Nauka, 1974) p. XII. is not complete. It does not include academicians Vladimir Ipat'ev, Petr Struve and Mikhail Rostovtsev, who were expelled from the academy in the early 1930s because they had emigrated. They were posthumously reinstated as members of the academy in 1988. The St Petersburg branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 4.

Academicians and the Academy of Sciences on the Eve of the Revolution 1.

2.

3.

Alexander Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1917-1970) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984) p. 43. Loren Graham, 'The Development of Science Policy in the Soviet Union,' in T. Dixon Long and Christopher Wright (eds), Science Policies of Industrial Nations. Case Studies of the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, Japan, and Sweden (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1975), p. 18. See also Ocherki istorii organizatsii nauki v Leningrade. 1903-1977 (Moscow: Nauka, 1980) p. 104. The annual of the newspaper Rech' for 1912, pp. 328-9, quoted by P.V. Volobuev, 'Russkaya nauka nakanyne Oktyabr'skoi revolutsii,' Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 3, 1987, p. 7.

192 4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12. 13.

14. 15.

16. 17. 18. 19.

Notes Foreign scholars who resided in Russia were made extraordinary or ordinary academicians. After the October Revolution, the titles of adjunct and extraordinary academician were abolished. Some studies of the academy erroneously cite the number of academicians in October 1917 as 41. See, for instance, Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, p. 115. This figure is given in G.D. Komkov et aI., Akademiya nauk SSSR: Kratkii istorichesky ocherk (Moscow: Nauka, 1967). The list of 41 academicians fails to include Vladimir Ipat'ev, Mikhail Rostovtsev, and Petr Struve, who emigrated from Russia in 1930, 1918, and 1920 respectively, and were expelled from the academy in the late 1920s. It also apparently excludes Pavel Vaiden (Paul Walden), because in 1927 he was transferred from the rank of full member to that of foreign member; as well as Vladimir Peretz, who was expelled from the academy following his arrest in 1933. Peretz was rehabilitated in 1966, and his membership was reinstated without any publicity, but the authors of Akademiya nauk SSSR apparently could not yet acknowledge this change. Materialy dlya biograficheskogo slovarya deistvitel'nykh chlenov Imperatorskoi Akademii Nauk, vol. 1 and 2, Petrograd, 1915-17. Quoted by Rt. Hon. H.A.L. Fisher in his memoirs about Vinogradov in The Collected Papers of Paul Vinogradoff (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928) p. 9. Quoted in Alexander Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, 1861-1917 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970) p. 3. Ibid., p. 4. Steklov's mother was a sister of Dobrolyubov. Steklov's autobiography is kept in the St Petersburg branch of the Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences (the SPB branch of the RAN Archives) fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 125. For Nikol'sky's autobiography, see fund 247, op 2, ed. khr. 1. Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, pp. 46 and 51. In the period between 1846 and 1924, there were fifteen full members of the academy who were specialists in oriental studies. The only other field, to which more academicians belonged in the same period, was Russian language and literature (23 full members). See T.K. Lepin, Ya.Ya. Lus, and Yu. A. Filipchenko, 'Deistvitel'nye chleny akademii nauk za poslednie 80 let (1846-1924)" Izvestiia byuro po evgenike, no. 3,1925, p. 12, table IV. See the chapter 6. V.S. Ikonnikov, Opyt russkoi istoriografii, vol. 2 (Kiev: 1908). Nikol'sky's criticism is especially interesting, as he held conservative views and was a monarchist (the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 247, op. 2, ed. khr. 37, p. 227.) Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, p. 7, referring to R.K. Merton, Science Technology, and Society in Seventeenth Century England (New York: 1978). Terence Emmons, The Fonnation of Political Parties and the First National Elections in Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983) p. 3. T.K. Lepin, Ya.Ya. Lus, and Yu. A. Filipchenko, 'Deistvitel'nye chleny akademii nauk za poslednie 80 let (1846-1924),' Izvestiia byuro po evgenike, p. 33-4. See the chapter 4.

Notes 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

28. 29.

30. 31. 32. 33.

34. 35. 36.

37. 38.

193

Fisher in The Collected Papers of Paul VinogradojJ, p. 11. This data is received as a result of the survey of academicians in the period 1846-1924. The Russian wordfilologiya means studies in literature and linguistics. Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, p. 48. V.N. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1946), pp. 133-4. See the chapter 7. A description of prerevolutionary Russian engineers as a social group is given in Kendall E. Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978) pp. 19-43. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 141. A similar statement was made by Sergei Platonov, who was elected a corresponding member of the academy in 1909 and became a full member in 1920. See V.P. Leonov et al. (eds), Akademicheskoe delo 1929-1931 gg (St Petersburg: Biblioteka Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1993) pp. 29 and 33. Richard Pipes, Struve. Liberal on the Right, 1905-1944 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980) pp. 218-219. Ibid, p.164. Ipat'ev writes: 'That the extreme revolutionary parties were opposed to these reforms [proposed by Stolypin] is understandable; not so clear is the opposition of the Kadets, unless it came from their determination to oppose any and every government policy.' Fisher in The Collected Papers by Paul VinogradojJ, p. 44. Pipes, Struve, pp. 13 and 15 The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 183. Similar comparison between the right-wing and left-wing radicalism was drawn by other academicians, for instance, Pavlov. For Vernadsky's position on political extremism, see the chapter on Vernadsky below. On the Kadets' attitude toward extremism, see Anna Geifman, Thou Shalt Kill:Revolutionary Terrorism in Russia 1894-1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993) pp. 207-22. William McGucken, Scientists, Society, and State (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1984) p. 12. G.D. Komkov et al. (eds), Istoriya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol. I (Moscow and Leningrad: Nauka, 1964) p. 460. C.D. Komkov et ai., Akademiya nauk SSSR: Kratkii istorichesky ocherk (Moscow: Nauka, 1967), p. 277, gives the figure of 220 employees, including 41 full members (see note 6). See also M.S. Bastrakova, Stanovlenie sovetskoi organizatsii nauki (1917-1922), Moscow, 1973, p. 47 on the membership of the academy's commissions. Robert K. Merton and Jerry Gaston (eds), The Sociology of Science in Europe (London and Amsterdam: Southern l11inois University Press, 1977) p. 262. The annual reports of the academy in the first decade of the twentieth century frequently raised the issue of the insufficient financial support provided to the academy by the government. See, for instance, P.V. Volobuev, 'Russkaya nauka nakanune Oktyabr'skoi revolutsii,' p. 15, quoting the archives of the Academy of Sciences, fund 2, op. 1, d. 20, I. 407. On the reliance of Moscow professors on private donations, see T.B. Zorin and L.G. Feldman, 'U istokov VIMSa,' Priroda, no. 4, 1989, pp. 91-101.

194 39. 40. 41. 42.

43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

49. 50.

51.

52. 53. 54. 55.

56.

Notes Ipatieff, The Life ofa Chemist, pp. 216-217. See the chapter on Ol'denburg, footnote 38. V.I.Vernadsky, Ocherki i rechi, vol. I, Moscow, 1922, pp. 26-31. See also, Kendall E. Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin, p. 41. McGucken, Scientists, Society, and State, p. II. This liberation from the inferiority complex vis-a-vis the West was due to the decrease in Russia's isolation in the wake of the reforms of the I 860s. The majority of academicians who are discussed here spent considerable amounts of time studying and working in Western Europe, where they could reach conclusions not only about the weaknesses but also about the strengths of Russian science. Graham, 'The Development of Science Policy in the Soviet Union,' p. 15. Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, pp. 43-4. See, for instance, McGucken, Scientists, Society and State. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. xi. Alexei Kojevnikov, 'Transformations and Survivals,' Science, vol. 261, 3 September 1993, p. 1336. See, for instance, Loren R. Graham, The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927-1932 (Princeton, NJ: Priceton University Press, 1967) p. 21; Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Commisariat of Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 73. T.K. Lepin, Ya.Ya. Lus, and Yu. A. Filipchenko, 'Deistvitel'nye chleny akademii nauk za poslednie 80 let (1846-1924),' 1zvestiia byuro po evgenike, p. 14. Samuel D. Kassow, Students, Professors, and the State in Tsarist Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 6-7 and James C. McClelland, Autoctrats and Academics: Education, Culture, and Society in Tsarist Russia (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1979). Sheila Fitzpatrick's statement in The Commissariat of Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 73, to the effect that by the time of the October Revolution the Moscow and Petrograd academic communities were dominated by prominent members of the Kadet party is not accurate. This view is also repeated in Vucinich, Empire of Knowldge, p.73. Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, p. 51. It should be noted that the Academic Union, which was dominated by the professoriate, was the most moderate of all the professional organizations at the beginning of the twentieth century. In the last prerevolutionary decades, there were a few very radical professors of a type not to be found in the academy, but the majority were no different from academicians. Until the revolution of February 1917, the tsar confirmed the results of the elections in the academy and appointed its president. The 1884 Univerity Statute curtailed most of the rights allotted to faculties by the 1863 Statute, transferring them to the Ministry of Education. For instance, in 1891, the academician Shakhmatov took an active part in the work of the zemstvo of the Saratov gubemia. This is a rather noteworthy action, since Shakhmatov usually found it very difficult to turn to activities unrelated to his scholarly work.

Notes 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

63. 64.

65.

66. 67.

68.

69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75.

195

Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, p. 220. Fisher in The Collected Papers of Paul VinogradojJ, pp. 23-7. Walter P. Metzger, 'Academic Freedom and Scientific Freedom,' Daedalus, Spring 1978, pp. 94-5. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 6, op.l, ed. khr. 26, p. 104. Ipatieff, The Life ofa Chemist, p. 463. Ibid, p. 171-2. In his letters to his son, the academy's permanent secretary OI'denburg strongly condemned the activities of the Union of Russian People and other anti-Semitic groups. See B.S. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 125. Kassow, Students, Professors, and the State, p. 241. This information was provided by academician D.S. Likhachev. See also the characteristics of Nikol'sky given by S.F. Platonov during his interrogation by the OGPU in January 1930, V.P. Leonov et at. (eds), Akademicheskoe delo 1929-1931 gg, vol. I (St Petersburg: Biblioteka Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1993) p. 39. Anti-Semitic statements are to be found in the diary of Yu. Got'e, professor of history at Moscow University and after 1922 a corresponding member of the academy: see The Diary of lurii Vladimirovich Gotie. The Time of Troubles, trans. and ed. Terence Emmons (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988) pp. 112 and 119. Ipat'ev, The Life of a Chemist, p. 133. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 6, op. I, ed. khr. 26, pp. 137-8. It should be noted that as early as 1801, when the government commissioned two influential members of the academy to draft legislation on censorship, they suggested its abolition, arguing that the 'free exchange of ideas was the basic vehicle of human perfectibility and the best school of citizenship'. See Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, p. 35. All the material concerning the signing by the academicians of the memorandum of 342 scholars is to be found in Konstantin Romanov's personal fund in the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund no. 6, op. I, ed. khr. 26, pp. 104-154. Quoted in B.S. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zveula, no. 12, 1994, p. 125. Quoted by Fisher in The Collected Papers of Paul VinogradojJ, p. 27. See also the chapter 8. Jack Morrell and Arnold Thackray, Gentlemen of Science:Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981) p. 25. Kassow, Students, Professors, and the State, quoting Vernadsky on the Russo-Japanese War, p. 215. For instance, Fisher, described Vinogradov as 'natural-born cosmopolitan' and a Russian patriot at the same time. See The Collected Papers of Paul Vinogradoff, pp. 3 and 74. The SPB Branch of the RAN Archives, fund 265, op. I, ed. khr. 127, p. 1. S.L. Frank, 'Etika nigilizma' in Vekhi: Intelligentsia v Rossii (Sbomik statei 1909-1910) (Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1991) p. 207. On Vekhi, see Marc Raeff's forward to Marshall S. Shatz and Judith E. Zimmerman (trans), Vekhi - Landmarsk: a Collection about the Russian Intelligentsia (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994).

196 76.

77.

2

Notes P.G. Vinogradov, 'Politicheskie pis'ma,' Russkie vedomosti, 5 August, 1905. See also Georgii Fedotov's essay of 1925, 'Tragediya russkoi intelligentsii', published in E.M. Chekharin (ed.), 0 Rossii i russkoi filosofskoi kul'ture (Moscow: Nauka, 1990). Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 247; Steklov's diary (the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 183); see also the chapter on Vernadsky.

The Academy of Sciences in the 1920s

1. On Karpinsky see Loren R. Graham The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927-1932 (Princeton: Price ton University Press, 1967) p. 25. 2. V.N. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1946) p. 343. 3. For instance, in February 1931, Karpinsky complained that the government, without consulting with academicians, had inserted in the rules of the academy Article 19 stipulating that the General Assembly should expell academicians for activities aimed against the Soviet Union. See Krasnaya gazeta, 4 February 1931. 4. See chapters on 5 and 8. 5. See the chapters on Ol'denburg and Vernadsky. On Ipat'ev's views, see his memoirs, Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, pp. 256-7. On the vandalism and anti-intellectualism of the February and October Revolutions, see Richard Stites, 'Iconoclastic Currents in the Russian Revolution: Destroying and Preserving the Past,' in Abbott Gleason et al. (eds), Bolshevik Culture (Bloomingon: Indiana University Press, 1985) pp. 1-24. 6. Samuel D. Kassow, Students, Professors, and the State in Tsarist Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989) p. 385. 7. Terence Emmons (trans., ed. and intro.) Time of Troubles. The Dairy of 1urii Vladimirovich Cot'e (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988) pp. 31 and 63. 8. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 183, p. 21. 9. Otchet 0 deyatel'nosti Akademii nauk za 1917 g., Petrograd, 1918, p. 5, quoted in Pamyat". 1storicheskii sbornik, no. 3 (Moscow and Paris: YMCA-Press, 1978 and 1980) p. 448. 10. The RAN Archives (Moscow), fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 47. 11. Sovremennye zapisky, No. XXIV, Paris, 1925, p. 472. 12. K.K. 'Pyat' 'vol'nykh' pisem akademika V I Vernadskogo synu,' Minuvshee. 1storicheskii al'manakh, no. 7 (Paris: Atheneum, 1989) p. 433. 13. The first meeting between Ol'denburg and Lenin to discuss the situation of the academy apparently took place as early as in December 1917 (P.N. Pospelov (ed.) Lenin i Akademiya Nauk (Moscow: Nauka, 1969) p. 25). 14. [stochnik. Dokumenty russkoi istorii. Prilozhenie k zhurnalu Rodina, no. 3, 1993, p. 72. 15. Ipat'eff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 247, 249, 255. 16. B.V. Levshin (ed.), Dokumenty po istorii Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1917-1925 gg. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1986) p. 24, footnote 1.

Notes

197

17. Ibid, p. 29. 18. Pospelov (ed.), Lenin i Akademiya nauk, pp. 61-2. On other plans to reorganize the academy see Loren R. Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union. A Short History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993) pp. 84-5. 19. Ipat'eff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 494. 20. See Chapters 6 and 8. 21. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives fund 800, op. 3, ed. khr. 807, p. 13. On difficulties faced by Russian professionals in finding adequate employment in foreign countries, see Marc Raeff, Russia Abroad (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990) pp. \06-9. 22. Gorkii i nauka (Moscow: Nauka, 1964), p. 1 \0 and 114-15. 23. A.M. Lyapunov committed suicide in 1919, partly because he was depressed by the death of his wife, partly because of the situation in Russia. This was mentioned in his obituary, published in Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, no.8-II, 1919, pp. 367-87. 24. Emmons (trans), Time of Troubles, p. 380. 25. On the bureau for international book exchange as well as on the ability of academicians to travel abroad, see Levshin (ed.), Dokumenty po istorii Akademii Nauk SSSR. 1917-1925, p. 178, footnote 2. 26. Kendall E. Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin. Origins of the Soviet Technical Intelligentsia, 1917-1941 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978) p. 126 on Bukharin and Kuibyshev. On Pyatakov, see Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 439. Vice-President Steklov often directly appealed to Rykov, even at the time when the academy was subordinated to the Commissariat of the Enlightenment, see Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na "velikom perelome''', p. 176, note 19. See also Sheila Fitzpatrick, 'The Civil War as a Formative Experience,' in Gleason et al. (eds), Bolshevik Culture, p. 72. 27. Katerina Clark 'The "Quiet Revolution" in Soviet Intellectual Life,' in Sheila Fitzpatrick et al. (eds), Russia in the Era of NEP (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991) pp. 210-30. 28. In 1917, there were more than 300 voluntary scientific societies in Russia. See A.D. Stepansky, Istoriya obshchestvennykh organizatsii dorevolyutsionnoi Rossii (Moscow: Nauka, 1979) p. 67. 29. For a detailed analysis of organizations for regional studies, see A.P. Pinkevich, 'Vserossiiskaya kraevedcheskaya konferentsia,' Nauchnyi rabotnik, no. I, 1928, pp. 9-11. 30. Russian Center for Preservation and Study of Documents of Mondern History, fund. 79, op. I, d. 751, p. 6. This document is published in Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. 11, 1988, p. 43. By the time of the case of the academy in 1929-30, however, Kuibyshev largely withdrew his support for 'bourgeois' specialists, see Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin, p. 126. 31. Levshin (ed.), Dokumenty po istorii Akademii Nauk SSSR. 1917-1925. On the upgrading of the academy, see pp. 310-17,323. For the documents concerning the celebrations of the bicentennial, see pp. 326-31,336-41. For the history of the academy's relations with the Soviet government and state bodies, see Robert A. Lewis, 'Government and Technological Sciences in the Soviet Union', Minerva, vol. XV, no. 2, Summer, 1977, pp. 174-99.

198

Notes

32. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 416. 33. On the preparation of the rules of the academy, see Pamyat', no. 1, p. 395, which gives details on the beginning of the work on the rules in 1919. The membership of the commission is cited by F.F. Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na "velikom perelome", N.G. Okhotin and A.B. Roginsky (eds) Zven'ya. lstorichesky al'manakh, vol. I (Moscow: Progress, Feniks, Atheneum, 1991) p. 168. 34. M.N. Pokrovsky, 'K Otchetu 0 deyatelnosti Akademii nauk za 1926 g', Zvenya. lstorichesky almanakh , vol. 2 (Moscow and St Petersburg: Progress, Feniks, Atheneum, 1992) vol. 2, p. 592. 35. For the text of the rules, see Ustavy Akademii nauk SSSR. 1724-1974 (Moscow: Nauka, 1974), pp. 120-9. On the reaction of the academicians, see Perchenok, op. cit., p. II. 36. Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya ittekhniki, no. 4, 1989, pp. 46-55. 37. Sobranie zakonov i rasporyazhenii Raboche-Krest'yanskogo Pravitel'stva SSSR, no. 22, Article 197 (1928) p. 415. 38. Leningradskaya pravda, 17 June 1928, p. 3. 39. Leningradskaya pravda, 19 February 1929. In his letters to George Vernadsky, V I Vernadsky said that in the academy there were 'many 'former' people, who found there protection and the possibility to exist' (Minuvshee, no. 7,1989, p. 431). 40. Archives of the RAN (Moscow), fund. 518, op. 2, d.14, pp. 47-48. 41. On the controversy over the nomination of Grum for the elections, see Leningradskaya pravda, 24, 25 and 29 May 1928. 42. Minuvshee, no. 7, p. 435. 43. On Platonov's views, see V.P. Leonov et aI., (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, 1929-1931 gg (St Peterburg: Biblioteka Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1993). 44. l.A. Tugarinov, 'V ARNITSO i Akademiya Nauk SSSR (1927-1937 gg.)' Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 4, 1989, p. 49. 45. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 498. 46. 'Pyat' "volnykh pisem" V. I. Vernadskogo synu,' Minuvshee (Paris: Atheneum), no. 7, 1989, p. 447; and Nezavisimaya gazeta, 9 June 1992. 47. While sharply criticizing the Bolshevik's policy towards science at the end of the 1920s, Vernadsky nevertheless admits that 'very generous state financing for scientific construction gives hope for the future' (Minuvshee, no. 7, p. 427). Indeed, as was reported by Krasnaya gazeta, 31 October 1929, p. 4, the academy's budget for the 1929-30 fiscal year was increased by 41 per cent compared with the previous year. 48. On the beginning of the controversy between the authorities and academicians on the introduction of planning in the academy, see Nauchnyi rabotnik, no. 5-6, 1928, pp. 26-35. The question of planning is discussed in more detail in the chapter on the Academy of Sciences in the 1930s. 49. Bruce J. Allyn, 'Fact, Value, and Science,' in Loren R. Graham (ed.) Science and Soviet Social Order (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990) pp. 225-6. 50. David Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, 1917-1932 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961). 51. Tugarinov, op. cit., pp. 46-55. For biographical details on Bakh, also see Tugarinov, op. cit., pp. 47-8. In his letters, Academician Vernadsky stated

Notes

52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76.

199

that Bakh 'has a big name in science.' Vernadsky also expressed hope that despite Bakh's strong connections with Soviet officialdom he would not agree to the deterioration of academic standards in the academy (Minuvshee, no. 7, p. 434). The academy was moved to Moscow in 1934. Since then the academy's institutions in Leningrad have suffered inferior treatment, especially as regards financial support, compared to their Moscow counterparts. Tugarinov, op. cit., p. 48. Ibid. F.D. Ashnin and V.M.Alpatov, "Rossiiskaya natsional'naya partiya' zloveshchaya vydumka sovetskikh chekistov,' Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akndemii lVauk,no. 10, 1994,pp.920-29. See chapter 7. V.D. Esakov, Sovetsknya naukn v gody pervoi pyatiletki (Moscow: Nauka, 1971), pp. 178-9. On the 1928 Politburo commission, see Leonov et aI., (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, p. XVIII. Pokrovsky also played a prominent role in the Politburo commission set up in 1925 to supervise the preparation of the academy's new rules (Leo nov et aI., (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, p. XVII.) M. Yur'eva and D. Reizlin, 'M.N. Pokrovsky. 'K otchetu 0 deyatel'nosti Akademii Nauk za 1926 g.' Zven 'ya, vol. 2 (Moscow-St Petersburg: Feniks, Atheneum, 1992) pp. 581-2. lstochik (Vestnik Arkhiva Prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii) no. 3, 1996, pp.109-40. Leonov et al. (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, p. xviii. lzvestiya, 8 April 1928. Leningradskaya pravda, 12 May 1928. For criticism of the humanities in the academy, see also lVauchnyi rabotnik, no. 8-9, 1928, p. 102. For details of the procedure for nominating candidates, see I.K. Luppo\, 'K vyborakh v Akademiyu Nauk SSSR', lVauchnyi rabotnik, no. II, 1928, pp.3-9. Leningradskaya pravda, 13 and 17 June 1928. See, for intance, Leningradsknya pravda, 21 June 1928. See, for instance, a sharp attack by brothers Tur (pen name of journalists L.D. Tubel'sky and PL Ryzhay) on the German gymnasium, Peterschuie, in Leningradskaya pravda, 6 March 1928, p. 3. In Ufa, Lyubavsky worked in the Bashkir scientific research institute of national culture, Pamyat', no. 1, p. 402. The SPB branch of the RAN fund. 265, op. I, ed khr. 141, p. I. lVauchnyi rabotnik, no. 11, 1928, p. 6 and 83. For details of the controversy over Lyubavsky's election, see Perchenok, op. cit., p. 182. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, pp. 462-63. lVauchnyi rabotnik, no. 1,1929, pp. 90-1. Leningradskayapravda, 13 January 1929, p. 2. The Council of Peoples' Commissars approved reelections on 5 February 1929 (lVauchnyi rabotnik, no. 3, 1929, p. 83). Pamyat', no. 1, p. 388. Ibid.

200 77. 78. 79. 80. 8l. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87.

88. 89.

90. 91. 92. 93.

94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103.

Notes Izvestia, 1 February 1929. p. 3. Leningradskaya pravda, 13 February 1929, p. 4. The SPB Archives of the RAN, fund. 125, op. 1, ed. khr. 207, p. l. Nauchnyi rabotnik, No.3, 1929, p. 83. Ibid, p. 85. The author remembers that the division between 'us' and 'them' existed as late as the early 1980s in academic circles. Esakov, op. cit., pp. 178-9. This proposal was revived in the debate over the academy in the late 1980s. See, for instance, Oleg Moroz, 'Glasnost' zadnim chislom,' Ogonek, no. 4, 1988. Leningradskaya pravda, 7 February 1929, p. 2; 8 February 1929, p. 5; 9 February 1929, p. 2; 10 February 1929, p. 5; 13 February 1929 p. 5; 28 April 1929, p. 3; 10 May 1929, p. 3 Alexander Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture, 1867-1917 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970) pp. 96--8. Likhachev and Sobolevsky were attacked by borthers Tur in Leningradskaya pravda, 12 January 1929. In February, more attacks on academicians by Tur appeared in Leningradskaya pravda (7-9, 12 February 1929). An article attacking V.N. Beneshevich was published in Leningradskaya pravda on 8 February 1929, p. 5. Beneshevich was arrested in November 1928. (Minuvshee, no. 4,1987, p. 46). The text of Molotov's speech was published in Leningradskaya pravda, 27 February 1929. Leningradskaya pravda, 6 March 1929. As early as in 1925, the first issue of the journal lstorik Marksist, which Pokrovsky edited, stated that 'we must declare war on bourgeois historians, and wage it by means of comparison of their methods with those of Marxists'. Organizatsiya sovetskoi nauki v 1926-1932 gg. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1974) pp.43-4. Leningradskaya pravda, 4 February 1929, p. 2. Leonov et al. (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, pp. xxi-xxii. On Bukharin, see Perchenok, op. cit., p. 194. On Ryazanov's see Leningradskaya pravda, 8 March 1929, p. 5 and Leningradskaya pravda, 25 April 1929, p. 3. The fact that the academy elected 'unreliable communists' is mentioned in Vladimir Vemadsky's letters (Minuvshee, no. 7, p. 434). Leonov et al. (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, p. XXI. Perchenok, op. cit., p. 195. Leningradskaya pravda, 21 July 1929, p. 5. For details of the purge among technical workers, see Nicholas Lampert, The Technical Intelligentsia and the Soviet State (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1979) pp. 39-45. Krasnaya gazeta, 31 July 1929, p. 4. Nicholas Poppe, Reminiscences, Washington, 1983, p. 110. Leningradskaya pravda, 8 August 1929, p. 5. Leningradskaya pravda, and Krasnaya gazeta, 23 August 1929. The RAN Archives (Moscow), fund 208, op. 2, ed khr. 57, p. 223. V.S. Brachev, 'Delo' Akademika S.F. Platonova,' Voprosy istorii, no. 5, 1989, p. 119. Leningradskaya pravda, 10 August 1929.

Notes

201

104. Leningradskaya pravda, 13 November 1929, p. 3; 14 November 1929, p. 5 105. Leningradskaya pravda, 13 November 1929, p. 3; Krasnaya gazeta, 6 November 1929. 106. See Aleksei Levin, 'Expedient Catastrophe: A Reconsideration of the 1929 Crisis at the Soviet Academy of Sciences,' in Slavic Review, vol. 47, no. 2, Summer, 1988, p. 276. See also A.1. Kopanev, 'Ob odnoi legende,' Knigi v Rossii XVIll-serediny XIX v. /z istorii Biblioteki Akademii Nauk, Leningrad, 1989, pp. 75-83). Brachev, op. cit., p. 119; V.A. Kolobkov, 'Sergei Platonov: god nakanune aresta,' Istochnikovedcheskoe izuchenie Pamyat'nikov pis'mennoi kul'tury v sobraniyakh i arkhivakh GPB, Leningrad, 1991, p. 171. 107. A.1. Alatortseva, Nachalo 'dela' Akademii Nauk,' Istoricheskii arkhiv, no. I, 1993, pp.79-109. 108. Leningradskaya pravda, 6 November 1929, p. 2. 109. Platonov's ouster was reported by Leningradskaya pravda only on 28 November 1929, p. 4. 110. Leonov, et al. (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, p. XXIX. Izvestiya, 16 November 1929, p. I. Ill. Krasnaya gazeta, 4 December 1929, p. 2 and 19 December 1929, p. 4. 112. Brachev, op. cit., p. 121. 113. Levin, op. cit., p. 278. 114. Levin, op. cit., p. 279. 115. Leningradskaya pravda, 17 June 1928, p. 3. 116. Leningradskaya pravda, 19 February 1929, p. 4. 117. Brachev, op. cit., pp. 117-29. 118. Brachev, op. cit., p. 118. 119. Brachev, op. cit., p. 122. 120. Brachev, op. cit., pp. 122-3. 121. Brachev, op. cit., p. 123. 122. Ibid. 123. Brachev, op. cit., p. 124. 124. Ibid. The text of the first interrogation of the employees of the academy's library concerning the 'concealment of politically sensitive documents' confirms the impression that many archivists in the academy as well as its management saw arhival documents as having purely historical rather than any political value. A.1. Alatortseva, 'Nachalo 'dela' Akademii Nauk,' Istoricheskii arkhiv, no. I, 1993, pp.79-109. 125. Ibid. 126. Brachev, op. cit., p. 125. 127. V.P. Leonov, et al. (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, 1929-1931 gg. 128. Archives of RAN, fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 57, p. 21. 129. Brachev, op. cit., p. 125. 130. V.E. Grum-Grzhimailo died on 30 October 1928. On PaIchinsky, see Loren R. Graham, The Ghost of the Executed Engineer. Technology and the Fall of the Soviet Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993). 131. N.P. Antsiferov, 'Tri glavy vospominanii,' in Pamyat', no. 4, pp. 54-110. These memoirs were reprinted in the Soviet Union by Zvezda, no. 4, 1989. See also Aleksei Rostov (the pen name of the academy employee, S.V. Sigrist), 'Delo chetyrekh akademikov, Pamyat', no. 4, pp. 469-95.

202

Notes

132. Perchenok, op. cit., p. 209. 133. Leonov et at. (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo 1929-1931 gg, pp. VII-XI. 134. Rostov, op. cit., pp. 485-6 reports on Beneshevich and Izmailov. For information on the testimonies given by Rozhdestvensky, see Antsiferov, op. cit., pp. 91-2. On the methods used by the OGPU, see Leonov et at. (ed), Akademicheskoe delo, pp. XXXVI-XXXVII. It is noteworthy that although rehabilitations which began under Nikita Khrushchev and had been going on after his ouster usually did not deal with the cases before 1934, most of those implicated in the case of the academy were quietly rehabilitated in 1966. (This was apparently done because of the importance allotted to the Academy of Science by the Soviet leadership.) 135. Antsiferov in Pamyat'. no. 4. 136. Brachev, op. cit., p. 126. 137. Brachev, op. cit., p. 129; Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na 'velikom perelome', p. 209-10. 138. Leonov et al. (ed.), Akademicheskoe delo, pp. 100--254. 139. Rostov, op. cit., pp. 481-2, 485. 140. Brachev, op. cit., p. 129. 141. According to O.P. Likhacheva, a granddaughter of N.P. Likhahev, upon his return to Leningrad Likhachev was not allowed by the administration of the academy to work with documents, which he himself had donated earlier to the body. (Likhachev's collection is now kept in the St Petersburg branch of the Institute of History). 142. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, pp. 467-68. 143. Poslednie novosti (Paris), 2 July 1929 quoted in Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na "velikom perelome",' p. 179. 144. For instance, academician D.S. Likhachev, who was arrested in 1928 for the participation in an unofficial group, has always maintained in private conversations even with family members that the group was completely apolitical and its representatives were involved in purely cultural and scholarly activities. However, in 1992, Likhachev was able to receive from the KGB archives in St Petersburg parts of the material concerning the OGPU interrogation of the arrested members of the group. The author saw this material, which contained texts of the presentations made by the group's members at its meetings. These texts were confiscated by the OGPU at the time of the arrests and were used as a basis for charges. Many of these presentations, including the one by Likhachev, attacked the Bolsheviks' policies in the most strong terms and expressed hope that one day the Bolshevik regime would be overthrawn. 145. Antsiferov, op. cit., p. 110. 146. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 13. 147. Cited by Graham, The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, p. 32. 148. Vernadksy cited in his letters Bukharin's and Ryazanov's speech of 1929 against too drastic a restructuring of the academy and against its merge with the Communist Academy (Minuvshee, no. 7, pp. 434 and 440). See also Bukharin's letter to Kuibyshev in defense of Academician Pavlov, dated 25 September 1929, published in Voprosy istorii KPSS, No. 11, 1988, p. 44.

Notes 149. 150.

151.

152. 153. 154. 155. 156.

157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165.

203

Mark B. Adams, The Soviet Nature-Nurture Debates,' in Loren R. Graham (ed.), Science and Soviet Social Order (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), p. 135. This information was included in the television film 'Delo D.S. Likhacheva' broadcast by St Petersburg television on 10 August 1993. See also, Dmitrii Likhachev, 'Besedy prezhnikh let', Nashe nasledie, no. 26, 1993, pp.41-5. In 1957, Cherepnin entered the CPSU and in 1972 was elected full member of the academy (Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, vol. 29, Moscow, 1978, p. 76). On Tarle, see Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, vol. 25, Moscow, 1976, p. 279. Perchenok, op. cit., p. 232. V.N. Beneshevich was arrested for the second time in 1937 and shot on 27 January 1938. Brachev, op. cit., p. 129 Rostov, op. cit., p. 486. Nauchnyi rabotnik, no. 2, 1930, pp. 91-2. Volgin was permanent secretary of the academy in 1930-5. In 1942-53 he was the academy's vice-president (Bol'shaya Sovetskaya entsiklopediya, no. 5, Moscow, 1971, p. 295). Istorik-Markst, vol. 18-19, 1930, cited by Brachev, op. cit., p. 127. G. Zaidel', M. Tsvibak, Klassovyi vrag na istoricheskom fronte (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk, 1931). For the text of the 1930 rules, see Ustavy Akademii Nauk SSSR, pp. 130-41. The RAN Archives (Moscow), fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 62. p. 692. Brachev, op. cit., p. 127. Leonov et at. (ed.), Aademicheskoe delo, p. XLVII. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 464 and 468. The RAN Archives, fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 62, p. 385. RL 232/88 (Radio Liberty Research Bulletin), Vera Tolz, 'Letters of Academician Kapitsa in Defense of Repressed Scientists,' 7 June 1988.

The Academy of Sciences in the 1930s

3 I.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

M.S. Bastrakova, Stanovlenie sovetskoi sistemy organizatsii nauki (1917-1922), (Moscow: Nauka, 1973) p. 22. Russkoe slovo, February 5, 1911, quoted by P.V. Volobuev in Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 3, 1987, p. 7. On the introduction and development of the institution of aspiranty, see G.D. Komkov, O.M. Karpenko, B.V. Levshin, L.K. Semenov, Akademiya Nauk SSSR - shtab sovetskoi nauki (Moscow: Nauka, 1968) pp. 53-55. V.D. Esakov, Sovetskaya nauka v gody pervoi pyatiletki (Moscow: Nauka, 1971) pp. 58-9. Komkov, Karpenko, Levshin, Semenov, op. cit., p. 54. Aleksandr Ershin, Molodaya akademiya (Leningrad: Molodaya gvardiya, 1935). V. Samoilov, Yu. Vinogradov, 'Ivan Pavlov i Nikolai Bukharin', in Zvezda no. 10, 1989, p. 99.

204

8. 9.

Notes

Ershin, op. cit., p. 5. S.D. Miliband, Bibliograficheskii slovar' sovetskikh vostokovedov (Moscow; Nauka, 1975) p. 98. 10. Ershin, op. cit., 105. II. Willliam McGucken, Science, Society, and State (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1984) pp. 75, 270, 300. 12. Esakov, op. cit., pp. 73-5. 13. Paul R. Josephson, Physics and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Berkely, Los Angeles, Oxford: University of California Press, 1991) pp. 146-7 14. E.M. Kreps (ed.), Perepiska I.P. Pavlova, Leningrad, 1970, pp. 38-39. Aleksandr Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1917-1970) (Berkley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1984) p. 135-6. 15. B.E. Bykhovsky et al. (eds), Organizatsiya sovetskoi nauki v 1926-1932 gg: Sbornik dokumentov (Leningrad: Nauka, 1974), pp. 210, 211. The stenographic report of the conference was published: Vsesoyuznaya konferentsiya po planirovaniyu nauchnoissledovatel'skoi raboty, l-ya (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1931). 16. Bykhovsky, op. cit., p. 212, 213. 17. Loren R. Graham, Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union (New York,: Columbia University Press, 1987) p. II. 18. Krylov's report was published in Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 6, 1932, pp. 7-12. See Esakov, op. cit., p. 204. 19. V.N. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist (Stanford,: Stanford Univiersty Press, 1946) p. 504. 20. Vucinich, op. cit., p. 141. 21.. Ibid, p. 136. 22. The SPB branch of the Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences, fund 247,op.2,ed.khr.86. 23. Ibid. In the 1930s, numerous research bases and branches (filialy) of the USSR Academy of Sciences were set up. The largest were the Far Eastern branch (set up in 1932) and the Ural branch (set up in 1933). See Komkov, Karpenko, Levshin and Semenov, op. cit., p. 59-61. 24. For the attacks on the probability theory, see N. Smit, 'Plannovoe vreditel'stvo i statisticheskaya teoriya, in Na bor'bu za materialiticheskuyu dialektiku v matematike (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1931) p. 29. 25. Graham, Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior, p. II. 26. G. E. Golik in Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 4, 1990, pp.17-31. 27. See the Chapter 2. 28. N.I. Bronskii and V.P. Yakovlev, 'Evolyutsiya sotsial'nykh i filosofskikh vozzrenii V.I. Vernadskogo,' in V.I. Vernadsky, k stoletiyu so dnya rozhdeniya, Rostov-on-Don, 1963, p. 27. 29. For more details, see Kendall E. Bailes, Science and Russian Culture in an Age of Revolutions. V.I. Vernadsky and His Scientific School, 1863-1945 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990) pp. 163-5. See also an interview with G.P. Aksenov in Chelovek i priroda, no. 3, 1989, pp.17-19.

Notes 30. 31.

32.

33. 34. 35. 36.

37.

38.

39.

40. 41. 42.

43.

205

Graham, op. cit., pp. 161-3, 174, 175. See also Zvezda, no. 10, 1989, pp.94--120. On the theory of socioeconomic formations, see Sovetskaya istoricheskaya entsiklopediya (Moscow: Sovetskaya entsiklopediya 1974) vol. 15, p. 247. During the debates in the early 1930s, which elaborated the five formations theory, those Soviet historians were suppressed, who advocated the idea of a special formation of 'commercial capitalism' (a transition period between feudalism and capitalism). Also rejected was the theory of the 'Asian way of production' (asiatskii sposob proizvodstva), as a system that emerged in the period of the disintegration of the primitive communal system. See, A.1. Tyumenev, Istoriya antichnykh rabovladel'cheskikh obshchestv (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel"stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1935) and V.V. Struve, Sotsial'nyi perevorot v Egipte v kontse strednego tsarstva (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1935). John Barber, Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928-1932 (London and Basingstoke: Macmilllan Press, 1981) pp. 126-136. See, for instance, B. Ya. Koprzhiva-Lur'e, Istoriya odnoi zhizni (Paris: Atheneum, 1987). LV. Stalin, Voprosy Leninivna, Moscow, 1934, p. 527. For the best account of the response of Soviet specialist in ancient history to Stalin's statement of February 1933, see W.Z. Rubinsohn, Spartacus' Uprising and Soviet Historical Writing (Oxford, 1987). Koprzhiva-Lur'e, op. cit., p. 143. S.1. Kovalev, 'Klassovaya bor'ba i padenie antichnogo obshchestva,' in lz istorii dokapitalisticheskikh Jonnatsii (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR 1933), pp. 345-51; and Istoriya antichnogo obshchestva, vol. 1-2 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1936) pp. 164--225 and 263-268. Zhebelev's article was republished several times. It was included in his book Severnoe prichernomor'e, (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1958) pp. 82-115. See Koprzhiva-Lur'e, op. cit., pp.220-4. George Enteen, 'Marxist Historians during the Cultural Revolution: A Case Study of Professional In-Fighting,' in Sheila Fitzpatrick (ed.), Cultural Revolution in Russia 1928-1931 (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1978) pp. 167-268. This point of view is reflected in the memoirs by the specialist in old Russian history Boris Romanov. The memoirs are currently being prepared for publication by St Petersburg historian V. Paneyakh. Ya. V. Vasil'kov, A.M. Grishina, F.F. Perchenok, 'Repressirovannye vostokovedy', in Narody Asii i AJriki, no. 4, 1990, pp. 113-25. I. Voznesenky, 'Imena i sud'by (nad yubileinym spiskom Akademii nauk), in Pamyat'. Istoricheskii sbornik, vol. I (Moscow and New York: Khronika Press, 1976 and 1978) pp. 402-404. For the survey of the Russian press material on Vavilov's arrest, see Radio Liberty Research Bulletin (RL) 507/87, Vera Tolz, 'The Centennial of the Birth of Nikolai Vavilov and the Fate of Soviet Scientists under Stalin', December 16, 1987. On Lazarev's arrest, See Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na "velikom perelome''', p. 235. On Peretz's arrest, see F.D. Ashnin and V.M. Alpatov,

206

44. 45. 46.

47. 48. 49. 50.

51. 52. 53.

4

Notes "Rossiiskaya national'naya partiya' - zloveshchaya vydumka sovetskikh chekistov,' Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akodemii Nauk, no. 10, 1994, pp. 920-9. Voznesensky, op. cit., p. 401. For the details of the campaign against Luzin, see Aleksey E. Levin, 'Anatomy of a Public Campaign: 'Academician Luzin's Case' in Soviet Political History,' in Slavic Review, vol. 49, no. 1. 1990,90-115. RL 232/88, Vera Tolz, 'Letters of Academician Kapitsa in Defense of Repressed Scientists,' 7 June, 1988. See also P.L. Kapitsa, Pis'ma 0 nauke (Moscow: Moskovsky rabochii, 1989). On Academician Pavlov's letters in defense of arrested scientists, see Zveula, no. 10, 1989, pp. 11-112. On Vernadsky, see Bailes, op. cit., p. 166. In 1937, Kokovtsov appealed to the authorities to release two of his students who had been arrested M.N. Sokolov and A.P. A1yadin. See, Levin. op. cit., p. 94. See Bailes, op. cit., p. 175. Ibid., p. 167. See, for instance, letters by A.M. Pankratova to the Party Central Committee, asking for measures to be taken against those historians, who criticized her Istoriya Kazakhskoi SSR, Voprosy istorii, no. 1, 1988, pp.54-79. B. Grekov et at. (eds), Protiv istoricheskoi kontseptsii M.N. Pokrovskogo, (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR. 1939). E.A. Belyaev et at. (eds), Organizatsiya nauchnoi deyatel'nosti (Moscow: Nauka, 1968), pp. 230-31. See Vera Tolz, 'The USSR Academy of Sciences in Crisis,' Report on the USSR, vol. 2, no. 23, 1990, pp. 9-12.

Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr I.

2.

3.

4.

5.

N. Ya. Marr, 'Avtobiografiya,' in /zbrannye raboty, vol. I (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo GAIMK, 1933) p. 7. See, V.A. Mikhan'kova, Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr. Ocherk ego zhisni i nauchnoi deyatel'nosti, 3rd ed. (Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1949) p. 228. Although the book by Mikhan'kova is written from the Marrist position and its assessment of Marr's contribution to scholarship is inadequate, it provides a lot of useful biographical data on Marr. Iveriya, no. 86, 1888. The article was republished in the collection of Marr's works entitled Po etapam razvitiya yafeticheskoi teorii (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo GAIMK, 1926) pp. 1-7, and in /zbrannye raboty, vol. I, pp. 14-15. Marr's letter of 1894 to Rosen in which he expresses his skepticism about Western linguistics is cited on pp. 59-64 of Mikhan'kova's book. In his later works Marr continued to cite 'incompetence' of Western linguists as the main reason for their rejection of his theories. See, for instance, Marr's article 'Obshchii kurs ucheniya 0 yazyke' in Izbrannye raboty, vol. 2, (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk, 1936) pp. 28-9 and 34. The Leningrad philologist Olga Freidenberg recalled a conversation on this subject with Marr in one of her letters to Boris Pasternak: Elliott Mossman

Notes

6. 7.

8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

20. 21. 22.

23. 24. 25. 26.

27. 28.

207

(ed.), The Correspondence of Boris Pasternak and Olga Freidenberg. 1910-1954 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1982) p. 89. Voprosy yazykoznaniya, no. 1, 1960. lzvestiya imperatorskoi Akademii Nauk, series VI, no. 11, 1909, p. 722. The description of Marr's linguistic theories is based on the detailed study by L.L. Thomas, The Linguistic Theories of N.Ya. Marr (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957). lzvestiya imperatorskoy Akademii Nauk, series VI, no. 2, 1911; no. 6, 1911; no. 8, 1912; no. 13, 1912; no. 3, 1913; no. 9, 1913; no. 5, 1914; no. 16, 1914; and no. 4,1916. See V.1. Abaev 'N. Ya. Marr (1864-1934). K 25-1etiyu so dnya smerti' in Voprosy yazykoznaniya, no. 1, 1960, p. 92. Marr, lzbrannye raboty, vol. 1, pp. 79-124. Marr, op. cit., pp. 185-6. Mikhan'kova, op. cit., p. 263. Marr edited the series Bibliotheca armeno-georgica, Materialy po yafeticheskomu yazykoznaniyu, and Khristianski Vostok. See B.V. Levshin (ed.), Dokumenty po istorii Akademii Nauk SSSR. 1917-1925 gg. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1986) p. 30,40. See, for instance, Marr's negative evaluation of the Tsarist policy in Georgia in his Istoriya Gruzii (Kul'turno istoricheskii nabrosok) (St Petersburg: Izdatel'stvo 'Ami ran' AI. Arabidze, 1906). The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 800, op. 1, ed. khr. 2145, pp.I-5. See Marr's 'Gosudarstvennaya Akademiya Istorii Material'noi kul'tury' in Nauchnyi rabotnik, no. 2,1927. On the Section of Scientific Workers see Loren R Graham, The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party. 1927-1932 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967) pp. 93, 96,102,107,112,136-137,146, 184. See, for instance, Marr, in Nauchniy rabotnik, no. 8-9, 1928, pp. 10-24. Graham, op. cit.. Marr's positive contribution to the work of the SaItykov-Shchedrin Library is recorded in the recollections on Marr, collected in Problemy istorii dokapitalisticheskikh obshchestv, no. 3-4, 1935. On Marr's defense of Vasilii Leonidovich Komarovich, who was a specialist on Dostoevksy, see Voprosy literatury, no. 9, 1988, p. 134. Graham op. cit., pp. 89-119. See also A.E. Levin, 'Expedient Catastrophe: A Reconsideration of the 1929 Crisis at the Soviet Academy of Sciences', Slavik Review, vol. 47, no. 2, Summer, 1988, pp. 261-79. See V.D. Esakov, Sovetskaya nauka v gody pervoi pyatiletki (Moscow: Nauka, 1971) p. 192. 'Pyat' "vol'nykh" pisem akad. V.I. Vernadskogo Synu. (Russkaya nauka v 1929), in Minuvshee. Istoricheskii almanakh, no. 7 (Paris: Atheneum, 1989), p. 442 (footnote 18). The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 800, op. 1, ed. khr. 797 and 804. Leningradskaya pravda;29 September 1929. Esakov, op. cit., p. 126.

208 29. 30.

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49.

Notes Krasnaya gazeta (vechernii vypusk), 20 March 1930. Pamyat'. Istoricheskii sbornik, vol. 4 (Moscow and Paris 1981: YMCAPress, 1979 and 1981), p. 87. Excerpts from Antsiferov's memoirs, mentioning the use of Marr' s name by OGPU interrogators, were later published in the USSR - in Zvezda, no. 4, 1989, p. 134. See, for instance, Marr's correspondence with Ol'denburg, the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 800, op. 2, ed. khr. 9. The RAN Archives (Moscow), fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 62, p. 597. Some of Polivanov's letters to Marr are published in V.G. Lartsev, Evgenii Dmitrievich Polivanov. Stranitsy zhisni i deyatel'nosti (Moscow: Glavnaya redaktsiya vostochnoi literatury, 1988) pp. 280-1. Lartsev, op. cit., p. 67-8, 111, 116, 196. Leningradskaya pravda, 20 March 1929. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 800, op. 3, ed. khr. 635, pp.28-30. The manifesto of the YazykoJront, which criticized Marr as being nonMarxist, was published in Literatura i iskusstvo, no. I, 1930, p. 3. After Yazykofront was defeated, its criticism of Marr was defined as 'idealism', and 'bourgeois contraband'. See the collection Protiv burzhuaznoi kontrabandy v yazykoznanii, Leningrad, 1932. On Marr's campaign against YazykoJront, see the archives of the SPB branch of RAN fund 800, op. 3, ed, khr. 93, p. 43. Thomas op. cit., p. 18. Leningradskaya pravda, 6 February 1929. Marr, Izbrannye raboty, vol. 1, p. 273. L.G. 8ashindzhagyan, 'N. Ya. Marr i obshchee yazykoznanie,' Problemy istorii dokapitalisticheskikh obshchestv, no. 3-4, 1935, p. 93. V.M. Alpatov, "'Novoe uchenie 0 yazyke" i vostokovednoe yazykoznanie,' Narody Asii i AJriki, no. 6, 1988, p. 94. XVI s'ezd VKP(b). Stenograficheskii otchet, Moscow, 1930, p. 98 hvestia, 12 April 1925. 'Osnovnye dostizheniya yafeticheskoi teorii,' in Marr, hbrannye raboty, vol. I, p. 198-9. Marr, hbrannye raboty, vol. 5, p. 328. 'Yafetidologiya v Leningradskom Gosudarstvennom Universitete,' in Marr, hbrannye raboty, vol. I, p. 268. R.L. Herrnitte, Marr, Marrisme, Marristes, Une page I' histoire de la linguistique sovietique, Paris, 1987; and Thomas, op. cit., p. Ill. In his study Thomas p. 92 and p. 161 (footnote No. 33) points out that 'Marr's theory of language mixture culminating in a future single language ... acquired a powerful support in Stalin's own theory of the development of a single language after the establishment of the world-wide Communist state'. Thomas shows that in 1925 Stalin announced that he was opposed to theories of a single world language. In 1930, however, he suddenly reversed his stand and predicted a one-world language after the victory of communism on a world scale. Thomas referrs to Stalin I. and Kaganovich L., Dtchet Central'nogo Komiteta XVI s'ezdu VKP(b) , Moscow-Leningrad, 1930, pp. 83-6, 89-91. Some Russian scholars have speculated that Stalin

Notes

50.

51.

52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58.

59. 60. 61. 62.

63.

5

209

first paid attention to Marr because they both were Georgian. I was unable to find any documentary confirmation of this suggestion. Alpatov, op. cit., p. 95. Among other examples Alpatov gives details about the Marrists' campaign against the linguist, B. Vladimirtsov (pp. 98-9). See also, the archives of the SPB branch of the RAN, fund 800, op. 3, ed. khr. 635 , pp. 28-30. All these outstanding scholars wrote complimentary obituaries of Marr after his death, in which they recalled their work with him after the revolution. See the obituaries in Problemy istorii dokapitalisticheskikh obshchestv, no. 3-4, 1935. On the complicated relations between Marr and Orbeli, see A.M. Arzumanyan, Brat'ya Orbeli, vol. 1, Erevan, 1976 and Pamyat', vol. 3, Moscow 1978, Paris, 1980, pp. 444-7. Marr, Izbrannye raboty, vol. I, p. 346; vol. II p. 382; vol. III, p. 76. Alpatov, op. cit., p. 98. V.M. Alpatov, 'Martirolog vostokovednoi lingvistiki', Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 12,1990, p. 118. LL Meshchaninov, '0 polozhenii v lingvistike,' in Izvestia AN SSSR. Otdelenie yazyka i literatury, vol. 7, no. 6, 1948, pp. 473-85. F.P. Filin, '0 dvukh napravleniyakh v yazykoznanii: in the same issue of Izvestia AN SSSR, p. 486-96. Whereas Filin was active in conducting a campaign against the IndoEuropeanists in Leningrad, in Moscow such a role was played by another Marrist G.P. Serdyuchenko. See his book Akademik N. Ya. Marr - osnovatel' sovetskogo materialisticheskogo yazykoznaniya, Moscow, 1950. E. Mosmann (ed.), The Correspondence of Boris Pasternak and Olga Freidenberg, p. 32. A.S. Chikobava, 'Kogda i kak eto bylo,' in Ezhegodnik iberiiskokavkazskogo yazykoznaniya, vol. 12, Tbilisi, 1985. This and the other articles by Stalin on linguistics were published in the separate volume: LV. Stalin, Marksizm i voprosy yazykoznaniya, Moscow, 1952. Articles by linguists, criticizing Marr, which appeared in response to Stalin's attack on the 'New Theory of Language,' were published in the collection: V.V. Vinogradov (ed.), Protiv izvrashcheniya marksizma v yazukoznanii, vols 1 and 2 (Moscow and Leningrad: Nauka, 1951). Pamyat' Istoricheskii sbornik, no. 3 (Moscow and Paris: YMCA-Press, 1978 and 1980), p. 447.

Sergei Fedorovich Ol'denburg I.

2.

For instance, on 12 May 1928, Leningradskaya pravda carried an article under the title' Akademiya Nauk i obshchestvennost', which complained that the Academy of Sciences was such a reactionary body that some of its members and employees regarded S.F. Ol'denburg and N. Ya. Marr 'as "secret communists with Party cards in their pockets".' On the Ol'denburgs in Russia, see F.A. Brockhaus and LA. Efron (ed.), Entsiklopedicheskii slovar', St Peterburg, 1897, vol. 42, p. 914-16.

210 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II. 12.

13.

14. 15. 16.

17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Notes For a brief biography of Ol'denburg, see Joseph L. Wieczynski (ed.), The Modern Encyclopedia of Russian and Soviet History, Academic International Press, 1981, vol. 25, pp. 237-40. A bibliography of Ol'denburg's works was published in the collection Akademik S. F. Ol'denburg. K pyatidesyatiletiyu nauchno-obshchestvennoi deyadel'nosti. 1882-1932 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk, 1934) pp.37-49. S.F. Ol'denburg, 1z Bretonskikh legend, Kosmopolis, no. 10, 1898. See, No. 69 in the bibliography of Ol'denburg's works, Akademik S.F. Ol'denburg. K pyatidesyatiletiyu, p. 40. Ibid., p. 31. The Modern Encyclopedia, p. 238 G.A. Knyazev, 'Pervye gody S.F. Ol'denburga v Akademii nauk. Po arkhivnym materia1am,' in Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 2, 1933, pp.26-8. The Modern Encyclopedia, p. 238. Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 2, 1933, p. 27. Knyazev says that in the elections Ol'denburg received 19 votes in favor and ten against. Academician V.R. Rosen, who came second, received 15 votes in favor and 14 against, Ibid, p. 28. Loren R. Graham, The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927-1932 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967) p. 22. For more detail, see The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 6, op. I, ed. khr. 26 On Ol'denburg's political stand, see William G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974). Ol'denburg expounds this idea in S.F. Ol'denburg, Nauka v Rossii: spravochnyi ezhegodnik (Petrograd: Izdatel'stvo Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1920). Otchet 0 deyatel'nosti Akademii nauk za 1917 g., chitaemyi v publichnom zasedanii 29 dekabrya 1917. Petrograd, 1918, p. 5, quoted in Pamyat". 1storicheskii sbornik, no. 3 (Moscow and Paris: YMCA-Press 1978 and 1980) p. 448. G.D. Alekseeva, Oktyabr'skaya revolyutsiya i istoricheskaya nauka, 1917-1923 gg. (Moscow: Nauka, 1968), pp. 263-4. See also B. S. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii (Akademiya nauk v I 920-e gody po materialam arkhiva S.F. Ol'denburga),' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 125. P.N. Pospelov (ed.) Lenin i Akademiya Nauk (Moscow: Nauka, 1969) p. 25 (on Ol'denburg's meeting with Lenin.) Pospelov (ed.), Lenin i Akademiya Nauk, p. 26. Ibid. Ibid. On Borodin's position vis-a-vis the Bolsheviks, see Pamyat', no. 3, p. 449. See also Graham, op. cit., p. 22. Sergei Belomortsev,'Bol'shevizatsiya akademii nauk,' in Posey, XLVI, November 18, 1951, p. 11. B.S. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 127. Minuvshee. 1storicheskii al'manakh, no. I (Paris: Atheneum, 1986) pp. 329-30 (footnote 13).

Notes 26.

27.

28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

33. 34. 35.

36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

211

V.M. Alekseev, 'Sergei Fedorovich Ol'denburg kak organizator i rukovoditel' nashikh orientalistov,' in Zapiski Instituta vostokovedeniya Akademii nauk SSSR, no. IV (Moscow and Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1935) pp. 40-1. On Ol'denburg's arrest see, Raduga, no. 5, Tallinn, 1992, pp. 79-84. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 125, says that Ol'denburg was arrested more than once in the first post-revolutionary years. He does not provide any further information. Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akadenii Nauk, no. I118, 1920, pp. 10-11. The 1921 meeting with Lenin Ol'denburg described in his memoirs about Lenin, written in 1933. See Pospelov (ed.), Lenin i Akademiya Nauk, pp.92-4. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 126. Pospe1ov (ed.), Lenin i Akademiya Nauk, p. 61. Pamyat', no. I (Moscow and New York: Khronika Press 1976 and 1978) p.377. Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk, no. 7, 1918. p. 531. Pospelov (ed.), Lenin i Akademiya Nauk, p. 61. Izvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk, no . I118, 1920, p. 12. The translation is taken from Aleksandr Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1917-1970) (Berkley: The University of California Press, 1984) p. 96. lzvestiya Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk, op. cit. S.F. Ol'denburg, Akademiya nauk Soyuza Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik za dvesti let (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1926). S.F. Ol'denburg, 'Voprosy organizatsii nauchnoi raboty,' in M.A. Blokh et al., Tvorchestvo, vol. 1 (Petrograd: Izdatel'svo Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk: 1923) pp. 8-14 Graham, op. cit., p. 176-88. Ibid., p. 56. Ibid., p. 177. Nauchnyi rabotnik, no. 5-6, 1928, pp. 26-35. Krasnaya gazeta (utrenii vypusk), no. 57, August 9, 1924, p. 5. For more details, see Chapter I. Belomortsev, loc. cit. At the time Avel Enukidze was chairman of the Commission for Assisting the Academy of Sciences. Leningradskaya pravda, 13 February 1929. Leningradskaya pravda, 9 February 1929, p. 2. Nicholas Poppe, Reminiscences (Bellingham, Washington: Western Washington University, 1983) p. 110. See also Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 139. Cited by Graham, op. cit., p. 122. The RAN Archives, fund 208, op. 2, ed khr. 57, pp. 214-15, 219-20, 223-24. On Ol'denburg's attempt to resign, see Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, pp. 139-40. The telegram is cited in V.D. Esakov, op. cit., p. 197. Leningradskaya pravda, 6 November 1929, p. 2. Academician Komarov was made acting permanent secretary.

Notes

212 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68.

6

Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, pp. 134-5. Leningradskaya pravda, 18 October 1929, p. 3. The RAN Archives, fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 57, pp. 239-40. The RAN Archives, fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 62, p. 385. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, pp. 141-2. Graham, op. cit., p. 159 Ibid. Ibid., p. 168. Ibid., p. 158. Vestnik Akademii nauk, no. 2, 1933, p. 23. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 143. The RAN Archives, fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 62, pp. 415, 638, 665. F.I. Shcherbatskoi, 'S.F. Ol'denburg kak indianist,' Zapiski Instituta vostokovedeniya Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 4, 1935, pp. 29-30. Pamyat', no. 3, p. 454. V.M. Alekseev, op. cit., p. 45-53. Quoted in Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 144.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

David Joravsky, 'The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,' in Sheila Fitzpatrick (ed.), Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931 (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1978) p. 128. Literaturnaya gazeta, 27 February 1962. Quoted in B.P. Babkin, Pavlov, A Biography (London: Victor Gollancz LTD, 1951) p. 5. Cited in V. Samoilov and Yu. Vinogradov, 'Ivan Pavlov and Nikolai Bukharin. Ot konftikta k druzhbe,' Zvezda, no. 10, 1989, p. 115. The biographical data are largely taken from Babkin, loc cit. and S.V. Pavlova, 'Iz vospominanii, ' Novyi mir, no. 3 1946, pp. 97-144. Loren R. Graham, Science, Philosophy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union (Columbia University Press: New York, 1987) p. 162; See, Joravsky, op. cit. pp. 124-5. Quoted in Samoilov and Vinogradov, op. cit., p. 98. Graham, op. cit. p. 157. I.P. Pavlov, Dvadtsatiletnii opyt ob'ektivnogo izucheniya vysshei nervnoi deyatel'nosti (povedeniya) zhivotnykh (Moscow and Leningrad; Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1938), p.16. Quoted in Babkin, op. cit., p. 154. V.1. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 5th edition (Moscow: Politizdat, 1965) vol. 51, p. 222. S.V. Pavlova, op. cit., p. 140. Samoilov and Vinogradov, op. cit., p. 112. Babkin, op. cit., p. 161; Samoilov and Vinogradov also extensively quote from the 1923 speech, pp. 95-100. Samoilov and Vinogradov, op. cit., p. 113. Ibid.; various letters by Pavlov were also published in Meditsinskaya gazeta, 8 November 1988; 4 April 1989; and 12 April 12 1989. Samoilov and Vinogradov, op. cit., p. 108.

Notes 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

42.

43. 44. 45.

213

Narodnyi uchitel', no. 2,1924, pp. 33-7. Leningradskaya pravda, 23 April 1924. The same lecture was also criticized by Professor of Leningrad Politechnicum N.A. Gredeskul in Zvezda, no. 3, 1924, p. 149. Joravsky, op. cit., p. 125. Joravsky, op. cit., p. 126 Samoilov and Vinogradov, op. cit., p. 116. Pavlov in Psikhiatricheskaya gazeta, no. 8, 1917, quoted in Joravsky, 'The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,' p. 276 (footnote, 88). On the paradoxical elements in the Bolsheviks' attitude towards Pavlov, see also David Joravsky, 'Cultural Revolution and the Fortress Mentality,' in Abbott Gleason et at. (eds), Bolshevik Culture: Experiment and Order in the Russian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985) pp. 101-107. Joravsky, 'The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,' p. 125. Samoilov and Vinogradov, op. cit., p. 107. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. II, 1988, p. 44. Samoilov and Vinogradov, op. cit., p. 109. Voprosy istorii KPSS, no. II, 1988, p. 44. Samoilov and Vinogradov, op. cit., p. 107. Meditsinskaya gazeta, 8 November 1988. Joravsky, 'The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche', pp. 126-7. Ibid. I.P. Pavlov, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. 5 (Moscow: Medizdat, 1952). Samoilov and Vinogradov,loc. cit., p. 1I8. N.A. Grigoryan, 'Obshchestvenno-politicheskie vzglyady I.P. Pavlov a' , Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 10, 1991, pp. 85-6. Izvestia, 28 February 1936. Sovetskaya kul'tura, 21 May 1988. Babkin, op. cit., pp. 161-72. Grigoryan, op. cit., p. 86. Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 3, 1988, pp. 129-41. On the round table, see also ibid., no. 4, 1988, and no. I, 1989. On the Pavlovian session, see also E.M. Kreps, 0 prozhitom i perezhitom (Moscow: Nauka, 1989) pp. 143-50. Robert C. Tucker, The Soviet Political Mind. Studies in Stalinism and PostStalin Change (New York, London: Praeger, 1963) pp. 91-121. On the Pavlovian session, see also Gustav A. Wetter, Dialectical Materialism. A Historical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the Soviet Union (New York: Praeger, 1958) pp. 469-88. Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 3,1988, pp. 134-5. Pravda, May 13, 1927. See also Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 1,1989, p. 97. Komsomol'skaya pravda, 17 October 1990.

7 Aleksei Nikolaevich Krylov I.

Unless otherwise specified, the biographical data about Krylov are taken from his memoirs: A.N. Krylov, Moi vospominaniya (Moscow and

214

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II. 12.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Notes Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1945). See also Vladimir Lipilin, Krylov (Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1983) pp. 220-1; S. Ya. Shtraikh, At. Nik. Krylov (Moscow and Leningrad: Nauka, 1950). Lipilin, op. cit., p. 70. N.S. Solomenko, 'Akademik Aleksei Nikolaevich Krylov - vydayushchiisya matematik, mekhanik i korablestroitel', in Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR,no. 12, 1988,p. 79. Krylov, op. cit., pp. 238-76. Lipilin, op. cit., p. 177-8. Ibid. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 2, ed. khr. 97, pp.5-1O. Ibid, p. 5. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 769, op. 3, ed. khr. 244, p. 17. This information was given to the author by G.G. Superfin, who worked in V.1. Vemadsky's archive in the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 3, ed. khr. 138, pp. 1-27. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 2, ed. khr. 97, p. 89. Krylov also complained about KEPS and the arrest of its secretary in his letters to other members of the academy. See, for instance, his correspondence with Academician Petr Lazarev, the SPB Branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 3, ed. khr. 139, p 23. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 2, ed. khr. 110, pp. 4-11 (letters to Academician A. A. Borisyak.) Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. F.F. Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na 'velikom perelome,' in N.G. Okhotin and A. A. Roginsky (ed.), Zven'ya. Istoricheskii almanakh, vol. no. I (Moscow: Progress, Feniks, Atheneum, 1991) pp. 226-30. Perchenok, op. cit., p. 182. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 3, ed. khr. 147, pp. 6-7, 11-14. Kyrlov's statement is quoted in Perchenok, op. cit., p. 186. On the condemantion of this position by Ol'denburg and others, see the RAN Archives (Moscow), fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr, 57, p. 30. Ibid., p. 188. Sheila Fitzpatrick, Cultural Revolution in Russia. 1928-1931 (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1978). The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 2, ed. khr. 105. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives. fund 759. op. 2. ed. khr. 110, pp.4-11. In 1910, for instance, Krylov launched a successful campaign to secure the release from imprisonment of the shipbuilding engineer, Vladimir Kostenko. who was arrested for the distribution of revolutionary literature. Krylov. op. cit.. pp. 212-6. For the text of Krylov's letter to Minister of the Navy Ivan Grigorovich in defense of Kostenko. see the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 2, ed. khr. 78. p. 7.

Notes 26.

27. 28.

8

215

See, for instance, a letter written in 1937 to Krylov by a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, historian Vladimir Beneshevich, who had just learned about his expulsion from the academy for the publication of a book in Germany (the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 759, op. 2, ed. khr. 122, pp. 1-5). There is no sign in Krylov's archive that he responded to Beneshevich's request for help. It is interesting that there is also no sign that Krylov attempted to defend his close friend Nikolai Luzin, when a press campaign was conducted against him in 1936. On several occasions, Krylov proudly told his fellow academicians that 'as a man from the navy' he knew that certain orders from the authorities should be fulfilled without question. For instance, in his memoirs, Krylov described how efficient the publishing house of the Academy of Sciences was before the revoluion, compared to how it worked in the 1930s. Krylov, Moi vospominaniya, pp. 400-D2.

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky I.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. II. 12. 13. 14. 15.

A comprehensive biography of Vernadsky is available in the West: Kendall E. Bailes, Science and Russian Culture in an Age of Revolutions. V.1. Vernadsky and His Scientific School, 1863-1945 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). If not specified otherwise, biographical information in this chapter is taken from Bailes' book. Reliance on Bailes is especially heavy in the section concerning the prerevolutionary period of Vernadsky's life. As regards his post-revolutionary activities, a lot of new archival information has been published in Russia since the appearance of Bailes' monograph. This new information is taken into account and extensively quoted in this chapter. Vernadsky was a distant cousin of the well-known writer and radical journalist Vladimir G. Korolenko. Bailes, op. cit., p. II. Ibid., p. 28 Ibid., p. 42 Ibid., p. 60. See, S.R. Mikulinsky in Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 5, 1990, pp.77-80. V.1. Vernadsky, 'Iz razmyshlenii po agrarnomu voprosu v Rossii,' Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. I, 1989, pp. 63-6. This publication consists of excerpts from Vernadsky's articles on agricultural policy written in the period between 1905 and 1917. Bailes, op. cit., p. 123. Ibid., p. 99. Quoted by G.P. Aksenov in Chelovek i priroda, no. 3, 1989, p. 8. Novyi mir, no. 12,1989, pp. 209, 213. Ibid., pp. 208-9. V. Vernadsky, 'Peresmotret' vse osnovy nashei zhizni,' Vek XX i mir, no. 6, 1989, p. 42. Aksenov, loc. cit.

216 16. 17.

Notes

Novyi mir, no. 12,1989, p. 207 Rodina, no. I, 1990, published Vernadsky's article of 1915, 'Ukrainsky vopros i russkoe obshchestvo'. 18. Vek XX i mir, no. 6, 1989, p. 43; K.K. 'Pyat' 'vol'nykh pisem V.1. Vernadskogo synu,' Minuvshee, no. 7,1989, p. 447. Aksenov,loc. cit. 19. Rodina, no. 1,1990, p. 1. 20. Aksenov, op. cit., p. 10. 21. Bailes, op. cit., p. 146. 22. Aksenov, loco cit. 23.. Bailes, op. cit., p. 143. 24. Vek XX i mir, no. 6, 1989, p. 41 25. Aksenov, op. cit., pp. 10-11. 26. In the summer of 1921, the Cheka arrested about 200 people, accusing them of being members of the Petrograd Fighting Organization, headed by Professor Vladimir Tagantsev. See V.1. Vernadsky, 'Iz dnevnikov 1921 g.', N.G. Okhotin and A.B. Roginsky (ed.), Zvenya. lstoricheskii al'manakh, vol. I. (Moscow: Progress, Feniks, Atheneum, 1991) pp. 475-87. 27. Ibid., pp. 475-6. 28. Ibid., p. 484. 29. Bailes, op. cit., p. 147-54. 30. Novyi mir, no. 12,1989, p. 217. 31. Ibid., p. 206. 32. Ibid., p. 218. 33. Ibid., pp. 205, 207. 34. Ibid., pp. 206-7. 35. Cited in Bailes, op. cit., p. 157. For the full text of the letter, see Novyi mir, no. 12, 1989, p. 205. In other letters to Petrunkevich, Vernadsky also spoke with optimism about the development of science in Bolshevik Russia. 36. Bailes, op. cit., p. 162. 37. Novyi mir, no. 12,1989, p. 206. 38. Bailes, op. cit., pp. 161,187-8. 39. Minuvshee, no. 7, 1989, p. 426. 40. Ibid., p. 437 41. Novyi mir, no. 12,1989, p. 219. 42. Aksenov, op. cit., p. 13. 43. Ibid., p. 17. 44. Minuvshee, no. 7, 1989, p. 435 45. Ibid., p. 427. 46. Ibid., p. 446 47. Ibid., pp. 444-5. 48. R.K. Balandin in Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 3, 1990, p. 87. 49. Ibid., p. 88. 50. Ibid. 51. Ibid., pp. 88-93. 52. Bailes, op. cit., p. 178. 53. Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 5, 1990, pp. 82,93, 99. 54. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 9 June 1992. 55. Ibid. 56. Bailes, op. cit., p. 166. See also Aksenov, op. cit., p. 19.

Notes 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.

217

Bailes, op. cit., p. 166-8. On Vavilov, see. for instance, a publication of his documents, N.J. Vavilov, Zhizn' korotka, nado speshit' (Moscow: 'Sovetskaya Rossiya' Publishing House, 1990). VestnikAkademii Nauk, no. 5,1990, p. 88. Bailes, op. cit., p. 170. Bailes, op. cit., p. 172. Vestnik Akademii Nauk, no. 5, 1990, pp. 95, 98; Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR,no. 12, 1990,pp. 127-8. Minuvshee, no. 7, 1989, p. 444.

Conclusion I.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

V.N. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1946) p. 260. Ipat'ev also convinced the State Chemical Committee, of which he was chairman, not to organize an anti-Bolshevik demonstration, p.259. N.G. Okhotin and A.B. Roginsky (ed.), Zvenya (Moscow: Progress, Feniks Atheneum, 1991) p. 163; and Belopolsky's personal fund in the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 706, op. 3. See the chapter on Pavlov. On Karpinsky, see the RAN Archives, fund 208, op.2,ed.khr.62,p.692. The SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 247, op. 2, ed. khr. 37, p. 227. N.A. Grigoryan, 'Obshchestvenno-politicheskie vzglyady I.P. Pavlova,' Vestnik Akademii Nauk SSSR, no. 10, 1991, p. 76. op. cit., p. 77. On BartoI'd, see Central Asian Review, vol. III, no. 2,1955, pp. 164-5; and B.S. Kaganovich, 'Nachalo tragedii,' Zvezda, no. 12, 1994, p. 134. Those speaking against the election of Communists, were V. BartoI'd, A. Belopol'sky, I. Borodin, V. Istrin, A. Karpinsky, E. Karsky, P. Kokovtsov, P. Lazarev, I. Pavlov, V. Peretz, A. Sobolevsky, and V. Vernadsky. Archi yes of the RAN, fund 208, ed. khr. 57, p. 110. On Nikol'sky, see the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 247, op. 2, ed. khr.15. On Kurnakov see Yu.I. Solovev and O.E. Zvyagintsev, Nikolai Semenovich Kurnakov (Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1960); and the chapter on Krulov. Ipatieff, The Life ofa Chemist, pp. 462-464. Ibid., p. 465. On I 7 January 1929, when the vote on re-election took place, there were 79 members of the academy, including 39 members elected on 12 January. So the critics of the re-election plan could not collect enough votes to defeat it. Biochemist S.P. Kostyshev became full member of the academy in 1923. Siavist P.A. Lavrov became full member of the academy in 1923. Archives of RAN (Moscow), fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 57, p. 54. Archives of RAN (Moscow), fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 62, p. 419 Richard Pipes, Struve. Liberal on the Right, 1905-1944 (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1980) pp. 298-9. Terence Emmons (ed.) Time of Troubles. The Diary of furii Vladimirovich Got'e (Princeton.: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 28 and 78.

218 21.

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

Notes

Platonov's work, Ocherki po istorii Russkoi smuty, was finished in 1899, but in 1923, the academician published a revised and abridged version of the book, which contained hints at the similarity between the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Time of Troubles of the seventeenth century. V.P. Leonov et al. (eds), Akademicheskoe delo, 1929-1931 gg, vol. I (St Petersburg: Biblioteka Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk, 1993) p. 33. See Chapter 8. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 256 and 251. For a criticism of the Provisional government, see also Steklov's diary in the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 183. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 247. Ipat'ev made this comment about the events of the February Revolution, which i1e saw as the beginning of troubles which were to be much more serious than the war. See also, Steklov's diary for 1917, the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 183. For Vernadsky's views on the revolution, see Novyi mir, no. 12, 1989, pp. 208-9. For Struve's views, see Pipes, Struve, pp. 307-20. Novyi mir, no. 12,1989, pp. 209 and 213. Pipes, Struve, p. 315. Novyi mir, no. 12,1989, p. 207. Pipes, Struve, p. 236. This interpretation of the goal was given by academician D.S. Likhachev in conversations with the author. Minuvshee, no. 7, 1989, pp. 444-5. For a positive evaluation of Lenin's role, see also Steklov's notes in his personal files in the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 162, op. 3, ed. khr. 184, p. 1. Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, p. 257. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 9 June 1992. By the Russian state, Vernadsky meant the entire multinational empire. Ibid., p. 261. B.V. Levshin et al. (eds), Dokumenty po istorii Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1917-1925 gg. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1986) p. 29. Sergei Isakov, 'Neizvestnye pis'ma M. Gor'kogo V. Leninu,' Raduga (Tallinn), no. 5, 1992, pp. 78-84. Ibid. Robert F. Byrnes, 'Creating the Soviet Historical Profession, 1917-1934,' Slavic Review, vol. 50, no. 2 (Summer 1991) p. 299. See, for instance, Ipatieff, The Life of a Chemist, pp. 464 and 468. Quoted in J. Azrael, The Managerial Power and Soviet Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966) p. 39. J. Azrael, The Managerial Power and Soviet Politics, pp. 38-40. Alex Inkeles and Raymond A. Bauer, The Soviet Citizens: Daily Life in a Totalitarian Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959), p.289-290. Traces of the identification with the Bolshevik regime's goals in industry could be seen in the behavior of the three technicians in the academy Ipat'ev, Kurnakov, and Krylov. A.N. Goryainov, 'Slavyanovedy - zhertvy repressii 1920-1940kh godov. Nekotorye neizvestnye stranitsy iz istorii sovetskoi nauki,' Sovetskoe

Notes

47. 48. 49. 50.

51. 52. 53. 54. 55.

219

slavyanovedenie, no. 2, 1990, 78. See also, the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 192, op. 3, ed. khr. 193 and 195 (material from Beneshevich's personal collection concerning his arrests). For the discussion of the abolition by members of the department, see N. Nikol'sky's personal files in the SPB branch of the RAN Archives, fund 247, op. 2, ed. khr. 35. F.F. Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na "velikom perelome",' in N.G. Okhotin and A.B. Roginsky (eds), Zvenya. lstorichesky al'manakh (Moscow: Progress, Feniks, Athenum, 1991) p. 186. Ibid., p. 163. On Peretz, see M.A. Robinson and L.P. Petrovsky, 'Durnovo i N.S. Trubetskoi; problemy evraziistva v kontekste dela slavistov,' in Slavyanovedenie, no. 4, 1992, pp. 68-82. On Llizarev, see Loren R. Graham, The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927-1932 (Princeton: Priceton University Press, 1967) p. 175, footenote 59. Perchenok, 'Akademiya Nauk na 'velikom perelome,' p. 235. The RAN Archives (Moscow), fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 62, pp. 401 and 402. These seven were Karpinsky, Kokovtsov, Lazarev, Ol'denburg, Pavlov, Vernadsky, and even Marr. See, Leonard A. Cole, Politics and the Restraint of Science (Ottowa, NJ: Rowman and Allanheld, 1983) pp. 45-7. This note by Karpinsky does not have a date, but it discusses the events of 1934; the SPB branch of the RAN archives, fund 265, op. I, ed. khr. 127.

Selected Bibliography PRIMARY SOURCES

Unpublished Documents Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St Petersburg branch) (in notes the SPB branch of the RAN Archives)

Personal Files of Academicians

Fund 68 - Bartol'd, V.V. Fund 706 - Belopol'sky, AA. Fund 125 - Borodin, I.P. * Fund 150 - Famintsyn, AS. Fund 332 - Istrin, V.M. Fund 265 - Karpinsky. AP. Fund 759 - Krylov, AN. * Fund 141 - Lyapunov, AM. Fund 800 - Marr, N. Ya. * Fund 84 - Nikitsky, AV. Fund 247 - Nikol'sky, N.K. * Fund 926 - Palladin, V.1. Fund 259 - Pavlov, I.P. * Fund 6 - Romanov, Grand Duke Konstantin Fund 174 - Sobolevsky, AI. Fund 162 - Steklov, V.A *

* (President of the Academy)

Archives of the Institute of Orietal Studies of RAN (St Petersburg branch) Fund 11 - Smirnov, Ya. I.

General Files

Fund 2, op. 1-1928 of the administration (kantselyariya) of the Academy of Sciences Archives of RAN (Moscow)

Personal Files of Academicians

Fund 208 - Oldenburg, S.F. * Fund 208, op. 2, ed. khr. 57 and 62 - a diary of Oldenburg, E.G. (the wife of Sergei Fedorovich) which is an invaluable source on the internal situation of the Academy of Sciences in the period between 1924 and 1934. Fund 518 - Vernadsky, V.I. * The sign • marks those personal archives of members of the Academy of Sciences which are particularly useful for the study of the history of the academy in general

220

Selected Bibliography

221

Publisbed Documents Bykhovsky, B.E. et al. (eds), Organizatsiya sovetkoi nauki v 1926-1932 gg: sbornik dokumentov (Leningrad: Nauka, 1974) Chernova, Z. (compI) 'Iz perepiski A.M. Gor'kogo,' lzvestiya TsK KPSS, no. 7, 1990. Mossman, Elliott (ed.), The Correspondence of Boris Pasternak and Olga Freidenberg, 1910-1954 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1982). Frenkel, V. Ya. (ed.), Fiziki 0 sebe (Leningrad: Nauka, 1990). K. K., 'Pyat' "vol'nykh" pisem akademika V.1. Vernadskogo synu,' Minuvshee. 1storicheskii al'manakh. no. 7 (Paris: Atheneum, 1989) Kapitsa, P.L., Pis'ma 0 nauke (Moscow: Moskovsky rabochii, 1989). Kreps, E.M. (ed.), Perepiska I.P. Pavlova (Leningrad: 1970) Levshin, B.V., (ed.), Dokumenty po istorii Akademii nauk SSSR. 1917-1925 gg. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1986). - - - Dokumenty po istorii Akademii nauk SSSR. 1926-1934 gg. (Leningrad: Nauka 1988) 'Nashe po\ozhenie khuzhe katorzhnogo,' 1stochnik, no. 3, 1996. Pospelov, P.N., (ed.), Lenin i Akademiya nauk. Sbornik dokumentov (Moscow: Nauka, 1969). Skryabin, G.K., (ed.), Ustavy Akademii nauk SSSR. 1724-1974 (Moscow: Nauka, 1975). Vernadsky, V.I., 'Pis'ma k synu i docheri,' Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 12, 1990. - - - , 'Iz pisem raznykh let', Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 5, 1990. - - - , 'Ya veryu v situ svobodnoi mysli ... Pisma V.1. Vernadskogo 1.1. Petrunkevichu', Novyi mir, no. 12, 1989. - - - , 'Pis'ma I.M. Grevsu,' Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 3, 1988.

Articles Abaev, V.I., 'N. Ya. Marr (1864-1934). K 25-letiyu so. Aksenov, G.P., 'V. Vernadsky: 'belye pyatna' biografii - 'belye pyatna' ucheniya', Chelovek i priroda, no. 3, 1989. Aksenova, E.P., 'Iz istorii sovetskoi slavistiki v 193O-e gody', Sovetskoe slavyanovedenie, no. 5, 1991. - - - , "Izgnannoe iz sten Akademii (N.S. Derzhavin i akademicheskoe slavyanovedenie v 30-e gody)', Sovetskoe slavyanovedenie, no. 5, 1990 Alekseev, V.M., 'Sergei Fedorovich Ol'denburg kak organizator i rukovoditel' nashikh orientalistov,' Zapiski 1nstituta Vostokovedeniya Akademii nauk SSSR, no. IV, 1935. Alpatov, V.M., 'Martirolog Vostokovednoi lingvistiki', Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR',no. 12, 1990. - - - , 'Novoe uchenie 0 yazyke' i vostokovednoe yazykoznanie', Narody Asii i Afriki, no. 6, 1988. Antsiferov, N.P., 'Tri glavy iz vospominanii', Pamyat'. 1storicheskii sbornik, vol. 4 (Paris: YMCA-Press, 1981).These memoirs were republished in Zvezda, no. 4,1989.

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Ashnin, F.D., and Alpatov, V.M., 'Rossiiskaya Natsional "naya Partiya" zloveshchaya vydumka sovetskikh chekistov', Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii Nauk,no. 10, 1994,pp.920-9. Avtokratov, V.N., 'Zhizn' i deyatel'nost' voennogo istorika i arkhivista G.S. Gabaeva (l877-1956), Sovetskie arkhivy, no. 2, 1990 Bakh, A.N., 'K voprosu 0 perevode Akademii nauk', Front nauki i tekhniki, no. 5-6, 1934. Balandin, R.K., 'Anatomiya odnoi diskussii', Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 3, 1990. ---'Nasledie i nasledniki Vernadskogo', Druzhba narodov, no. 12, 1988. Belomortsev, S., 'Bol'shevizatsiya akademii nauk', Posey, XLVI, November 18, 1951. Brachev, V.S., "'Delo" akademika S.F. Platonova', Voprosy istorii, no. 5, 1989. Bukharin, N.J., 'Osnovnye problemy sovremennoi kul'tury', Voprosy istorii estesvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 4,1988. Byrnes, Robert F., 'Creating the Soviet Historical Profession, 1917-1934', Slavic Review, vol. 50, no. 2, 1991. Chikobava, A.S., 'Kogda i kak eto bylo', Ezhegodnik iberiisko-kavkazskogo yazykoznaniya, vol. 12, Tbilisi, 1985. Filin, F.P., '0 dvukh napravleniyakh v yazykoznanii', lzvestiya AN SSSR. Otdelenie yazyka i literatury,' vol. 7, no. 6, 1948. Frenkel', V. Ya., 'Zhar pod peplom. Novye shtrikhi k portretu Ya. I. Frenkelya', Zvezda, nos 9-10,1991. - - - , 'Chitaya "pis'ma 0 nauke" P. L. Kapitsy' , Zvezda, no. 7, 1990. Gorbunov, N.P., 'Akademiya nauk na perelome', Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 6,1936. Goryainov, A.N. 'Slavyanovedy - zhertvy repressii 1920-1940kh godov. Nekotorye neizvestnye stranitsy iz istorii sovetskoi nauki,' Sovetkoe slavyanovedenie, no. 2, 1990 Grigoryan, N.A., 'Obshchestvenno-politicheskie vzglyady I.P. Pavlova', Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 10, 1991. - - - , 'Uchenyi i vlast'. Novye arkhivnye materialy ob akademike L.A. Orbeli', Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 4, 1991. Isakov, S., 'Neizvestnye pis'ma M. Gor'kogo V. Leninu', Raduga (Tallinn), no. 5, 1992. Josephson, Paul R., 'The Crisis in Russian Physics', American Scientist, vol. 81 (November-December 1993). Kaganovich, B.S., 'Nachal0 tragedii' (Akademiya nauk v 1920-e gody po materialam arkhiva S.G. Ol'denburg), Zvezda, no. 12,1994. Kitaev, LN., Kosheleva L.P., Lel'chuk, V.S., Khlevnyuk, O.V., 'Pis'ma Stalina Molotovu,' Kommunist, no. 11, 1990. Kolobkov, V.A. , 'Sergei Platonov: god nakanune aresta', Istochnikovedcheskoe izuchenie pamyatnikov pis'mennoi kul'tury v sobraniyakh i arkhivakh GPB (Leningrad: 1991). Kopanev, A.1. , 'Ob odnoi legende', Knigi v Rossii XVIII-serediny XIX v. Iz istorii Biblioteki Akademii nauk (Leningrad: 1989). Kozhevnikov, A.B., Petrosova, A.G., 'Nauchnaya periodika v SSSR (1917-1949): kolichestvennyi analis', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 4, 1991.

Selected Bibliography

223

Kumanev, V.A., 'Sud'by sovetskoi intelligentsii (30-e gody), Istoriya SSSR, no. I, 1990. Levin, Aleksey E., 'Anatomy of a Public Campaign: "Academician Luzin's Case" in Soviet Political History,' Slavic Review, vol. 49, no. 1, 1990. - - - , 'Expedient Catastrophe: A Reconsideration of the 1929 Crisis at the Soviet Academy of Sciences', Slavic Review, vol. 47, no. 2, 1988. Robert A. Lewis, 'Government and Technological Sciences in the Soviet Union', Minerva, vol. XV, no. 2, 1977 Luppol, I.K., 'Ob otnoshenii sovetskikh uchenykh i uchenym emigratsii', Nauchnyi rabotnik, no. 12, 1928. Marr, N. Ya. 'Gosudarstvennaya Akademiya Istorii Material'noi Kul'tury', Nauchnyi rabotnik, no. 2, 1917. Medvedev, I.P., 'V.N. Beneshevich: sudba uchenogo, sudba arkhiva', I.P. Medvedev (ed.), Arkhivy russkikh vizantinistov (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin Publishing House, 1995). Meshchaninov, 1.1. '0 polozhenii v lingvistike', lzvestiya AN SSSR. Otdelenie yazyka i literatury, vol. 7, no. 6, 1948. Molchanov, V.F., 'Neizvestnoe pis'mo A.M. Gor'kogo', Zapiski otdela rukopisei, Gosudarstvennaya Biblioteka SSSR imeni V.1. Lenina, vol. 48, (Moscow: 1990). Naumov, O.V., 'Massovye istochniki po istorii formirovaniya tekhnicheskoi intelligentsii v SSSR' ,Istoriya SSSR, no. 2, 1989. Obnorsky, S.P., 'Akademik A.A. Shakhmatov', Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 10-11,1945. Pavlova, S.V., 'Iz vospominanii', Novyi mir, no. 3,1946. Perchenok, F.F., 'Akademiya nauk na 'velikom perelome', Zven'ya. Istorichesky al"manakh, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress, Feniks, Atheneum, 1991). Pletnev, V., 'Nauka v sotsialisticheskoi Rossii', Orfei. Zhurnal iskustva i literatury, no. 1 Rostov, 1919. Pyenson, L., '''Who the guys were": Prosopography in the history of science', History o/Science, XV, 1977. Robinson, M.A., Petrovsky, L.P., 'N.N. Durnovo i N.S. Trubetskoi: problema evraziistva v kontekste 'dela slavistov', Slavyanovedenie, no. 4, 1992. Rostov, A. (S. V. Sigrist), 'Delo chetyrekh akademikov' , Pamyat, ' vol. 4, 1981. Samoilov, V. and Vinogradov, Yu., 'Ivan Pavlov i Nikolai Bukharin. Ot konflikta k druzhbe', Zvezda, no. 10, 1989 Shchapov, Ya. N., 'Iz istorii sovetskoi istoricheskoi nauki. (Prof. V.N. Beneshevich v repressivnoi sisteme konza 1920-1930-kh godov)' in Afanas'ev, Yu. N., Novosel'tsev, A.P. (ed.), Spornye voprosy otechestvennoi istorii XIXVIII vekov. Tezisy dokladov i soobshchenii pervykh chtenii, posvyashchennykh pamyati A.A. Zimina (Moscow: Institut istorii SSSR AN SSSR: 1990). Shcherbatskoi, F.I., 'S.F. Ol'denburg kak indianist', Zapiski Instituta Vostokovedeniya Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 4, 1935. Solomeko, N.S. 'Akademik Aleksei Nikolaevich Krylov - vydayushchiisya matermatik, mekhanik i korablestroitel', Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR, no. 12, 1988. Sorokina, M. Yu., 'Dal'nii put' k bol'shomu budushchemu', Priroda, no. 3, 1990. Stone, L., 'Prosopography', Daedalus, 1971.

224

Selected Bibliography

Tolz, Vera, 'How People Reacted to Stalin's Terror: The Notebooks of Lidia Ginzburg', Report on the USSR, vol. 2, no. 41, 1990. - - - , 'Letters of Academician Kapitsa in Defense of Repressed Scientists,' Radio Liberty Research Bulletin, no. 232, 1988. Tugarinov, LA., 'VARNITSO i Akademiya nauk', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 4,1989. Vasil'kov, Ya. V., Grishina, A.M., Perchenok, F.F. 'Repressirovannye vostokovedy', Narody Asii i Afriki, no. 4, 1990. Vernadsky, V.1. 'Ukrainsky vopros i russkoe obshchestvo', Rodina, no. I, 1990. - - - , 'Iz razmyshlenii po agrarnomu voprosu v Rossii', Voprosy istorii estestovznaniya i tekhniki, , no. 1, 1989. Volfson, S., 'Nauka i bor'ba klassov,' VARNITSO, no. 2, 1930. Volgin, V., 'Akademiya nauk k 15-oi godovshchine Oktyabrya', Front nauki i tekhniki, nos 11-2, 1932. Volobuev, P.V., 'Russkaya nauka nakanune Oktyabr'skoi revolutsii', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniya i tekhniki, no. 3, 1987. Voznesensky, I. (the pen-name of F.F. Perchenok), 'Imena i sud'by (nad yubileinym spiskom Akademii nauk) Pamyat' , vol. 1, 1979. Yurasov, D.G., 'Bibliografiya v moei zhizni. '0 nikh vspominayu vsegda i vezde', Sovetskaya bibliografiya, no. 5, 1988. Yur'eva, M. and Reizlin, D., 'M.N. Pokrovsky. 'K otchetu 0 deyatel'nosti Akademii nauk za 1926 g.' Zven 'ya. Istorichesky al'manakh, vol. 2 (Moscow-St Petersburg: Feniks, Atheneum, 1992).

Books Alekseeva, G.D. , Oktyabr'skaya revolyutsiya i istoricheskaya nauka, 1917-1923 gg. (Moscow: Nauka, 1968). Azrael, Jeremy, The Managerial Power and Soviet Politics (Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1966). Babkin, B.P., Pavlov, A Biography (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1951). Bailes, Kendall E., Science and Russian Culture in an Age of Revolutions. V.l. Vernadsky and His Scientific School, 1863-1945 (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1990). - - - Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin. Origins of the Soviet Technical 1ntelligentsia, 1917-1941 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1978) p. 126. Balzer, Harley, Soviet Science on the Edge of Reform (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1989). Balzer, Harley D. (ed.), Russia's Missing Middle Class (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996). Barber, John, Soviet Historians in Crisis, 1928-1932 (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1981). Bastrakova, M.S., Stanovlenie sovetkoi organizatsii nauki (1917-1922) (Moscow: Nauka, 1973). Ben-David, Joseph, The Scientist's Role in Society (Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971).

Selected Bibliography

225

Berry, Michael J. (ed.), Science and Technology in the USSR (London: Longman, 1988). David-Fox, Michael, Science, Orthodoxy and the Quest for Hegemony at the Socialist (Communist) Academy (manuscript). Cole, Leonard A., Politics and the Restraint of Science (Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman and Allanheld, 1983). Emmons, Terence, (trans. and ed.), The Diary of lurii Vladimirovich Gotie. The Time of Troubles (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). - - - The Formation of Political Parties and the First National Elections in Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983). Enteen, George M., The Soviet Scholar-Bureaucrat: M.N. Pokrovskii and the Society of Marxist Historians (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press: 1978). . Ershin, Aleksandr, Molodaya akademiya (Leningrad: Molodaya gvardiya, 1935). Esakov, V.D., Sovetskaya nauka v gody pervoi pyatiletki (Moscow: Nauka, 1971). Fitzpatrick, Sheila, et at. (eds), Russia in the Era of NEP (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991). Fitzpatrick, Sheila, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921-1934 (Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press, 1979). - - - Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931 (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press: 1978). - - - The Commissariat of Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970). Geyer, Dietrich (ed.), Die Umwertung der sowjietischen Geschichte (Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 1991). Gleason, Abbott et at. (eds), Bolshevik Culture: Experiment and Order in the Russian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985). Graham, Loren R., The Ghost of the Executed Engineer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993). Graham, Loren R., Science in Russia and the Soviet Union. A Short History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Graham Loren R. (ed.), Science and Soviet Social Order (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990). Graham, Loren R., The Soviet Academy of Sciences and the Communist Party, 1927-1932 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967). Gray, Jeffrey A., Pavlov (Glasgow: William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd, 1979). Hermitte, R.L., Marr, Marrisme, Marristes. Une page l' histoire de la linguistique sovietique (Paris: 1987). Ignatsius, Sh., Vladimir Andreevich Stelkov (Moscow: Nauka, 1967). loffe, A. F. et at. (ed.), Nauka i tekhnika v SSSR, 1917-1927 vols 1-3 (Moscow: Rabotnik Prosveshcheniya, 1928). Ipatieff, V.N., The Life of a Chemist (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1946. Joravsky, David, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, 1917-1932 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961). Josephson, Paul R., Physics and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Berkley, Los Angeles, Oxford: University of California Press, 1991). Kaganovich, G.S., Evgenii Viktorovich Tarle i peterburgstakaya shkola storii (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin Publishing House, 1995).

226

Selected Bibliography

Kassow, Samuel D., Students, Professors and the State in Tsarist Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). Knyazev, G.A., Kratkii ocherk istorii Akademii nauk SSSR (Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1945) Komkov, G.D., Levshin, B.V., Semenov, L.K., Akademiya nauk SSSR. 1917-1976, (Moscow: Nauka, 1977). Komkov, G.D., Karpenko, O.M., Levshin, B.V., Semenov, L.K., Akademiya nauk SSSR - shtab sovetskoi nauki (Moscow: Nauka, 1968). Koprzhiva-Lur'e, B. Ya., Istoriya odnoi zhizni (Paris: Atheneum, 1987). Krylov, A.N., Moi vospominaniya (Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1945). Kreps, E.M., 0 prozhitom i perezhitom (Moscow: Nauka, 1989). Lartsev, V.G., Evgenii Dmitrievich Polivanov. Stranitsy zhizni i deyatel'nosti (Moscow: Glavnaya redaktsiya vostochnoi literatury, 1988) Lipilin, Vladimir, Aleksei Nikolaevich Krylov (Moscow: Molodaya gvardiya, 1983). Long, T. Dixon, Wright Christopher (eds), Science Policies of Industrial Nations (New York, Washington, London: Praeger, 1975) Marr, N. Ya., Izbrannye raboty, vol. 1-6 (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo GAIMK: 1933-6) McGucken, William, Scientists, Society and State (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1984). Merton, Robert K. and Gaston, Jerry, (ed.), The Sociology of Science in Europe (London and Amsterdam: Southern Illinois University Press, 1977). Mikhankova, V. A, Nikolai Yakovlevich Marr. Ocherk ego zhizni i nauchnoi deyatel'nosti, 3rd edn. (Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk SSSR: 1949). MiIiband, S.D. , Bibliografichesky slovar' sovetskikh vostokovedov (Moscow: Nauka, 1975). Morrell, Jack, and Thackray, Arnold, Gentlemen of Science. Early Years of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981). Ol'denburg, S.F., Nauka v Rossii: spravochnyi ezhegodnik (Petrograd: Izdatel'stvo Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk, 1920). - - - , Akademiya nauk Soyuza Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik za dvesti let (Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1926). Parry, Albert, The Russian Scientist (New York: Macmillan Company, 1973). - - - , The New Class Divided: Science and Technology Versus Communism (New York: Macmillan Company, 1966) Pavlov, I.P., Dvadtsatiletnii opyt ob'ektivnogo izycheniya vysshei nervnoi deyatel'nosti (povedeniya) zhivotnykh (Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk SSSR: 1938). Pipes, Richard, Struve. Liberal on the Right, 1905-1944 (Cambridge, Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1980). Pipes, Richard (ed.), The Russian Intelligentsia (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961). Poppe, Nicholas, Reminiscences (Bellingham, Washington: Western Washington University, 1983)

Selected Bibliography

227

Raeff, Marc, Russia Abroad: A Cultural History of the Russian Emigration 1919-1939 (New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990). Sakharov, A.D., Memoirs (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990). Seminarii Russkoi Filologii Akademika V.N. Perettsa (Leningrad: Izdanie Seminariya Russkoi Filologii, 1929). Sharapov, Yu. P., Iz istorii ideologicheskoi bor'by pri perekhode k NEPU (Moscow: Nauka, 1990). Shatz, Marshall S. and Zimmerman, Judith E. (trans), Vekhi-Landmarks: a Collection about the Russian Intelligentsia (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994). Skryabin, G.K. (ed.), Sergei Fedorovich Ol'denburg (Moscow: Nauka, 1986). - - - , Akademiya nauk SSSR. Personal'nyi sostav, vols. 1-2 (Moscow: Nauka, 1974). Sokolovskaya, Z.K., 300 biografii uchenykh (Moscow: Nauka, 1982). Solov'ev, Yu. I., Zvyagintsev, O.E., Nikolai Semenovich Kurnakov (Moscow: Nauka, 1960). Thomas, L.L., The Linguistic Theories of N. Ya. Marr (Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1957). Tucker, Robert C., The Soviet Political Mind. Studies in Stalinism and Post-Stalin Change (New York, London: Praeger, 1963). Vavilov, S.1. (ed.), Lyudi Russkoi nauki, vols 1 and 2 (Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk SSSR, 1948). - - - , Materialy k istorii Akademii nauk SSSR (Moscow-Leningrad: Izdatel'stvo Akademii nauk SSSR: 1950). Vinogradoff, P. The Collected Papers, vol. 1 and 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928). Vucinich, Alexander, Empire of Knowledge. The Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1917-1970) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984). - - - , Science in Russian Culture, 1861-1917 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970) Weiner, Douglas R., Models of Nature. Ecology, Conservation, and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988). Wetter, Gustav A., Dialectical Materialism. A Historical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the Soviet Union (New York: Praeger, 1958). Wes, Martius A., Michael Rostovtzeff, Historian in Exile (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1990). Zaidel', G., Tsvibak, M., Klassovyi vrag na istoricheskom fronte (MoscowLeningrad: 1931). Zal'tsberg, Mark, 'Tri zhizni akademika Ipat'eva' (unpublished manuscript).

Index Abaev, Vasilii 91,92,93 academic freedom 60-2 academicians attitudes to Soviet regime 36-9 backgrounds 5-12 characteristics x-xi, 169 cooperation with government 177-82 Memorandum of 342 Scholars 22, 110-11 piecemeal reforms 23-4 protests 19 purges 49,54-62,82-5,118,147, 151-2, 166-7, 173-4 self-interest 180 social and political activities 16-25 tsarist government 14-16, 169 views on October Revolution 174-7 acquired chracteristics, inheritance 107 Adams, Mark B. 62 Agranov, Ya.S. 51 Akhmatova, Anna 136 Alekseev, Vasilii 104,121, 122 All-National Council 55,56,57,58, 59 Alma-Ata 58 Alpatov, V. 101 alphabets, minority languages 100-1 Andreevsky,I.M. 58 Andrusov, N.1. 30 Ani 90 Anichkov, I. 91-2 Anokhin, P.K. 139 anti-Semitism 21 Antsiferov, N.M. 60,97 Anuchin, D.D. 5, 22 Aptekar', V. 103, 105 Archeological Institute 94-5 archeology 90 arrests

academicians 54-5,97, 166-7, 185-6 Marr's oponents 105 Astrakhan 58 atomic energy 168 Azadovsky, Mark 109 Babkin, Boris 135-6 Baevsky, D.A. 85 Bailes, Kendall 84, 153, 163, 167 Bakh, A.N. 40,43 Bakhrushin, S.V. 62,63,85 BartoI'd, V.V. 20,60,171 Bashindzhagyan, L. 101, 103 Bauer, R.A. 183 Beilis, Mendel 21 Beilstein, Friedrich 22 Beketov, Nikolai 22 Belomortsev, Sergei 112 Belopol'sky, A.A. 60, 170, 185 Belorussian Academy of Sciences 95 Beneshevich, B.N. 47,57,62, 184 Benfey, Theodor 109 Beritashvili, I.S. 139 Bernal, J.D. 73 biochemistry 157, 165-6 biosphere 157, 163 Black Hundreds 13 Bogoslovsky, M.M. 55,63 Bolsheviks 50, 80 Academy co-operation with xiii, 29-30,177-82 attitudes to intelligentsia 25 reaction to 28 resistance to x Vernadsky's views 158-9, 160-1 Bonch-Bruevich, Vladimir 50, 112 Borisyak, Aleksei 151 Borodin,I.P. 5,20,22,29,45, 171 anti-Bolshevik views 36,60, 112, 170,173,177,182 Botkin, S.P. 125 Brachev, V. 53,54,57

228

Index Britain, scientific planning 72-3 Brotherhood of Serfim Sakovsky 58 Buddhism 109 Bugaev, I. 165 Bukharin, Nikolai 32,33,43,48,61, 116, 132-4, 135, 146, 164 Bunakov, Yu. 72 cadres, new, Academy 68-72 Caucasian languages 89-92 Central Archives 55, 56 Cheka 113,161 Cherepnin, L.B. 62 Chernyshev, N. 6 Chernyshevsky, N.G. 6 Chikobava, Arnol'd 106, 107 Chkhaidze, Mikhail 72 civil society, Russia 21 Civil War x,30,31, 113, 128, 159, 160-1, 180 collectivization 97 Commissariat of Enlightenment 29, 30,33-4,180,181 Commission for the Study of Productive Forces 15 Communist Academy 33,35,61,63, 85,95,99,146 Communist Party Academy 36-7, 60-1 aspirants 70-2 Communists, election to Academy xi, 36,44,60,65,96, 118, 129, 164, 171-3 conditioned reflexes 78, 107, 126, 128 conservatives 11-12, 169, 174-5 Constituent Assembly III Constitutional Democratic Party see Kadet party constitutional monarchy 12, III Council of People's Commissars 33, 34,35,40,44,54,76,81,94,96 Crimea 30, 80, 160 crystallography 155 Curie, Marie 162 cyclotrons 167 Deborin, A.M. 40,44,45,70, 78, 148, 164, 165-6

229

Delyanov 154 democracy 175 representative 156 Denikin, General A.I. 80, 1601 dialectical materialism 37,77, 166 Dobrolyulov, N.A. 6 Dokuchaev, V.V. 155 Doyarenko, A.G. 43 Duma 12,13 D'yakonov, M.A. 32 economics 146 education, academicians 9-11 Egorov, Dmitrii 148 Egypt, ancient 79 emigration, academicians x Engels, Friedrich 103 England 14, 15 Enteen, George 81 Enukidze, Avel' 54 exile, internal 58, 82 Ezhov, Nikolai 139 Faction of Peaceful Renewal 13 family background, academicians 8-9 Famintsyn, A.S. 5, 17, 20, 22, 31 February Revolution 13, 127, 169 academicians reaction 27 Fersman, A.E. 49,70, 118, 150 feudalism 80 Figatner, Yu. 48-9,51,118,119,120 Figner, Vera 143 Filin, Fedor 71, 72, 105, 106 Fisher, H.A.L. 9 five year plan, first 73,74-5 Fok, V.A. 83 folklore 109 France 14, 144 Frank, S.L. 24 French Revolution 174 Frenkel, Ya.I. 78, 83 Friche, V.M. 43,44,45 Gauss, C.F. 151 genetics 39,75-6, 105, 136, 138, 167 Georgian language, relationship with Semitic 90 Germans, Soviet 56

230

Index

Germany 14,30,55, 144 Gorbachev, Mikhail xiii, 22, 86, 168 Gorbunov, N. 35 Gorky, Maxim 20,31, 113, 134, 180 Gosplan 45, 76 Got'e, Yu.V. 27,32,55,57,62,63, 175 Graham, Loren 3-4,75,77-8 Greece, ancient 79, 80 Grekov, B.D. 85 Grevs,I.M. 85 Groth, Paul 155 Grum-Grzhimailo, V.E. 29,37,55, 59, 182 Gubkin, Ivan 164,172 Guchkov, A. 13 Hermitage, sale of pictures 119 Hermitte, R.L. 103 historians 84-5 history, Marxism and 79-81 Huebschmann 90 humanities ideological pressures 79-81 in Academy 35-6,42,85,184-5 Marrist influence 104-6 Ikonnikov, V.S. 5,7 illi teracy 96 Imperial Manifesto, 1905 12 Indo-European linguistics see under linguistics Industrial Party 31,55,59,60,61,82 Inkeles, Alex 183 Institute of Language and Thought 95 Institute of Marx and Engels 33 Institute of Oriental Studies 120 intelligentsia 66 academicians 8 anti-Bolshevik 33 character of 24-5 social concerns 22-3 Ioffe, A.F. 38,47,70,76,78,144,185 Ipat'ev, V.N. xiii, 10, ll' 16--17,20, 22,25,27,28,31,38,44,59,73, 75,152,170,172-3,175-6,180, 182 Ippolitus 90 Istrin, V.M. 27,45,60,170

Izmailov, N.V. 57,62 Izvestia 42, 45, 102 Jagic, V. 7 Japan defeat by 14,158,171 war with 143 Japhetic Institute 95 Jews, discrimination 21 Joravsky, David 132,134 Josephson, Paul R. 74 Kadet Party 12-13,18-19,27,50, II I, 112, 113, 119, 155, 156, 158, 161,162 Kaganovich, B.S. 121 Kaganovich, L.M. 5 I Kalinin, M.1. 64 Kamenev, L.B. 34 Kaminsky, Grigorii 134 Kapitsa, Petr 83, 135, 152 Karpinsky, A.P. 5,11,22,24,170 president of the Academy xi, 27, 43,45,48,49,54,61,64-5,70, 83, II~ 114, 119, 147, 173 Karsky, E.F. 11,60 Kasso, L.A. 19,69 Kassow, Samuel 17-18 Kasterin, N.P. 78 Kazanovich II 3 KEPS 15, 74, 146, 157-8 KGB 41,53,60 Khalturin,D.N. 49 Khlopin, Vitalii 167 Krushchev, Nikita 168 Khvol'son, 0.0. 83 Kiev 21, 159-60 University 27 Kirov, S.M. 129 Kokovtsov, P.K. 21,60,83,91 Kolchak, A.V. 180 Kolmogorov, A.N. 77 Kol'tson 139 Kol'tsov, N.K. 68 Komarov, V.L. 49,50,65,70, 118, 119, 120 Komarovich, Vasilii 96 Komsomol 37,70,71,149 Kondakov, N.P. 30

Index Konstantin Romanov, Grand Duke 22, 110-11, 171 Kornilov, Aleksandr 155 Kostychev, S.P. 173 Kotlyarevsky, N.A. 6, 176 Kovalev, S.1. 41, 80 Kovda, V.A. 71 Krachkovsky,Ignatii 104 Krasin, Leonid 115 Krasnaya gazeta 64 Krylenko, N.V. 51,52 Krylov, A.N. xii, xiii, 8, 10, 11, 16, 73,75,76, 141-2, 172, 181 Academyand 145-51 early years 142-3 persecuted scientists 151-2 planning 151 post October Revolution 143-5, 170 Kryzhanovsky, Sergei 155 Krzhizhanovsky, G.M. 51,65 Kuibyshev, V.1. 32,33, 133 Kulaev, B.S. 139, 140 Kurchatoy, Igor' 167 Kurnakov, N.S. 11,29,75,82,152, 170,172 Landau, L.D. 76, 82 languages, Marr's theory of development 93 Lapicque, Louis 135 Lapp(}-Danilevsky, A.S. 12, 22, 31 Larin, Yu. 455-6 Lassalle, Ferdinand 121 Latvia 30 Latyshev, V.V. 11,20 Lavrov 173 Lazarev, P.P. 19,76,82,83, 114-15, 146 anti-Bolshevik views 36 League of Russian Culture 176 Lenin, V.1. x, 30, 34,50, 112, 113-14,115,128,143,144,161, 164-5,166,176,177,180-1 Leningrad 40,52,55,62,76,77, 136 University 48,56 Leningradskaya pravda 10, 36-7, 42-3,45,47,52-3,64,96,97,98, 118, 130-1 Levin, Aleksei 51-2

231

Levy-Bruhl, Lucien 103,106 liberals 11-12, 13, 169 library, Academy 49 Likhachev, N.P. 36,47,55,58,59,64 Linguistic Front 99 linguistics 167 Indo-European 72, 100, 105, 106, 179 Manist 39,72,92-3,134,137, 138,179 Marxist 99 New Theory of Language 92-3, 98-104,105,179 Lukin, N.M. 44,45 Lukirsky, P.1. 82 Lunacharsky, Anatoli 102,120-1,161 Luppol, I.K. 43 Luzin, N.N. 83, 135, 148 Lyapunov, A.M. 22,32 Lysenko,T.D. 39,75-6,104,105,138 Lyubavsky,M.K. 43,44,55,58,59, 63,64 Maitland, F.W. 13 Mandel'shtam, Nadezhda 139 Mandel'shtam, Osip 139 Markov, A.A. 20-1,22,23 Marr, N. Ya. xii, 28, 31,45,70, 79, 82 administrative and public activities 94-6 Caucasian languages 89-92 Communist Party member 97-8, 178-9 critics 98-9 early years 8, 89-92 influence on Soviet humanities 104-6 Japhetic linguistics 92, 100, 104 linguistics 72,92-3, 134, 137, 138,179 New Theory of Language 92-3, 98-104,105,179 October Revolution and 93-4 politics and propaganda 96-8 pro-Bolshevik views 38, 65, 100-1,109,118,178-9 summary of views 106-7 Marx, Karl 37,79,103

232

Index

Marxism 166 Marr 102-3 philosophy 37-8, 77-9 Marxist linguistics 99 materialism 107, 126, 132 mechanism 131 Mechnikov, 1.1. 45 medicine, Nobel Prize, Pavlov 125 Meier, A.A. 58 membership, Academy, categories 4-5 Memorandum of 342 Scholars 22, 110-11,171 Mendeleev, D.1. 19,45,46,155 Mensheviks 25, 48, 50 Union Buro 41,59,60,61 Mergul, Georgii 90 Meshchaninov, Ivan 105 Mikhail, Grand Duke 50 military academies 10-11,16-17, 152, 170 Milyukov, Pavel 162 Milyutin, V.P. 35,42 mineralogy 155, 156, 157 Minsk 21 Mishulin, A.V. 80 Mitkevich, V.F. 78 Molodaya akademiya 70-2 Molotov, V.M. 47, 124, 130, 134 monarchism 112 monarchists, in Academy 36, 169 monarchy, policies xii-xii Moscow 15,40,55,62,76-7, 115 University 9, 10, 19,27, 143, 156 Nasonov, N.V. 171,172 National Center 113 nationalism, Russian 81,83, 169 navy, Russian 143 Nekrasov, A.1. 82 New Economic Planning 32, 182 nihilists 10 Nikhan'kova, V.A. 93-4 Nikiforov, P.M. 49 Nikitin, N.N. 131 Nikitsky, A.V. 11 Nikolai II, tsar 20, 50 Nikol'sky, N.K. 6,7, 11-12, 17,36, 71,172 Nizhnii Novgorod 11

NKVD 166 Nobel Prize, Pavlov 125 nobility, academicians 8 Noeldecke 90 Noire, Ludwig 103 noosphere 163 Novogrudsky, D. 165 numerus clausus 21 Obreimov,I.V. 82 October Revolution ix, x, xiv, 13, 17, 21,31,93-4,98,112,169 academicians' reactions 170-4 interpretations 174-7 Pavlov's reaction 127-30 reactions to 27-8 Octobrists 13, 127 OGPU 41,51,52,53,54,55,57,60, 65,66,82,119,147,150,166 Ol'denburg, Elena Grigor'evna 49, 54,64,173 Ol'denburg, Fedor 154-5 Ol'denburg, S.F. xii, 12, 15,22-3, 28,30,34,38,47,54,74,91,146, 148,149,150,158,161,165,171, 173,176,181 cooperation with Bolsheviks 35, 44,45,49,110-15,144,177, 178,179,180 death 121 dismissal 51, 119-20 independence of science 115-16 planning 116-17 politics Ill, 154-5, 185 pre-Revolutionary career 108-11 role in Academy 110-11 Sovietization of Academy 117-20 Ol'denburg, S.S. 112 Oparin, A.1. 40 Orbeli, I. 106 Orbeli, L.A. 138, 139, 140 Ordzhonikidze, G.K. 51 Orlov, Yurii 41 Ovysyannikov, F. 22 Pa1chinsky, Petr 55, 182 Pal'mov,I.S. 11-12,17 Pankratova, A.M. 85 Parin, V.V. 123

Index Paris 162 patriotism, Russian 24, 136, 141, 169, 180 Pavlov, A.P. 171,172 Pavlov, l.P. xii, 5, 6, 7,15,22,29, 83,112,152 anti-Bolshevik views 36,37,38, 39,128-30,170,177,182 anti-Marxist views 78 Bolshevik support 31, 123, 128, 132-4,135,184 clergy background 123-4 conditioned reflexes 107 criticism 130-2 elections to Academy 44-5, 60, 70, 173 October Revolution 127-30 planning 74, 116 political views x, 23,127,171 prerevolutionary period 123-5 scientific achievements 125-6 scientific outlook 126-7 second signal system 138-9 Stalin's views 136-40 support for regime 134--6 peasants 176 land reforms 156 Perchenok, Feliks 55,62, 185-6 Peretz, V.N. 7,20,82,170,173 Permanent Historical-Archeographical Commission 49,51 Peter I, the Great, Tsar 3 Peters, Ya. Kh. 51, 52 Petrograd 53, 113 Petrov, V. 52 Petrunkevich, Ivan 158, 159, 162 Petrushevsky, D.M. 44, 148 philosophy Marxist 37-8,77-9, 166 Vernadsky I 65-6 physics 74, 76, 78 physiology 137-8 Picheta, V.I. 62 Pipes, Richard 169,174 Pisarev, D.I. 6, 10 planning, science 72-7, 116-17, 151 Platonov, S.F. 37,38,44,49,50, 53-4,55,56,57-8,59,60,63,64, 112,120,147,150,175,176

233

Pokrovsky, F. 56 Pokrovsky, Mikhail 34,36,45,47, 51,53-4,63,66,69,73,79,81, 84-5, 132, 150 police brutality 19, 22 Politburo 48, 51, 55, 64, 65 political views, academicians 12-14 Polivanov, E.D. 98-9,104, 105 Poppe, Nikolai I 18 postgraduate students, academy 69-72 press campaigns, against scholars 83 priests, persecution 124 Priselkov, M.D. 56, 85 probability theory 77 professors political attitudes 17-18 purges 96-7 tsarist regime 68-9 propaganda 97 Provisional Government 27,53, Ill, 112, 158, 159, 175-6 psychology 139 Marxist 131-2 psychoses 126 public opinion, international 60-1 purges 49,54-62,82-5,96-7,118, 134,166-7,173-4 Pushkin House 49,51,62 Pyatakov, Georgii 32,34 quantum physics

78

radioactivity 167-8 Radloff, F.W. 7,22 Radlov, E. 43 Radlov, V.V. 17,31,91 reforms, 1860s xi, 5-6, 10,21 religion, study 120 religious freedom 97 representati ve democracy 156 research, applied 75-6 revolitionary oproletariat 13 Riga 30 ritual murder 21 Romanov family 53 Rosen, Viktor 89, 90 Rostovstsev, M.1. 30,31 Royal Society, British 15

234

Index

Rozhdestvensky, S.V. 55,57 Russia, end of Empire 38-9 Russian Academy of Sciences viii-ix, 157 conservatism 17-20 full members 5-12 reaction to February and October Revolutions 27-32, 112, 169 status 3-5 Russian Geographical Society 109, 110 Russian Museum 55, 56 Russian National Party 82 Russian Orthodox Church 7 Russian Revolution xii-xii, 129 Russo-Japanese War 24 Ryazanov, David 33,48,53 Rybin, Z.M. 131 Rykachev, M.A. 5,10, 11,31 Rykov, Aleksei 32,51, 119 St Petersburg 3, 15, 157 Artillery Academy 11 University 9, 10, 17, 19, 22, 89, 91,108,143,153,155 Sakharov, Andrei xiii, 41, 61 Sakulin, P.N. 44, 171 Saltykov-Shchedrin Public Library 95,96 Samara 58 Saratov 82 Savich 124Tsyon,ll'ya 124 science Bolshevik attitude towards 39-40 in Adademy 35-6 Marxism and 78 planning 72-7 popularity 10 Russia 4,28-9, 114, 156,162 social responsibility 16-17 socialist 39-40 tsarist government support 14-16 Sechenov 45 Section of Scientific Workers 95,96, 97 secularism, academicians 7 Seebohm, Frederic 23 serfs, emancipation 176 Shakhmatov, A.A. 22,31,32,109

Shakhovskoi, Prince Dmitrii 155 Shakhty trial 41,43,59,61 Shauro, V.1. 49 Shcherbatskoi, Fedor 121 Shelgunov, N.V. 6 Shostakovich, Dmitri 136 Sidorov, A.L. 85 Sigrist, S.V. 62-3 slave labor 130 slaves, uprising 80-1 Smirnov, Ya.I. 31 Sobolevsky, A.I. 17,36,47,60,170, 185 Social Democrats 14 social responsibility, science 16-17 social sciences 79 socialism 158 Socialist Revolutionaries 14,25,50, 156 socioeconomic formations, five 79-81 sociology 146 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr 181 Soviet Union see Russia; Russian ... ; USSR Sovietization, Academy ix, xi, 42-9, 117-20 Sovnarkom 31,32,34,42,50,61, 124, 128, 130, 140, 147, 149 Spartacus 80 Stalin, lV. 48,65,70-1,79,80,103, 119,123,134, 135, 164, 181 attack on Marr 106, 107 support for Pavlov 136-40 terror ix, 82-5,139,166-7 State Academy of Material Culture 79,95,102 Stavsky, Vasilii 139 Steklov, V.A. xiv, 6, 8, 25, 27, 28, 32,34,35,61,144 Stolypin, P. 13 Stromin, A.R. 62 Struve, P.B. 12,13-14,24,31,45, 169,176 Struve, V.V. 79 Studentsov, P.S. 138 Suess, Eduard 157 Sverdlov, V.M. 4,38,40,41,59,185 Sverdlovsk 82

Index Tambov 156 Tamm, I.E. 76, 78, 83 Tarkhanov, Ivan 124 Tarle, E.V. 55,57,58,62,63,64,85, 150 Thomas, L.L. 103 Time of Troubles 175 Timiryazev, A.K. 45,78 To1stoi, Lev 20 Trotsky, Leon 34 Tsagareli 90 tsarist government 53, 141, 142 academicians and 14-16,151 critics 12,22, 158, 181-2 Tucker, Robert 137 Tupo1ev, A.P. 82 Turkey 96 Tyumenev, A.1. 79 Ufa 58 Ukraine 10, 159-60 Ukrainian Academy of Sciences 159-60 Ul'yanov, A.1. 112 Union Buro 41,59,60,61 Union of Liberation 156 United States 16,37 universities autonomy 20 restrictions of Jewish admissions 21 Russia 3-4 Uspensky, F.1. 5 USSR Academy of Sciences 95 archival affair 50-4, 150-1 attitudes to Soviet regime 36-9, 161-2 cooperation with government 177-82 elections 42-7,96,147,148-9, 171-3 government commission 48-9 ideological pressures 77-81 Kry10v role 145-51 Marxist scholarly institutions 32-6 new cadres 68-72 new rules 34-5,40, 146-7 preservation 179

235

purges 49,54-62,82-5,149-51, 173-4 restructuring 149-51, 163-4 Sovietization ix, xi, 42-9, 117-20 Ustryalov, Nikolai 182-3 VARNITSO 40-1, 46, 49 Vatican 55,56,57,58 Vavilov, N.1. 78,82, 167 Vernadsky, Ivan 153 Vernadsky, V.1. xii, 4,8,9, 10, 15, 16,20,25,31,38-9,75,76,112, 119,152,175,181,184 anti-Bolshevik views 36, 37-8, 39, 158-9,160-1,170,182 arrest 161, 185 criticisms of 165-6 emigration 31, 162-3 on Academy 47-8,60, 163-4, 173, 180 on purges 166-7 planning 74, 77 political activity x, 12, 14, 19, 154-8 prerevolutionary period 153-8 radioactivity research 167-8 reactions to October revolution 28-9, 158-9, 176, 177 scientific achievements 157-8 views of Marxism 78 Veselovsky, Alexandr 22, 103 Vienna 30 Vinogradoff, Paull, 5-6, 8, 13, 19, 20,23,24-5,30 Vladimirtsev, B.A. 44,47 Volgin, V.P. 41,63,64,65,120 Voroshilov, K.E. 134 Voskresenie 58 Vucinich, Alexander 7-8 Vul', B.M. 71 Vushinsky, A.1. 40 Walden, Paul 11, 30 War Communism 30 Western Europe 16 Westernisers, academicians 12 Whites 31,180 Working Peasants' Party 41,43,59

Index

236 world revolution 126, 129 World War I 14, 15, 16,24,32,75, 141 World War II 137,141,167,168 Yagich, I. 7,30 Yaroshevsky, M.

137

Zabolotnyi, Daniil 172 Za1eman, K. 22, 91 Za1ensky, V.V. 17,31 zemstvo 156 Zhebelev, S.A. 80-1,104 Zinov'ev, Grigorii 128, 130 Zoshchenko, Mikhail 136