AP Psychology Exam Review Study online at quizlet.com/_hf4p 1.

(cerebral) cortex

wrinkled outer portion of brain; center for higher order brain functions such as thinking, planning, judgment; processes sensory information and directs movement

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Aaron Beck

pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression.

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Abnormal Behavior

Behavior characterized as atypical, socially unacceptable, distressing to the individual or others, maladaptive, and/or the result of distorted cognitions

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Abnormal psychology Abraham Maslow

The field of psychology concerned with the assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior. humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; selfactualization, transcendence

Adolescence

The period of extending from the onset of puberty to early adulthood

adrenal glands

endocrine glands located above the kidney and secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which prepare the body for "fight or flight"

afferent neuron

nerve cell that sends messages to brain or spinal cord from other parts of the body; also called sensory neurons

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Ageism

Prejudice against the elderly and the resulting discrimination against them

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Aggression

Any behavior intended to harm another person or thing.

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agonist

chemical that mimics or facilitates the actions of a neurotransmitter

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Agoraphobia

anxiety disorder characterized by marked fear and avoidance of being alone in a place from which escape might be difficult or embarrassing

Albert Bandura

pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play

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Absolute threshold

The statistically determined minimum level of stimulation necessary to excite a perceptual system.

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Accommodation

According to Piaget, the process by which existing mental structures and behaviors are modified to adapt to new experiences

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Albert Ellis

pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions

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acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter that causes contraction of skeletal muscles; lack of Ach linked with Alzheimer's disease;

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Alfred Adler

neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: inferiority complex, organ inferiority; Studies: birth order influences personality

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Alfred Binet

pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of helpnot applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)

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Algorithm

Procedure for solving a problem by implementing a set of rules over and over again until the solution is found.

all-or-none principle

the law that the neuron either fires at 100% or not at all

Altruism

Behaviors that benefit other people and for which there is no discernable extrinsic reward, recognition, or appreciation.

Alzheimer's Disease

A chronic and progressive disorder of the brain that is the most common cause of degeneration dementia

amnesia

inability to remember information (typically, all events within a specific period), usually due to physiological trauma

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achievement test

test designed to determine a person's level of knowledge in a given subject area

ACTH (arenocorticotropic hormone)

released by adrenal glands; triggered by norepinephrine to prolong the response to stress (used in the sympathetic nervous system)

action potential

an electrical current sent down the axon of a neuron and is initiated by the rapid reversal of the polarization of the cell membrane

Actor-observer Effect

The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional causes but to attribute one's own behavior to situational causes.

adaptation

a trait or inherited characteristic that has increased in a population because it solved a problem of survival or reproduction

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amygdala

part of the limbic system; influences emotions such as aggression, fear, and self-protective behaviors

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Anal Stage

Freud's second stage of personality development, from about age 2 to about age 3, during which children learn to control the immediate gratification they obtain through defecation and to become responsive to the demands of society.

Approachavoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose an alternative that has both attractive and unappealing aspects

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aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance

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Archetypes

In Jung's theory, the emotionally charged ideas and images that are rich in meaning and symbolism and exist within the collective unconscious.

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Androgynous

Having both stereotypically male and stereotypically female characteristics

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Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher. Wrote "Peri Psyches" ("About the Mind").

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Anna Freud

child psychoanalysis; emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle

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Arousal

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Anna O.

Austrian-Jewish woman (real name: Bertha Pappenheim) diagnosed with hysteria, treated by Josef Breuer for severe cough, paralysis of the extremities on the right side of her body, and disturbances of vision, hearing, and speech, as well as hallucinations and loss of consciousness. Her treatment is regarded as marking the beginning of psychoanalysis.

Activation of the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the muscles and glands

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Assessment

Process of evaluating individual differences among human beings by means of tests interviews, observations, and recordings of physiological.

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Assimilation

According to Piaget, the process by which new ideas and experiences are absorbed and incorporated into existing mental structures and behaviors

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are involved in higher mental processes such as thinking, planning, and communicating

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Attachment

The strong emotional tie that a person feels toward special other persons in his or her life

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Attitudes

Patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas, or objects that are based on a person's past experiences, shape his or her future behavior, and are evaluative in nature.

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Attributions

The process by which a person infers other people's motives or intensions by observing their behavior.

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audition

the sense of hearing

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting marked by emotional coldness, imposing rules and expecting obedience

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making

autonomic nervous system

a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions; made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

aversive conditioning

learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcer

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Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by an obstinate and willful refusal to eat, a distorted body image, and an intense fear of being fat

anorexia nervosa

eating disorder most common in adolescent females characterized by weight less than 85% of normal, restricted eating, and unrealistic body image

antagonist

chemical that opposes the actions of a neurotransmitter

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events and experiences occurring from the time of an amnesiacausing event forward

Antisocial personality disorder

Personality disorder characterized by egocentricity, and behavior that is irresponsible and that violates the rights of other people, a lack of guilt feelings, an inability to understand other people and a lack of fear of punishment.

Anxiety

a generalized feeling of fear and apprehension that may be related to a particular situation or object and is often accompanied by increased physiological arousal.

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aphasia

inability to understand or use language

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Appraisal

the evaluation of the significance of a situation or event as it relates to a person's well-being

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Approachapproach conflict

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Aversive counterconditioning

A counterconditioning technique in which an aversive or noxious stimulus is paired with a stimulus with the undesirable behavior.

Avoidanceavoidance conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two distasteful alternatives

axon

a single long, fiber that carries outgoing messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands

axon terminal

B.F. Skinner

terminal button, synaptic knob; the structure at the end of an excellent terminal branch; houses the synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitters behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons

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Babinski reflex

Reflex in which a newborn fans out the toes when the sole of the foot is touched

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Backward search

Heuristic procedure in which a problem solver works backward from the goal or end of a problem to the current position, in order to analyze the problem and reduce the steps needed to get from the current position to the goal.

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behavior

an observable action

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Behavior therapy

A therapy that is based on the application of learning principles to human behavior and that focuses on changing overt behaviors rather than on understanding subjective feelings, unconscious processes, or motivations; also known as behavior modification.

Biofeedback

A process through which people receive information about the status of a physical system and use this feedback information to learn to control the activity of that system

Bipolar disorder

mood disorder originally know as manicdepressive disorder because it is characterized by behavior that vacillates between two extremes; mania and depression.

blind spot

area on retina with no receptor cells (where optic nerve leaves the eye)

Blood-Brain Barrier

A mechanism that prevents certain molecule from entering the brain but allows others to cross

Body Language

Communication of information through body positions and gestures.

Bonding

Special process of emotional attachment that may occur between parents and babies in the minutes and hours immediately after birth

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins at the sensory receptors and works up to perception

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brain

portion of the CNS above the spinal cord; consists of hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

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brainstem

top of the spinal column

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Brainstorming

Problem-solving technique that involves considering all possible solutions without making prior evaluative judgments.

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Brightness

The lightness or darkness of reflected light, determined in large part by the light's intensity.

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Broca's area

located in left frontal lobe; controls production of speech

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by repeated episodes of binge eating (and a fear of not being able to stop eating) followed by purging

bulimia nervosa

eating disorder characterized by pattern 9of eating binges followed by purging (e.g., vomiting, laxatives, exercise)

Burnout

State of emotional and physical exhaustion, lowered productivity, and feelings of isolation, often caused by work-related pressures

Bystander Effect

Unwillingness to help exhibited by witnesses to an event, which increase when there are more observers.

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behavioral genetics

study of hereditary influences and how it influences behavior and thinking

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behaviorism

perspective that defines psychology as the study of behavior that is directly observable or through assessment instruments

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Benjamin Whorf

language; his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think

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binocular cues

depth cues that are based on two eyes

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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

conscious experience of emotion and physiological arousal occur at the same time

Carl Jung

neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; dream studies/interpretation

Carl Rogers

Carol Gilligan

Case study

case study

humanistic psychology; Contributions: founded client-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse a descriptive study that includes an intensive study of one person and allows an intensive examination of a single case, usually chosen for its interesting or unique characteristics a highly detailed description of a single individual or a vent

Catatonic type of schizophrenia

Type of schizophrenia characterized either by displays of excited or violent motor activity or by stupor.

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

cerebellum

part of the brain that coordinates balance, movement, reflexes

Charles Darwin

biologist; developed theory of evolution; transmutation of species, natural selection, evolution by common descent; "The Origin of Species" catalogs his voyage on The Beagle

Charles Spearman

intelligence; found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)

Child abuse

physical, emotional, or sexual mistreatment of a child.

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chromosome

threadlike structure within the nucleus of cells that contain genes

chunks

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manageable and meaningful units of information organized in such a way that it can be easily encoded, stored, and retrieved

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Circadian Rhythms

Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night

Clark Hull

motivation theory, drive reduction; maintained that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates

Classical Conditioning

Conditioning process in which an originally neutral stimulus, by repeated pairing with a stimulus that normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical response; aka Pavlovian conditioning

Clientcentered therapy

An insight therapy, developed be Carl Rogers, that seeks to help people evaluate the world and themselves from their own perspective by providing them with a nondirective environment and unconditional positive regard; also known as person-centered therapy.

clinical psychologist

psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior

cochlea

snail-shaped fluid-filled tube in the inner ear involved in transduction

Cognitive Dissonance

A state of mental discomfort arising from a discrepancy between two or more of a person's beliefs or between a person's beliefs and overt behavior.

Cognitive Psychology

The study if the overlapping fields of perception, learning, memory, and thought, with a special emphasis on how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve knowledge.

cognitive psychology

perspective that focuses on the mental processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and thinking

Cognitive theories

In the study of motivation, an explanation of behavior that asserts that people actively and regularly determine their own goals and the means of achieving them through thought.

cognitiveappraisal theory of emotion

our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in

cohort effect

observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to particular experiences that may affect the results of cross-sectional studies

Collective Unconscious

In Jung's theory, a shared storehouse of primitive ideas and images that reside in the unconscious and are inherited from one's ancestors.

Collective Unconscious

Jung's theory of a shared storehouse of primitive ideas and images that are inherited ideas and images, called archetypes, are emotionally charged and rich in meaning and symbolism

Color Blindness

The inability to perceive different hues.

computerized axial tomography (CT scan)

creates a computerized image using x-rays passed through the brain

Concept

Mental category used to classify an event or object according to some distinguishing property or feature.

Concordance rate

The degree to which a condition or traits shared two or more individuals or groups

Concrete operational stage

Piaget's thrid stage of cognitive development (lasting from approximately age 6 or 7 to age 11 or 12), during which the child develops the ability to understand constant factors in the environment, rules, and higher-order symbolic systems

Conditioned Response

Response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus

Neutral stimulus that, through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, begins to elicit a conditioned response

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Conditioning

Systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned

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cones

photoreceptors that detect color and fine detail in bright-light conditions; not present in peripheral vision

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Conflict

The emotional state or condition that arises when a person must choose between two or more competing motives, behaviors, or impulses

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Conformity

People's tendency to change attitudes or behaviors so that they are consistent with those of other people or with social norms.

confounding variable

anything that causes a difference between the IV and the DV other than the independent variable

Consciousness

The general state of being aware of and responsive to events in the environment, as well as one's own mental processes

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Consciousness

Freud's level of mental life that consists of those experiences that we are aware of at any given time.

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Conservation

Ability to recognize that objects can e transformed in some way, visually or phycially, yet still be the same in number, weight, substance, or volume

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consolidation

the process of changing a shortterm memory to a long-term one

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control group

subjects and not exposed to a changing variable in an experiment

conventional level of moral development

morality based on fitting in to the norms of society

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Convergent thinking

In problem solving, the process of narrowing down choices and alternatives to arrive at a suitable answer.

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convolutions

the folds in the cerebral cortex that increase the surface area of the brain

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Coping

Process by which a person takes some action to manage, master, tolerate, or reduce environmental or internal demands that cause or might cause stress and that tax the individual's inner resources

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cornea

transparent covering of the eye

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corpus callosum

large band of white neural fibers that connects to to brain hemispheres and carries messages between them; myelinated; involved in intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness; does it reach full maturity until 20s

correlation coefficient

a number that expresses the degree and direction of the relationship between 2 variables, ranging from 1 to +1

correlational research

establish the relationship between two variables

counseling psychologist

psychologist who treats people with adjustment problems

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Counterconditioning

Process of reconditioning in which a person is taught a new, more adaptive response to a familiar stimulus.

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Creativity

A feature of thought and problem solving that includes the tendency to generate or recognize ideas considered to be high-quality, original, novel, and appropriate.

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Critical Period

The time in to development of an organism when it is especially sensitive to certain environmental influences; outside of that period the same influences will have far less effect

Crosssectional Studies

A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ

Crosssectional study

A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ on an important dimension

crystallized intelligence

learned knowledge and skills such as vocabulary, which tends to increase with age

Daniel Goleman

emotional intelligence

Dark adaptation

The increase in sensitivity to light that occurs when the illumination level changes from high to low, causing chemicals in the rods and cones to regenerate and return to their inactive state.

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Deindividuation

The process by which individuals lose their self-awareness and distinctive personality in the context of a group, which may lead them to engage in antinormative behavior.

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Delusions

False beliefs that are inconsistent with reality but are held in spite of evidence that disproves them.

Demand characteristics

Elements of an experimental situation that might cause a participant to perceive the situation in a certain way or become aware of the purpose of the study and thus bias the participant to behave in a certain way, and in so doing, distort results.

demand characteristics

clues participants discover about the purpose of a study that suggest how they should respond

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Dementia

Impairment of mental functioning and global cognitive abilities in otherwise alert individuals, causing memory loss and related symptoms and typically having a progressive nature

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dendrites

branching extensions of neuron that receives messages from neighboring neurons

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Denial

Defense mechanism by which people refuse to accept reality.

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Dependence

The situation that occurs when the drug becomes part of the body's functioning and produces withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

dependent variable

the variable in a controlled experiment that is expected to change due to the manipulation of the independent variable

depressants (AKA sedativehypnotics)

Any of a class of drugs that relax and calm a user and, in higher doses, induce sleep; also known as a depressant

Depressive disorders

general category of mood disorders in which people show extreme and persistent sadness, despair, and loss of interest in life's usual activities.

descriptive statistics

general set of procedures used to summarize, condense, and describe sets of data

Descriptive Studies

A type of research method that allows researchers to measure variables so that they can develop a description of a situation or phenomenon

developmental psychologist

studies psychological development across the lifespan

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Darley & Latane

social psychology; bystander apathy, diffusion of responsibility

David McClelland

achievement motivation; developed scoring system for TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation

David Rosenhan

did study in which healthy patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnoses with schizophrenia; showed that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label, even when behavior indicates otherwise, is hard to overcome in a mental health setting

David Weschler

established an intelligence test especially for adults (WAIS); also WISC and WPPSI

Debriefing

Informing participants about the true nature of a experiment after its completion.

debriefing

a procedure to inform participants about the true nature of an experiment after its completion

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decay

loss of information from memory as a result of disuse and the passage of time

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Decentration

Process of changing from a totally selforiented point of view to one tha recognizes other people's feelings, ideas, and viewpoints

Decision making

Assessing and choosing among alternatives.

declarative memory

memory for specific information

Defense Mechanism

An unconscious way of reducing anxiety by distorting perceptions of reality.

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Developmental Psychology

The study of the lifelong, often age-related, processes of change in the physical, cognitive, moral, emotional, and social domains of functioning; such changes are rooted in biological mechanisms that are genetically controlled, as well as in social interactions

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Deviation IQ

A standard IQ test score whose mean and standard deviation remain constant for all ages

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Dichromats

People who can distinguish only two of the three basic colors.

difference threshold

minimum difference between any two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time

Discrimination

Behavior targeted at individuals or groups and intended to hold them apart and treat them differently.

Disorganized type of schizophrenia

type of schizophrenia characterized by severely disturbed thought processes, frequent incoherence, disorganized behavior, and inappropriate affect.

Displacement

Defense mechanism by which people divert sexual or aggressive feelings for one person onto another person.

Dissociative amnesia

Dissociative disorder characterized by the sudden and extensive inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.

Dissociative disorders

psychological disorders characterized by a sudden but temporary alteration in consciousness, identity, sensorimotor behavior, or memory

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Dissociative identity disorder

dissociative disorder characterized by the existence within an individual of two or more distinct personalities, each of which is dominant at different times and directs the individual's behavior at those times; commonly known as multiple personality disorder.

Divergent thinking

In problem solving, the process of widening the range of possibilities and expanding the options for solutions.

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic formation in a double-helix; can replicate or reproduce itself; made of genes

dominant genes

member of a gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait

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dopamine

neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia

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Double bind

a situation in which an individual is given two different and inconsistent messages.

doubleblind procedure

technique in which neither the persons involved for those conducting the experiment know in what group to participate is involved

Doubleblind techniques

A research technique in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know who is in the control and experimental groups.

Dream

A state of consciousness that occurs during sleep, usually accompanied by vivid visual, tactile, or auditory imagery.

Dream analysis

Psychoanalytic technique in which a patient's dreams are described in detail and interpreted so as to provide insight into the individual's unconscious motivations.

Drive

an internal aroused condition that directs an organism to satisfy a physiological need

Drive theory (aka, drivereduction theory)

an explanation of behavior that assumes that an organism is motivated to act because of a need to attain, reestablish, or maintain some goal that helps with survival

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Drug

Any chemical substance that, in small amounts, alters biological or cognitive processes or both

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dualism

seeing mind and body as two different things that interact

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eclectic

use of techniques and ideas from a variety of approaches

educational psychologist

focuses on how effective teaching and learning take place

Edward Bradford Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology.

Edward Thorndike

behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence

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EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp

efferent neuron

nerve cell that send messages from brain and spinal cord to other parts of body; also called motor neurons

Ego

Egocentrism

Ekman & Friesen

Elaboration Likelihood Model

elaborative rehearsal

In Freud's theory, the part of personality that seeks to satisfy instinctual needs in accordance with reality. Inability to perceive a situation or event except in relation to oneself; also know as selfcenteredness Universal Emotions (based upon facial expressions); Study Basics: Constants across culture in the face and emotion Theory suggesting that there are two routes to attitude change: the central route, which focuses on thoughtful consideration of an argument for change, and the peripheral route, which focuses on less careful, more emotional, and even superficial evaluation. rehearsal involving repletion and analysis, in which a stimulus may be associated with (linked to) other information and further processed

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A treatment for severe mental illness in which an electric current is briefly applied to the head in order to produce a generalized seizure.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Graphical record of brain-wave activity obtained through electrodes placed on the scalp and forehead

Electromagnetic Radiation

The entire spectrum of waves initiated by the movement of charged particles.

Elizabeth Kübler-Ross

developmental psychology; wrote "On Death and Dying": 5 stages the terminally ill go through when facing death (1. denial, 2. anger, 3. bargaining, 4. depression, 5. acceptance)

Elizabeth Loftus

cognition and memory; studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony

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Embryo

The prenatal organism from the 5th through the 49th day after conception

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Emotion

A subjective response, usually accompanied by a physiological change, which is interpreted n a particular way by the individual and often leads to a change in behavior

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions

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empiricism

the view that knowledge should be acquired through observation and often an experiment

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encoding

organizing sensory information so it can be processed by the nervous system

encoding specificity principle

retrieval cues that match original information work better

endocrine glands

the bodies "slow" chemical communication by secreting hormones directly into the bloodstream

endocrine system

glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, which regulate body and behavioral processes

endorphins

chemical similar to opiates that relieves pain; may induce feelings of pleasure

engineering psychologist

does research on how people function best with machines

epinephrine

adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster

episodic memory

memory of specific personal events and situations (episodes) tagged with information about time

Equity Theory

Social psychological theory that states that people attempt to maintain stable, consistent interpersonal relationships in which the ratio of member's contributions is balanced.

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

Ernst Weber

perception; identified just-noticeabledifference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law

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ESP

the controversial claim that sensation can occur apart from sensory input

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ethics

rules of proper and acceptable conduct that investigators use to guide psychological research

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ethnocentrism

tendency to believe that one's own group is the standard, the reference point by which other people and groups should be judged

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evolutionary psychology

perspective that seeks to explain and predict behaviors by analyzing how the human brain developed over time, how it functions, and how input from the environment affects human behaviors

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Extinction (classical conditioning)

The procedure of withholding the unconditioned stimulus and presenting the conditioned stimulus alone, which gradually reduces the probability of the conditioned response

Extinction (operant conditioning)

The process by which the probability of an organism's emitting a response is reduced when reinforcement no longer follows the response

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation supplied by rewards that come from the external environment

Factor analysis

Statistical procedure designed to discover the independent elements (factors) in any set of data

family studies

studies of hereditability on the assumption that if a gene influences a certain trait, close relatives should be more similar on that trait in distant relative

Family therapy

A type of therapy in which two or more people who are committed to one another's well-being are treated at once, in and effort to change the ways the interact.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

group of abnormalities that occur in the babies of mothers who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy

Ex Post Facto Design

A type of design that contrasts groups of people who differ on some variable of interest to the researcher.

ex post facto study

a type of design that contrasts groups of people who differ on some variable of interest to the researcher

ex post facto study

describes differences between groups of participants that differ naturally on a variable such as race or gender

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chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire

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Fetus

The prenatal organism from the 8th week after conception until birth

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Fixation

An excessive attachment to some person or object that was appropriate only at an earlier stage of development

Fixedinterval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a specified interval of time, provided that the required response occurs at least once in the interval

Fixed-ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer(reward) is delivered after a specified number of responses has occurred

flashbulb memories

detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence

fluid intelligence

cognitive abilities requiring speed or rapid learning that tends to diminish with age

forebrain

top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality

excitatory neurotransmitter Excitement phase

the first phase of the sexual response cycle during which there are increases in heart rate blood pressure and respiration

Expectancy Theories

Explanations of behavior that focus on people's expectations about reaching a goal and their need for achievement as energizing factors

experiment

a procedure in which a researcher systematically manipulates and observes elements of a situation in order to test a hypothesis and make a causeand-effect statement

Experimental design

A design in which researchers manipulate an independent variable and measure a dependent variable to determine a cause-and-effect relationship

experimental group

in an experiment, the group of participants to whom a treatment is given

experimenter bias

expectation of the person conducting an experiment which may be affect the outcome

explicit memory

conscious memory that a person is aware of

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forebrain

largest, most complicated, and most advanced of the three divisions of the brain; comprises the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia, corpus callosum, and cortex

forensic psychologist

applies psychological concepts to legal issues

Formal operational stage

Piaget's fourth and final stage of cognitive development (beginning at about age 12), during which the individual can think hypothetically, can consider future possibilites, and can use deductive logic

fovea

small area of retina where image is focused

Francis Galton

differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; compared identical & fraternal twins, hereditary differences in intellectual ability

fraternal twins

twins from two separate fertilized eggs (zygotes); share half of the same genes

Free association

Psychoanalytic technique in which a person is asked to report to the therapist his or her thoughts and feelings as they occur, regardless of how trivial, illogical, or objectionable their content may appear.

frequency

number of wavelengths that pass a point in a given amount of time; determines hue of light and the pitch of a sound

frequency distribution

a chart or array of scores, usually arranged from highest to lowest, showing the number of instances for each score

frequency polygon

graph of a frequency distribution that shows the number of instances of obtained scores, usually with the data points connect by straight lines

frontal lobes

control emotional behaviors, make decisions, carry out plans; speech (Broca's area); controls movement of muscles

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functionalism

school of psychological thought that was concerned with how and why the conscious mind works

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to attribute other people's behavior to dispositional (internal) causes rather than situational (external) causes.

GABA (gammaaminobutyric acid)

neurotransmitter that inhibits firing of neurons; linked with Huntington's disease

gate control theory

pain is only experienced in the pain messages can pass through a gate in the spinal cord on their route to the brain

Gazzaniga or Sperry

neuroscience/biopsychology; studied split brain patients

Gender

A socially and culturally constructed set of distinctions between masculine and feminine sets of behaviors that is promoted and expected by society

Gender Identity

A person's sense of being male or female

Gender Schema Theory

The theory that children and adolescents use gender as an organizing theme to classify and interpret their perceptions about the world and themselves

Gender stereotype

A fixed, overly simple, sometimes incorrect idea about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of males or females

gene

a DNA segment on a chromosome that controls transmission of traits

Generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by persistent anxiety occurring on more days than not for at least 6 months, sometimes with increased activity of the autonomic nervous system, apprehension, excessive muscle tension, and difficulty in concentrating

genetic mapping

dividing the chromosomes into smaller fragments that can be characterized and ordered so that the fragments reflect their respective locations on specific chromosomes

Fulfillment

In Roger's theory of personality, an inborn tendency directing people toward actualizing their essential nature and thus attaining their potential.

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genetics

Functional fixedness

Inability to see that an object can have a function other than its stated or usual one.

study of how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next

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Genital Stage

functional MRI (fMRI)

shows brain activity at higher reolution than PET scan when changes in oxygen concentration in neurons alters its magnetic qualities

Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).

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genotype

an individual's genetic make-up

Gestalt psychology

school of psychological thought that argued that behavior cannot be studied in parts but must be viewed a s whole

Gibson & Walk

developmental psychology; "visual cliff" studies with infants

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glial cells

supportive cells of nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste

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gonads

reproductive glands-male, testes; female, ovaries

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Gordon Allport

trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary

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graded potential

shift in electrical charge in a tiny area of the neuron (temporary); transmits a long cell membranes leaving neuron and polarized state; needs higher than normal threshold of excitation to fire

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Grammar

Grasping reflex Group

The linguistic description of how a language functions, especially the rules and patterns used for generating appropriate and comprehensible sentences. Reflex that causes a newborn to grasp vigorously any object touching the palm or fingers or placed in the hand Two or more individuals who are working with a common purpose or have some common goals, characteristics, or interests.

Group Polarization

Shifts or exaggeration in group members' attitudes or behavior as a result of group discussion.

Group therapy

Psychotherapeutic process in which several people meet as a group with a therapist to receive psychological help.

Groupthink

The tendency of people in a group to seek concurrence with one another when reaching a decision, rather than effectively evaluating options.

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gustation

sense of taste

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habituation

decreased responsiveness with repeated presentation of the same stimulus

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hallucinogens (AKA psychedelic drugs)

Consciousness-altering drugs that affect moods, thoughts, memory, judgment, and perception and that are consumed for the purpose of producing those results

Halo effect

The tendency for one characteristic of an individual to influence a tester's evaluation of other characteristics

Hans Eysenck

personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion

Harry Harlow

development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort

Harry Stack Sullivan

interpersonal psychoanalysis; groundwork for enmeshed relationships, developed the Self-System, a configuration of personality traits

health psychologist

focuses on psychological factors in illness

Health psychology

Subfield concerned with the use of psychological ideas and principles to enhance health, prevent illness, diagnose and treat disease, and improve rehabilitation

Henry Murray

personality assessment; created the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) with Christina Morgan, stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach and evaluate their own performances

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Heritability

The genetically determined proportion of a trait's variation among individuals in a population

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heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that is due to genetic causes

Herman von Helmholtz

Theorist who both aided in the development of the trichromatic theory of color perception and Place theory of pitch perception.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

memory; studied memorization of meaningless words

Hermann Ebbinghaus

the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well

Hermann Rorschach

developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test which consists of 10 standardized inkblots where the subject tells a story, the observer then derives aspects of the personality from the subject's commentary

Heuristics

Sets of strategies, rather than strict rules, that act as guidelines for discovery-oriented problem solving.

Higherorder Conditioning

Process by which a neutral stimulus takes on conditioned properties through pairing with a conditioned stimulus

hindbrain

the most primitive of the three functional divisions of the brain, consisting of the pons, medulla, reticular formation, and cerebellum

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hindbrain

division which includes the cerebellum, Pons, and medulla; responsible for involuntary processes: blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles

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hippocampus

part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new long-term memories

Hobson & McCarley

sleep/dreams/consciousness; pioneers of Activation-Synthesis Theory of dreams; sleep studies that indicate the brain creates dream states, not information processing or Freudian interpretations

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Holmes & Rahe

stress and coping; used "social readjustment scale" to measure stress

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Homeostasis

Maintenance of a constant state of inner stability or balance

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hormone

chemical that carries messages that travel through the bloodstream to help regulate bodily functions

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Howard Gardner

devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodilykinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic

Hue

The psychological property of light referred to as color, determined by the wavelengths of reflected light.

human genomes

30,000 genes needed to build a human

humanistic psychology

perspective that emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the idea that humans have free will

Humanistic theory

Hyperopic

An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and selfworth Able to see objects at a distance clearly but having trouble seeing things up close; farsighted

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hypnosis

state with deep relaxation and heightened suggestibility

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hypothalamus

area of the brain that is part of the limbic system and regulates behaviors such as, eating, drinking, sexual behaviors, motivation; also body temperature

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hypothesis

a tentative statement or idea expressing a causal relationship between two events or variables that is to be evaluated in a research study

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Id

In Freud's theory, the source of a person's instinctual energy, which works mainly on the pleasure principle.

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Ideal Self

In Roger's theory of personality, the self a person would ideally like to be.

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identical twins

twins from a single fertilized egg (zygote) with the same genetic makeup; also called monozygotic (MZ) twins

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imagery

the creation or re-creation of a mental picture of a sensory or perceptual experience

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Imaginary Audience

A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they see themselves as always "on stage" with an audience watching

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implicit memory

memory a person is not aware of possessing

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Impression Formation

The process by which a person uses behavior and appearance of others to form attitudes about them.

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independent variable

the variable in a controlled experiment that the experimenter directly and purposefully manipulates to see how the other variables under study will be affected

industrial/organizational psychologist

applies psychological principles to the workplace to improve productivity and the quality of work life

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inferential statistics

procedures used to draw conclusions about larger populations from small samples of data

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informed consent

the agreement of participants to take part in an experiment and their acknowledgement that they understand the nature of their participation in the research, and have been fully informed about the general nature of the research, its goals, and methods

inhibitory neurotransmitter

chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing

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Insight therapy

Any therapy that attempts to discover relationships between unconscious motivations and current abnormal behavior.

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Insomnia

Problems in going to sleep or maintaining sleep

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instinct

inherited, automatic species-specific behaviors

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insulin

hormone backpacks in the regulation of blood sugar by acting in the utilization of carbohydrates; released by pancreas; too much-hypoglycemia, too little-diabetes

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Intelligence

The overall capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment

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interference

the suppression of one bit of information by another

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interneurons

nerve cell that transmits messages between sensory and motor neurons

Interpersonal Attraction

The tendency of one person to evaluate another person (or a symbol or image of another person) in a positive way.

Interpretation

In Freud's theory, the technique of providing a context, meaning, or cause for a specific idea, feeling, or set of behaviors; the process of tying a set of behaviors to its unconscious determinant.

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A state of being or feeling in which each person in a relationship is willing to selfdisclose and to express important feelings and information to the other person.

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Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that leads to behaviors engaged in for no apparent reward except the pleasure and satisfaction of the activity itself

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introspection

a person's description and analysis of what he or she is thinking and feeling or what he or she has just thought about

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ions

electrically charged particles found both inside and outside a neuron; negative ions are found inside the cell membrane in a polarized neuron

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iris

colored part of the eye that regulates size of pupil

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Intimacy

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Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

James-Lange theory of emotion

conscious experience of emnotion results from one's awareness of physiological arousal

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Jean Piaget

cognitive psychology; created a 4-stage theory of cognitive development, said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth (assimilation and accommodation)

John B Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

John Locke

17th century English philosopher. Wrote that the mind was a "blank slate" or "tabula rasa"; that is, people are born without innate ideas. We are completely shaped by our environment .

Judith Langlois

developmental psychology;: social development & processing, effects of appearance on behavior, origin of social stereotypes, sex/love/intimacy, facial expression

just noticeable difference (JND)

experience of the difference threshold

Karen Horney

neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety"

Karl Wernicke

"Wernicke's area"; discovered area of left temporal lobe that involved language understanding: person damaged in this area uses correct words but they do not make sense

Kenneth Clark

social psychology; research evidence of internalized racism caused by stigmatization; doll experiments-black children chose white dolls

kinesthesis

body sense that provides information about the position and movement of individual parts of the body

Konrad Lorenz

ethology (animal behavior); studied imprinting and critical periods in geese

Kurt Lewin

social psychology; German refugee who escaped Nazis, proved the democratic style of leadership is the most productive; studied effects of 3 leadership styles on children completing activities

Langer & Rodin

Social Psychology; Helping behavior, personal responsibility; studied the effects of enhanced personal responsibility and helping behavior

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Language

A system of symbols, usually words, that convey meaning and a set of rules for combining symbols to generate an infinite number of messages.

Latency Stage

Freud's fourth stage of personality development, from about age 7 until puberty, during which sexual urges are inactive.

Latent Content

The deeper meaning of a dream, usually involving symbolism hidden meaning, and repressed or obscured ideas and wishes

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs in the absence of direct reinforcement and that is not necessarily demonstrated through observable behavior

Law of Effect

behaviors followed by pleasant consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened (Thorndike)

Lawrence Kohlberg

moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?

Learned Helplessness

The behavior of giving up or not responding to punishment, exhibited by people or animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they have no control

Learned helplessness

the behavior of giving up or not responding, exhibited by people and animals exposed to negative consequences or punishment over which they feel they have no control.

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Learning

Relatively permanent change in an organism that occurs as a result of experiences in the environment

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lens

structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus light rays onto the retina

Leon Festinger

social cognition, cognitive dissonance; Study Basics: Studied and demonstrated cognitive dissonance

Lev Vygotsky

child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research

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levels-ofprocessing approach

brain encodes information in different ways or on different levels; deeper processing leads to deeper memory

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Lewis Terman

revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life

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Libido

In Freud's theory, the instinctual (and sexual) life force that, working on the pleasure principle and seeking immediate gratification, energizes the id.

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Light

The small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye.

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limbic system

a donut ring-shaped of loosely connected structures located in the forebrain between the central core and cerebral hemispheres; consists of: septum, cingulate gyrus, endowments, hypothalamus, and to campus, and amygdala; associated with emotions and memories

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Linguistics

The study of language, including speech sounds, meaning, and grammar.

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Little Albert

subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear

Lloyd and Margaret Peterson

did work on short-term memory

Logic

The system of principles of reasoning used to reach valid conclusions or make inferences.

long-term memory

storage mechanism that keeps a relatively permanent record of memory

long-term potentiation

the biochemical processes that make it easier for the neuron to respond again when it has been stimulated

Longitudinal Study

A research method that focuses on a specific group of individuals at different ages to examine changes that have occurred over time

Longitudinal Study

A research approach that follows a group of people over time to determine change or stability in behavior.

Lucid Dream

Dream in which the dreamer is aware of dreaming while it is happening

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

creates a computerized image using a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves

Mainstreaming

Practice of placing children with special needs in regular classroom settings, with the support of professionals who provide special education services

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maintenance rehearsal

repetitive review of information with little or no interpretation

Major depressive disorder

Depressive disorder characterized by loss of interest in almost all of life's usual activities; a sad, hopeless, or discourage mood, sleep disturbance; loss of appetite; loss of energy; and feelings of unworthiness and guilt.

Manifest Content

The overt story line, characters, and setting of a dream-the obvious, clearly discernible events of the dream

Martin Seligman

learning; Positive Psychology; learned helplessness theory of depression; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

Mary CoverJones

behaviorism/learning; pioneer in systematic desensitization, maintained that fear could be unlearned

Masters & Johnson

motivation; human sexual response—studied how both men and women respond to and in relation to sexual behavior

mean

the arithmetic average of a set of scores

Means-ends analysis

Heuristic procedure in which the problem solver compares the current situation with the desired goal to determine the most efficient way to get from one to the other.

measure of central tendency

a descriptive statistic that tells which result or score best represents an entire set of scores

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median

the measure of central tendency that is the data point with 50% of the scores above it and 50% below it

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Mediation

The use of a variety of techniques including concentration, restriction of incoming stimuli, and deep relaxation to produce a state of consciousness characterized by a sense of detachment.

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medulla (also medulla oblongata)

part of the brain which controls living functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature

memory

the ability to recall past events, images, ideas, or previously learned information or skills; the storage system that allows a person to retain and retrieve previously learned information

memory span

the number of items a person can reproduce from short-term memory, usually consisting of one or two chunks

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menarche

first menstrual period

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menopause

the cessation of the ability to reproduce

Metal retardation

Below-average intellectual functioning, as measured on an IQ test, accompanied by substantial limitations in functioning that originate before age 8

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midbrain

the second level of the three organizational structures of the brain that receives signals from other parts of the brain or spinal cord and either relays the information to other parts of the brain or causes the body to act immediately; involved in movement

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midbrain

the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe

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mode

the most frequently occurring score in a set of data

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Model:

an analogy or a perspective that uses a structure from one field to help scientists describe data in another field

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monism

seeing mind and body as different aspects of the same thing

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Monochromats

People who cannot perceive any color, usually because their retinas lack cones.

monocular cues

depth cues that are based on one eye

moral development

growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically

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Morality

A system of learned attitudes about social practices, instituations, and individual behavior used to evaluate situations and behavior as right or wrong, good or bad

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Moro reflex

Reflex in which a newborn strectches out the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment

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Morpheme

A basic unit of meaning in a language.

motivated forgetting

occurs when frightening, traumatic events are forgotten because people want to forget them

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Motivation

any internal condition, although usually an internal one, that initates, activates, or maintains an organism's goal directed behavior

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Motive

a specific (usually internal) condition, usually involving some form of arousal, which directs an organism's behavior toward a goal.

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motive

a need or want that causes someone to act

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motor neurons

efferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from spinal cord/brain to muscles and glands

motor projection areas

primary motor cortex; areas of the three boat cortex for response messages from the brain to the muscles and glands

mutation

unexpected changes in the gene replication process that are not always evident in phenotype and create unusual and sometimes harmful characteristics of body or behavior

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myelin sheath

a white, fatty covering of the axon which speeds transmission of message

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Myopic

Able to see clearly things that are close but having trouble seeing objects at a distance; nearsighted.

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natural selection

the principle that those characteristics and behaviors that help organisms adapt, be fit, and survive will be passed on to successive generations, because flexible, fit individuals have a greater chance of reproduction

Naturalistic observation

A descriptive research method in which researchers study behavior in its natural context.

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior naturally without trying to manipulate and control the situation

nature

a person's inherited traits, determined by genetics

naturenurture controversy

deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior

Need

State of physiological imbalance usually accompanied by arousal

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neural plasticity

Ability of the brain to change their experience, both structurally and chemically

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neurogenesis

production of new brain cells; November 1988: cancer patients proved that new neurons grew until the end of life

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neuron

individual cells that are the smallest unit of the nervous system; it has three functions: receive information, process it, send to rest of body

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neuropsychologist

concerned with the relationship between brain/nervous system and behavior

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neuroscience

study of the brain and nervous system; overlaps with psychobiology

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neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released by terminal buttons into the synapse

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Noam Chomsky

language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

Non-rapid Eye Movement Sleep

Four distinct stages of sleep during which no rapid eye movements occur.

nonconscious

the level of consciousness devoted to processes completely unavailable to conscious awareness (e.g., fingernails growing)

Nonverbal Communication

The communication of information by cues or actions that include gestures, tone of voice, vocal inflections, and facial expressions.

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norepinephrine

noradrenaline; chemical which is excitatory, similar to adrenaline, and affects arousal and memory; raises blood pressure by causing blood vessels to become constricted, but also carried by bloodstream to the anterior pituitary which relaxes ACTH thus prolonging stress response

Normal curve

A bell-shaped graphic representation of data showing what percentage of the population falls under each part of the curve

normal distribution

approximate distribution of scores expected when a sample is taken from a large population, drawn as a frequency polygon that often takes the form of a bell-shaped curve, called the normal curve

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Need for achievement

A social need that directs a person to strive constantly for excellence and success

Negative Reinforcement

Removal of a stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood that the response will recur

nerve

bundles of axons

nervous system

the structures and organs that facilitate electrical and chemical communication in the body and allow all behavior and mental processes to take place

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neural impulse

action potential; the firing of a nerve cell; the entire process of the electrical charge (message/impulse) traveling through inner on; can be as fast as 400 fps (with myelin) or 3 fps (no myelin)

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Norms

The scores and corresponding percentile ranks of a large and representative sample of individuals from the population for which a test was designed

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nurture

a person's experiences in the environment

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Obedience

Compliance with the orders of another person or group of people.

Object permanence

The realization of infants that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight

Observational Learning Theory

Theory that suggests that organisms learn new responses by observing the behavior of a model and then imitating it; aka. Social learning theory

observer bias

expectations of an observer which may distort an authentic observation

Obsessivecompulsive disorder

Anxiety disorder characterized by persistent and uncontrollable thoughts and irrational beliefs that cause the performance of compulsive rituals that interfere with daily life.

occipital lobes

primary area for processing visual information

Oedipus Complex

Feelings of rivalry with the parent of the same sex and sexual desire for the parent of the other sex, occurring during the phallic stage and ultimately resolved through identification with the parent of the same sex.

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opponentprocess theory of emotion

following a strong emotion, an opposing emotion counters the first emotion, lessening the experience of that emotion; on repeated occasions, the opposing emotion becomes stronger

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Optic chiasm

Point at which half of the optic nerve fibers from each eye cross over and connect to the other side of the brain.

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optic nerve

carries impulses from the eye to the brain

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Oral Stage

Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center.

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Orgasm phase

the third phase of the sexual response cycle, during which autonomic nervous system activity reaches its peak and muscle contractions occur in spasms throughout the body, but especially in the genital area

Overjustification effect

Decrease in likelihood that an intrinsically motivated task, after having been extrinsically rewarded, will be performed when the reward is no longer given.

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pancreas

organ lying between the stomach and small intestine; regulates blood sugar by secreting to regulating hormones insulin and glucagon

Panic Attack

Anxiety disorders characterized as acute anxiety, accompanied by sharp increases in autonomic nervous system arousal, that is not triggered by a specific event.

parallel processing

simultaneously analyzing different elements of sensory information, such as color, brightness, shape, etc.

Paranoid type of schizophrenia

type of schizophrenia characterized by hallucinations and delusions of persecution or grandeur (or both), and sometimes irrational jealousy.

parasympathetic nervous system

a branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body after sympathetic stimulation

parathormone

hormone that controls imbalances levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood and tissue fluid; influences levels of excitability; secreted by parathyroids

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olfaction

sense of smell

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Operant Conditioning

Conditioning in which an increase or decrease in the probability that a behavior will recur is affected by the delivery of reinforcement or punishment as a consequence of the behavior;

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a definition of a variable in terms of the set of methods or procedures used to measure or study that variable

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operational definition opiates (AKA narcotics)

Drugs derived from the opium poppy, including opium, morphine, and heroin

Opponentprocess theory

Visual theory, proposed by Herring, that color is coded by stimulation of three types of paired receptors; each pair of receptors is assumed to operate in an antagonist way so that stimulation by a given wavelength produces excitation (increased firing) in one receptor of the pair and also inhibits the other receptor.

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parathyroid

for glands embedded in the thyroid; secretes parathormone; controls announces level of calcium and phosphate (which influence levels of excitability)

parietal lobes

processes sensory information including touch, temperature, and pain from other body parts

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participant

an individual who takes part in an experiment and whose behavior is observed as part of the data collection process

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Paul Ekman

emotion; found that facial expressions are universal

Percentile score

A score indicating what percentage of the test population would obtain a lower score

percentile score

the percentage of scores at or below a certain score

Perception

Process by which an organism selects and interprets sensory input so that it acquires meaning.

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Phineas Gage

Vermont railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that changed his personality and behavior; his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning

506.

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

Phobic disorders

Anxiety disorders characterized by excessive and irrational fear of, and consequent attempted avoidance of, specific objects or situations.

508.

Phoneme

A basic or minimum unit of sound in a language.

509.

Phonology

The study of the patterns and distributions of speech sounds in a language and the tacit rules for their pronunciation.

510.

Photoreceptors

The light-sensitive cells in the retina- the rods and cones.

511.

photoreceptors

light sensitive cells (rods and cones) that convert light to electrochemical impulses

512.

pineal gland

endocrine gland that produces melatonin that helps regulate sleep/wake cycle

513.

pitch

the highness or lowness of a sound

514.

pituitary gland

endocrine gland that produces a large amount of hormones; it regulates growth and helps control other endocrine glands; located on underside of brain; sometimes called the "master gland"

515.

placebo

typically a pill that is used as a control in the experiment; a sugar pill

516.

Placebo effect

A nonspecific improvement that occurs as a result of a person's expectations of change rather than as a direct result of any specific therapeutic treatment.

517.

placebo effect

response to the belief that the IV will have an effect, rather than the IV's actual effect, which can be a confounding variable

518.

Placenta

A mass of tissue that is attached to the wall f the uterus and connected to the developing fetus by the umbilical cord; it supplies nutrients and eliminates waste products

519.

Plateau phase

the second phase of the sexual response cycle, during which physical arousal continues to increase as the partners bodies prepare for orgasm

507. 495.

496.

497.

498.

499.

500.

501.

502.

503. 504.

peripheral nervous system

Personal Fable

division that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body; includes all sensory and motor neurons; divided into somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they believe they are so special and unique that other people cannot understand them and risky behaviors will not harm them

Personality

A pattern of relatively permanent traits, dispositions, or characteristics that give some consistency to people's behavior.

Personality disorders

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and longstanding maladaptive behaviors that typically cause stress and/or social or occupational problems.

Phallic Stage

Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals.

phenotype

the expression of genes

Phillip Zimbardo

social psychology; Stanford Prison Study; college students were randomly assigned to roles of prisoners or guards in a study that looked at who social situations influence behavior; showed that peoples' behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play

520.

521.

polarization

polygenic inheritance

when the neuron is at rest; condition of neuron when the inside of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside of Enron; is necessary to generate the neuron signal in release of this polarization process by which several genes interact to produce a certain trait; responsible for most important traits

522.

pons

part of the brain involved in sleep/wake cycles; also connects cerebellum and medulla to the cerebral cortex

523.

population

all of the individuals in the group to which a study applies

positive psychology

in emerging Theo psychology that focuses on positive experiences; includes subjective well-being, selfdetermination, the relationship between positive emotions and physical health, and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to boorish

524.

525.

526.

527.

528.

Positive Reinforcement

Presentation of a stimulus after a particular response in order to increase the likelihood that the response will recur

positron emission tomography (PET scan)

shows brain activity when radioactively tagged glucose rushes to active neurons

postconventional level of moral development

morality based on one's own individual moral principles (i.e., conscience)

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Psychological disorder that may become evident after a person has undergone extreme stress caused by some type of disaster; common symptoms include vivid, intrusive recollections or reexperiences of the traumatic event and occasional lapses of normal consciousness

Negative evaluation of an entire group of people, typically based on unfavorable (and often wrong) stereotypes about groups.

Premack principle

commonly occurring behavior can reinforce a less frequent behavior

prenatal development

period of development from conception until birth

Preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development (lasting from about age 2 to age 6 or 7), during which the child begins to represent the world symbolically

536.

Prevalence

the percentage of a population displaying a disorder during any specified period.

537.

primacy effect

the more accurate recall of items presented at the beginning of a series

Primary Punisher

Any stimulus or event that is naturally painful or unpleasant to an organism

Primary Reinforcer

Reinforcer that has survival value for an organism; this value does not have to be learned

proactive interference

previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn new information

Problem Solving

The behavior of individuals when confronted with a situation or task that requires insight or determination of some unknown elements.

procedural memory

memory for skills, including perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete tasks

Projection

Defense mechanism by which people attribute their own undesirable traits to others.

Projective Tests

Devices or instruments used to assess personality, in which examinees are shown a standard set of ambiguous stimuli and asked to respond to the stimuli in their own way.

Prosocial Behavior

Behavior that benefits someone else or society but that generally offers no obvious benefit to the person performing it and may even involve some personal risk or sacrifice.

546.

Prototype

An abstraction, an idealized pattern of an object or idea that is stored in memory and used to decide whether similar objects or ideas are members of the same class of items.

547.

pseudoscience

an unscientific system which pretends to discover psychological information that his means are unscientific or deliberately fraudulent

533.

534.

535.

538.

539.

540.

541.

542.

543.

529.

Preconscious

Freud's level of the mind that contains those experiences that are not currently conscious but may become so with varying degrees of difficulty.

530.

preconscious

level of consciousness that is outside awareness but contains feelings and memories that can easily be brought into conscious awareness

preconventional level of moral development

morality based on consequences to self

531.

Prejudice

532.

544.

545.

548.

psychiatrist

a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders

549.

Psychoactive Drug

A drug that alters behavior, thought, or perception by altering biochemical reactions in the nervous system, thereby affecting consciousness

550.

Psychoanalysis

A lengthy insight therapy that was developed by Freud and aims at uncovering conflicts and unconscious impulses through special techniques, including free association, dream analysis, and transference.

551.

psychoanalyst

one who uses psychoanalysis to treat psychological problems

552.

psychoanalytic

perspective developed by freud, which assumes that psychological problems are the result of anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts and forces of which a person might be unaware

553.

554.

555.

556.

557.

psychobiology

Psychodynamically

Psycholinguistics

psychologist

psychology

study that focuses on biological foundations of behavior and mental processes; overlaps with neuroscience

560.

Psychophysics

Subfield of psychology that focuses on the relationship between physical stimuli and people's conscious experiences of them.

561.

Psychosurgery

Brain surgery used in the past to alleviate symptoms of serious mental disorders.

562.

Psychotherapy

The treatment of emotional or behavior problems through psychological techniques.

563.

Psychotic

suffering from a gross impairment in reality testing that interferes with the ability to meet the ordinary demands of life.

564.

Puberty

The period during which the reproductive system matures; it begins with an increase in the production of sex hormones, which signals the end of childhood

565.

Punishment

Process of presenting an undesirable or noxious stimulus, or removing a desirable stimulus, to decrease the probability that a preceding response will recur

566.

pupil

small opeing in iris that is smaller in bright light and larger in darkness

random sample

selection of a part of the population without reason; participation is by chance

568.

range

the spread between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution

569.

Rape

Forcible sexual assault on an unwilling partner.

Rapid Eye Movement Sleep

Stage of sleep characterized by highfrequency, low-amplitude brain-wave activity, rapid and systematic eye movements, more vivid dreams, and postural muscle paralysis

Rationalemotive therapy

A cognitive behavior therapy that emphasizes the importance of logical, rational thought processes.

567.

570.

Therapies that use approaches or techniques derived from Freud, but that reject or modify some elements of Freud's theory.

571.

The study of how language is acquired, perceived, understood, and produced.

572.

Rationalization

professional who studies behavior and uses behavioral principles in scientific research or in applied settings

Defense mechanism by which people reinterpret undesirable feelings or behaviors in terms that make them appear acceptable.

573.

Raw score

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

A test score that has not been transformed or converted in any way

574.

Raymond Cattell

intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence; personality testing: 16 Personality Factors (16PF personality test)

Reactance

The negative response evoked when there is an inconsistency between a person's self-image as being free to choose and the person's realization that someone is trying to force him or her to choose a particular occurrence.

558.

psychometrician

focuses on methods of acquiring and analyzing data

559.

Psychoneuroimmunology

An interdisciplinary area of study that includes behavioral, neurological, and immune factors and their relationship to the development of disease

575.

576.

577.

578.

579.

580.

581.

582.

583.

584.

585.

586.

587.

588.

589.

590.

591.

Reaction Formation

Defense mechanism by which people behave in a way opposite to what their true but anxietyprovoking feelings would dictate.

Reasoning

The purposeful process by which a person generates logical and coherent ideas, evaluates situations, and reaches conclusions.

recency effect

the more accurate recall of items presented at the end of a series

Receptive fields

Areas of the retina that, when stimulated, produce a change in the firing of cells in the visual system.

receptor site

a location on a receptor neurons which is like a key to a lock (with a specific nerve transmitter); allows for orderly pathways

recessive gene

member of the gene terror that controls the appearance of a certain trait only if it is paired with the same gene

Reflex

Automatic behavior that occurs involuntarily in response to a stimulus and without prior learning and usually shows little variability from instance to instance

refractory period

after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message may be

Regression

A return to a prior stage after a person has progressed through the various stages of development; caused by anxiety.

rehearsal

process of repeatedly verbalizing, thinking about, or otherwise acting on or transforming information in order to keep that information active in memory

Reinforcer

Any event that increases the probability of a recurrence of the response that preceded it

relative refractory period

a period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarize state and will only fire again if the incoming message open parentheses impulse) is stronger than usual; returning to arresting state

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

sleep stage when the eyes move about, during which vivid dreams occur; brain very active but skeletal muscles paralyzed

René Descartes

17t century French philosopher. Famously known for writing "cogito ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am"). Wrote about concept of dualism.

replication

Representative sample

A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn

Representative sample

A sample of individuals who match the population with whom they are being compared with regard to key variables such as socioeconomic status and age

representative sample

selection of a part of the population which mirrors the current demographics

Repression

Defense mechanism by which anxietyprovoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.

Residual type of schizophrenia

a schizophrenic disorder in which the person exhibits inappropriate affect, illogical thinking, and/or eccentric behavior but seems generally in touch with reality.

597.

Resilience

The extent to which people are flexible and respond adaptively to external or internal demands

598.

Resistance

In psychoanalysis, an unwillingness to cooperate, which a patient signals by showing a reluctance to provide the therapist with information or to help the therapist understand or interpret a situation.

Resolution Phase

the fourth phase of the sexual response cycle, following orgasm, during which the body returns to its resting, or normal state

response bias

preconceived notions of a person answering [a survey] which may alter the experiments purpose

resting potential

when a neuron is in polarization; more negative ions are inside the neuron cell membrane with a positive ions on the outside, causing a small electrical charge; release of this charge generates a neuron's impulse (signal/message)

reticular formation (RF) (RES)

netlike system of neurons that weaves through limbic system and plays an important role in attention, arousal, and alert functions; arouses and alerts higher parts of the brain; anesthetics work by temporary shutting off RF system

603.

retina

light-sensitive surface on back of eye containing rods and cones

604.

retrieval

process by which stored information is recovered from memory

retroactive interference

newly learned information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned information

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory of events and experiences that preceded an amnesia-causing event

592.

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594.

595.

596.

599.

600.

601.

602.

605.

the repetition of an experiment to test the validity of its conclusion 606.

607.

608.

609.

610.

611.

612.

613.

614.

Robert Rosenthal

social psychology; focus on nonverbal communication, self-fulfilling prophecies; Studies: Pygmalion Effect-effect of teacher's expectations on students

Robert Sternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)

622.

623.

Robert Yerkes

intelligence, comparative; Yerkes-Dodson law: level of arousal as related to performance

Robert Zajonc

motivation; believes that we invent explanations to label feelings

624.

rods

photoreceptors that detect black, white, and gray, and movement; used for vision in dim light

625.

Rooting reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to turn the head toward a light touch on lips or cheek

Rosenhan

Psychopathology and Social Psychology; effects of labeling; Rosenhan and colleagues checked selves into mental hospitals with symptoms of hearing voices say "empty, dull and thud." Diagnosed with schizophrenia. After entered, acted normally. Never "cleared" of diagnosis. Roles and labels in treating people differently.

Rosenthal & Jacobson

Intelligence and learning, self-fulfilling prophecy; Study Basics: Researchers misled teachers into believing that certain students had higher IQs. Teachers changed own behaviors and effectively raised the IQ of the randomly chosen students

626.

627.

628.

629.

615.

Saccades

Rapid voluntary movements of the eyes.

630.

616.

sample

a group of participants who are assumed to be representative of the population about which an inference is being made

631.

The depth and richness of a hue determined by determined by the homogeneity of the wavelengths contained in the reflected light; also known as purity.

632.

617.

Saturation

SchachterSinger theory of emotion

we determine our emotion based on our physiological arousal, then label that emotion according to our explanation for that arousal

619.

Schema

In Piaget's view, a specific mental structure; an organized way of interacting with the environment and experiencing it- a generalization a child makes based on comparable occurences of various actins, usally physical, motor actions

620.

schema

framework of basic ideas about people, objects and events based on past experience in longterm memory

schema

a conceptual framework that organizes information and allows a person to make sense of the world

618.

621.

633.

634.

635.

Schizophrenic disorders

a group of psychological disorders characterized by a lack of reality testing and by deterioration of social and intellectual functioning and personality beginning before age 45 and lasting at least 6 months

school psychologist

assesses and counsels students, consults with educators and parents, and performs behavioral intervention when necessary

science

way of getting knowledge about the world based on observation

scientific method

in psychology, the techniques used to discover knowledge about human behavior and mental processes

Secondary Punisher

Any neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic negative value for an organism but acquires punishing qualities when linked with a primary punisher

Secondary Reinforcer

Any neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic value for an organism but that becomes rewarding when linked with a primary reinforcer

Secondary Sex Characteristics

The genetically determined physical features that differentiate the sexes but are not directly involved with reproduction

selection studies

studies that estimate the hereditability of a trait by breeding animals with another animal that has the same trait

selective attention

focused awareness of only a limited amount of all you are capable of experiencing

Self

In Roger's theory of personality, the perception an individual has of himself or herself and of his or her relationships to other people and to various aspects of life.

Selfactualization

In humanistic theory, the final level of psychological development, in which one strives to realize one's uniquely human potential-to achieve everything one is capable of achieving

Selfactualization

The process of growth and the realization of individual potential; in the humanistic view, a final level of psychological development in which a person attempts to minimize ill health, be fully functioning, have a superior perception of reality, and feel a strong sense of self-acceptance.

selfactualization

the human need to fulfill one's potential

Self-efficacy

The belief that a person can successfully engage in and execute a specific behavior

Self-efficacy

A person's belief about whether he or she can successfully engage in and execute a specific behavior.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

The creation of a situation that unintentionally allows personal expectancies to influence participants

self-fulfilling prophecy

when a researcher's expectations unknowingly create a situation that affects the results

Selfperception Theory

Approach to attitude formation that assumes that people infer their attitudes and emotional states from their behavior.

Self-serving Bias

People's tendency to ascribe their positive behaviors to their own internal traits, but their failures and shortcomings to external, situational factors.

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

three-stage process which describes the body's reaction to stress: 1) alarm reaction, 2) resistance, 3) exahaustion

semantic memory

memory of ideas, rules, words, and general concepts about the world

643.

Semantics

The analysis of the meaning of language, especially of individual words.

644.

Sensation

Process in which the sense organs' receptor cells are stimulated and relay initial information to higher brain centers for further processing.

636.

637.

638.

639.

640.

641.

642.

645.

646.

647.

648.

649.

Sensorimotor stage

sensory adaptation

The first of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development (covering roughly the first 2 years of life), during which the child develops some motoer coordination skills and a memory for past events temporary decrease in sensitivity to a stimulus that occurs when stimulation is unchanging

sensory memory

performs initial encoding; provides brief storage; also called sensory register

sensory neurons

afferent neurons; neurons that carry messages from sensory organs to the brain and spinal cords

serotonin

neurotransmitter that affects sleep, arousal, mood, appetite; lack of it is linked with depression

650.

set point

preset natural body weight, determined by the number of fat cells in the body

651.

Sex

The biologically based categories of male and female

652.

Shaping

Selective reinforcement of behaviors that gradually approach the desired response

shaping

positively reinforcing closer and closer approximation of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior

short-term storage

holds information for processing; fragile; also called short term memory or working memory

Signal Detection Theory

Theory that holds that an observer's perception depends not only on the intensity of a stimulus but also on the observer's motivation, the criteria he or she sets for determining that a signal is present, and on the background noise.

significant difference

in an experiment, a difference that is unlikely to have occurred because of chance alone and is inferred to be most likely due to the systematic manipulations of variables by the researcher

657.

Size constancy

Ability of the visual perceptual system to recognize that an object remains constant in size regardless of its distance from the observer or the size of its image on the retina.

658.

Skinner Box

Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response

Social Categorization

The process of dividing the world into "in" groups and "out" groups.

Social Cognition

The process of analyzing and interpreting events, other people, oneself, and the world in general.

Social Facilitation

Change in behavior that occurs when people believe they are in the presence of other people.

Social Influence

The ways people alter the attitudes or behaviors of others, either directly or indirectly.

663.

Social Interest

In Adler's theory, a feeling of openness with all humanity.

664.

Social Loafing

Decrease in effort and productivity that occurs when an individual works in a group instead of alone.

665.

Social Need

An aroused condition that directs people to behave in ways that allow them to feel good about themselves and others and to establish and maintain relationships

666.

Social phobia

Anxiety disorder characterized by fear of, and desire to avoid, situations in which the person might be exposed to scrutiny by others and might behave in an embarrassing or humiliating way.

653.

654.

655.

656.

659.

660.

661.

662.

667.

668.

669.

social psychologist

focuses on how the individual's behavior and mental processes are affected by interactions with other people

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how people think about, interact with, influence, and are influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of other people.

Sociobiology

A discipline based on the premise that even day-to-day behaviors are determined by the process of natural selection - that social behaviors that contribute to the survival of a species are passed on via the genes from one generation to the next.

sociocultural psychology

perspective concerned with how cultural differences affect behavior

671.

Socrates

Ancient Greek philosopher. Promoted introspection by saying, "Know thyself."

672.

Solomon Asch

conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect ; in a famous study in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length

670.

673.

674.

675.

676.

677.

678.

679.

680.

681.

682.

somatic nervous system

division of peripheral nervous system; controls voluntary actions

sound localization

the process by which the location of sound is determined

Specific phobia

Anxiety disorder characterized by irrational and persistent fear of a particular object or situation, along with a compelling desire to avoid it.

spinal cord

portion of the CNS that carries messages to the PNS; connects brain to the rest of the body

Stanford-Binet intelligence tests

constructed by Lewis Terman, originally used ratio IQ (MA/CA x 100); now based on deviation from mean

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions

Stanley Schachter

emotion; stated that in order to experience emotions, a person must be physically aroused and know the emotion before you experience it

statedependent learning

the tendency to recall information learned while in a particular physiological state most accurately when one is in that physiological state again

687.

statistics

branch of mathematics that deals with collecting, classifying, and analyzing data

688.

Stereotypes

Fixed, overly simple and often erroneous ideas about traits, attitudes, and behaviors of groups of people; stereotypes assume that all members of a given group are alike.

689.

Stimulant

A drug that increases alertness, reduces fatigue, and elevates mood

Stimulus Discrimination

Process by which an organism learns to respond only to a specific stimulus and not to other stimuli

Stimulus Generalization

Process by which a conditioned response becomes associated with a stimulus that is similar but not identical to the original conditioned stimulus

692.

storage

the process of maintaining or keeping information readily available; the locations where information is held

693.

strain studies

studies of hereditability it be a behavioral traits using animals that have been inbred to produce strains that are genetically similar to one another

683.

684.

685.

686.

690.

691.

split brain patients

people whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed

Spontaneous Recovery

Recurrence of an extinguished conditioned response, usually following a rest period

sports psychologist

helps athletes improve their focus, increase motivation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure

694.

Stress

A nonspecific, emotional response to real or imagined challenges or threats; a result of a cognitive appraisal by the individual

standard deviation

a descriptive statistic that measures the variability of data from the mean of the sample

695.

Stressor

Standard score

A score that expresses an individual's position relative to the mean, based on the standard deviation

An environmental stimulus that affects an organism in physically or psychologically injurious ways, usually producing anxiety, tension, and physiological arousal

696.

structuralism

school of psychological thought that considered the structure and elements of conscious experience to be the proper subject matter of psychology

Standardization

Process of developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test and for establishing norms

697.

698.

699.

700.

701.

702.

Subgoal analysis

Heuristic procedure in which a problem is broken down into smaller steps, each of which has a subgoal.

Sublimation

Defense mechanism by which people redirect socially unacceptable impulses toward acceptable goals.

Subliminal perception

Perception below the threshold of awareness.

Substance Abuser

A person who overuses and relies on drugs to deal with everyday life

Sucking reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

Superego

In Freud's theory, the moral aspect of mental functioning comprising the ego ideal (what a person would ideally like to be) and the conscience and taught by parents and society.

Superstitious Behavior

Behavior learned through coincidental association with reinforcement

Survey

One of the descriptive methods of research; it requires construction of a set of questions to administer to a group of participants

survey research

the measurement of public opinion through the use of sampling and questioning

sympathetic nervous system

a branch of the autonomic nervous system and prepares the body for quick action in emergencies; "fight or flight"

Symptom substitution

The appearance of one overt symptom to replace another that has been eliminated by treatment.

708.

synapse

the space between two neurons where neurotransmitters are secreted by terminal buttons and received by dendrites

709.

synaptic cleft

synaptic gap or synaptic space; tiny gap between the terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron (almost never touch); location of the transfer of an impulse from one neuron to the next

synaptic vesicles

tiny oval-shaped sacs in a terminal of one neuron; assist in transferring mineral impulse from one neuron to another neuron by releasing specific neurotransmitters

703.

704.

705.

706.

707.

710.

711.

Syntax

The way words and groups of words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Systematic desensitization

A three-stage counterconditioning procedure in which people are taught to relax when confronting stimuli that forming elicited anxiety.

713.

Temperament

Early-emerging and long-lasting individual differences in disposition and in the intensity and especially the quality of emotional reactions

714.

temporal lobes

main area for hearing, understanding language (Wernicke's area), understanding music; smell

715.

Teratogen

Substance that can produce developmental malformations (birth defects) during the prenatal period

terminal buttons (axon terminals)

ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters

717.

thalamus

motor sensory relay center for four of the five senses; and with a brain stem and composed of two egg-shaped structures; integrates in shades incoming sensory signals; Mnemonic-"don't smell the llamas because the llamas smell bad"

718.

Thanatology

The study of the psychological and medical aspects of death and dying

719.

theory

a collection of interrelated ideas and facts put forward to describe, explain, and predict behavior and mental processes

720.

Theory of mind

An understanding of mental states such as feelings, desires, beliefs, and intentions and of the causal role they play in human behavior

721.

thyroid gland

located in neck; regulates metabolism by secreting thyroxine

722.

thyroxine

released by thyroid; hormone that regulates the body's metabolism; OVERACTIVE-over-excitability, insomnia, reduced attention span, fatigue, snap decisions, reduced concentration (hyperthyroidism); UNDERACTIVE-desire to sleep, constantly tired, weight gain (hypothyroidism)

723.

timbre

the quality of a sound determined by the purity of a waveform

724.

Time-out

An operant conditioning procedure in which a person is physically removed from sources of reinforcement to decrease the occurrence of undesired behaviors.

725.

Token economy

An operant conditioning procedure in which individuals who display appropriate behavior receive tokens that they can exchange for desirable items or activities.

712.

716.

726.

727.

728.

729.

730.

731.

token economy

Tolerance

operant training system that uses secondary reinforcers (tokens) to increase appropriate behavior; learners can exchange tokens for desired rewards The characteristic of requiring higher and higher doses of a drug to produce the same effect.

744.

unconscious

level of consciousness that includes unacceptable feelings, wishes, and thoughts not directly available to conscious awareness

Undifferentiated type of schizophrenia

a schizophrenic disorder that is characterized by a mixture of symptoms and does not meet the diagnostic criteria of any one type.

Trait

Any readily identifiable stable quality that characterizes how an individual differs from other individuals.

746.

Validity

Process by which a perceptual system analyzes stimuli and converts them into electrical impulses; also known as coding.

Ability of a test to measure what it is supposed to measure and to predict what it is supposed to predict

747.

variability

the extent to which scores differ from one another

748.

variable

a condition or characteristic of a situation or a person that is subject to change (it varies) within or across situations or individuals

Variableinterval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after predetermined but varying amounts of time, provided that the required response occurs at least once after each interval

Variable-ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer (reward) is delivered after a predetermined but variable number of responses has occurred

751.

Vasocongestion

In the sexual response cycle, engorgement of the blood vessels, particularly in the genital area, due to increased blood flow

752.

vestibular sense

body sense of equilibrium and balance

753.

visual acuity

sharpness of vision

754.

Visual cortex

The most important area of the brain's occipital lobe, which receives and further processes information from the lateral geniculate nucleus; also known as the striate cortex.

Von Restorff effect

occurs when recall is better for a distinctive item, even if it occurs in the middle of a list

Vulnerability

A person's diminished ability to deal with demanding life events.

Walter B. Cannon

motivation; believed that gastric activity as in empty stomach, was the sole basis for hunger; did research that inserted balloons in stomachs

Transduction

triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions

Trichromatic theory

Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtz theory.

736.

Trichromats

People who can perceive all three primary colors and thus can distinguish any hue.

737.

twin studies

studies as identical and rhetorical twins to determine relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior

738.

Freud's level of mental life that consists of mental activities beyond people's normal awareness.

information processing guided by preexisting knowledge or expectations to construct perceptions

Psychoanalytic phenomenon in which a therapist becomes the object of a patient's emotional attitudes about an important person in the patient's life, such as a parent.

735.

Unconscious

top-down processing

Transference

734.

743.

cognition; studied rats and discovered the "cognitive map" in rats and humans

occurs when initial processing of information is similar to the process of retrieval; the better the match, the better the recall

733.

Stimulus that normally produces a measurable involuntary response

Tolman

transfer appropriate processing

732.

Unconditioned Stimulus

742.

Type A behavior

Behavior pattern characterized by competitiveness, impatience, hostility, and constant efforts to do more in less time

Type B behavior

Behavior pattern exhibited by people who are calmer, more patient, and less hurried than Type A individuals

Types

Personality categories in which broad collections of traits are loosely tied together and interrelated.

745.

749.

750.

755. 739.

756. 740.

741.

Unconditioned Response

Unlearned or involuntary response to an unconditioned stimulus

757.

Wechsler intelligence tests

three age individual IQ tests: WPPSI (children), WISC (children), WAIS (adults)

759.

Wernicke's area

located in left temporal lobe; plays role in understanding language and making meaningful sentences

760.

Wilhelm Wundt

structuralism; in 1879 founded first psychology laboratory in world at University of Leipzig; introspection, basic units of experience

761.

William Dement

Sleep researcher who discovered and coined the phrase "rapid eye movement" (REM) sleep.

762.

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

763.

William Sheldon

personality; theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny)

Withdrawal Symptoms

The Reaction experienced when a substance abuser stops using a drug with dependence properties

765.

Wolpe

learning; systematic desensitization

766.

working memory

Temporarily holds current or recent information for immediate or short-term use; Information is maintained for 2030 seconds while active processing (e.g., rehearsal) takes place

Working through

In psychoanalysis, the repetitive cycle of interpretation, resistance to interpretation, and transference.

Zajonc & Markus

intelligence and development; discovered that first born and only children tend to have higher IQs than latter born children

zone of proximal development

the range between the level at which a child can solve a problem working alone with difficulty, and the level at which a child can solve a problem with the assistance of adults or children with more skill

Zygote

A fertilized egg

758.

764.

767.

768.

769.

770.