A N TA R C T I C T R E AT Y

C O N S U LT A T I V E M E E T I N G STUDY GUIDE CILA 2016

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INDEX

IMPORTANT DATES First Workshop:

Welcome message / page 1

Wednesday 21 september 9:00am-1:00pm

About ATCM / page 2 Member states / page 5 Working papers / page 6 The role of Antarctica in global climate processes / page 7 Environmentally Managed Tourism and NGO activities in Antarctica / page 11 Application of Nuclear Energy in the Treaty Area/ page 15

Second Workshop: Wednesday 05 october 9:00am-1:00 pm

Deadline for official documents submission: Tuesday 18 october 11:59 pm

WELCOME MESSAGE Honorable Delegates of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting: On behalf of the United Nations Association of the Dominican Republic (UNA-DR) and the Secretariat of this XII edition of the Conferencia Internacional de Las Américas (CILA 2016), we welcome you to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. We want to congratulate you for making one of the best and most important decisions in your young lives by accepting the challenge to become a high-level ambassador in the Antarctic System. Your Dais will be composed by Luis Eduardo Jiménez, who will serve as President and, accompanying him will be Sofia Moquete, as Vice-President. Mr. Jiménez will recently earn his Bachelor of Laws at the Universidad Iberoamericana (UNIBE). He entered the V-ANURD on the 2012 admission process and has been a restless participant of MUN’s since 2008. He worked as Vice President of the Emergency Session of the Security Council in NYDRMUN 2013. More recently, in MNURN 2014, CILA 2014 and CILA 2015, he was a member of the Dais of the Security Council. At the moment, he works as a Corporate Paralegal at a multi-practice law firm in Santo Domingo. Ms. Moquete is currently a sophomore student of the Bachelor of Laws at the Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD). She started Model United Nations in 2011, taking the opportunity to participate in several conferences as the Simulation for the Book Fair 2013, CILA 2013, MINUME 2014, MNURN 2014, Simulation for the Book Fair 2014, CILA 2014 and diverse internal MUNs. On the 2015 admission process she entered the V-ANURD, and has since been a restless participant in the organization of these activities as a member of the Conference Management Unit and the Emergency Session Coordination in CILA 2015, and as Vice President of the JCC: Cold War in NYDRMUN 2016. We encourage you to study in depth the current issues that directly affect the domestic and foreign policies related to the country you will represent. Know that general knowledge of our topic will not be enough to ensure an outstanding performance in this Committee. We will be expecting more than average speeches and discussions; we will demand preparation, a sharp foreign policy, eloquence, motivation, and clear statements. Working Papers are due October 18, 2016 by 11:59 p.m. (GMT -4). Any document received after this date, for any reason whatsoever, will be automatically discarded. These papers must be sent to the emails: [email protected], [email protected] and [email protected] in *.doc or *.pdf format. You may submit your Working Papers at any time before the deadline, early submissions are encouraged. We look forward to meeting you all soon! It will be an honor for us to moderate your work. We earnestly hope you embrace this opportunity to grow as an agent of change for your society, and impact your surroundings with the acquired knowledge in this Conference. Luis Eduardo Jiménez President

Sofía Moquete Vice President

ABOUT ATCM Antarctica is the fifth and coldest continent on Earth. It has the peculiarity to only have two seasons in the year, summer and winter; the first one happens when Earth is toward the sun and the second one occurs when Earth is far away from the sun, leaving the entire continent dark. (NASA, 2010) A characteristic of Antarctica is that this continent is also a desert, because it doesn’t rain, or the precipitations are very insignificant. The cycling seasons reveal the spectacular natural forces of our planet. The surrounding seas teem with wildlife. Also, just 2% of this continent is free of ice, allowing a small toe-hold for hardy animals and plants. The only plants that can live in a place that cold are moss and algae. (NASA, 2010) The most interesting thing about this continent is that it possesses a big scientific power, but this territory doesn’t really belong to any country. Advances in technology and knowledge in the last 100 years came with the result of increased access to Antarctica, encouraging detailed investigation and the ongoing occupation of Antarctica by scientific stations. By mid-century, permanent stations were being established, and planning was underway for the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957-58, the first substantial multi-nation research program in Antarctica. The IGY was recognized as essential to the scientific understanding of Antarctica, or at least this is what the countries that were interested in this topic said. (Natural Environment Research Council /British Antarctic Survey, 2015). There were exactly twelve countries that had the biggest concern in Antarctica at that time, and those countries were: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. They soon established more than 50 stations in this continent.

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Nine of these nations started to make territorial claims or reserved the right to do so, creating tension that threatened future scientific cooperation. Even if the situation was precarious, the immeasurable value of this continent and the fear of war made the twelve nations active in Antarctica agree that their political and legal differences wasn’t an excuse to stop or damage the research program. (Natural Environment Research Council / British Antarctic Survey, 2015) The exceptional success of the IGY made nations agree that peaceful scientific cooperation in the Antarctic should continue indefinitely. This is how they started the negotiations of what is now known as the Antarctic Treaty (AT). (NASA, 2010) The Treaty entered in force in 1961 being the original signatories the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the IGY. The AT acted as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved “on the ice”, and also became the first arms control agreement established during the famous Cold War. Nowadays, this agreement has 53 parties, where 29 are Consultative Parties on the basis of being original signatories or by conducting substantial research there, setting aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve (Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty , 2011).

These established the following parameters and more: Article I: Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only. Article II: Freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica and cooperation toward that end … shall continue. Article III: Scientific observations and results from Antarctica shall be exchanged and made freely available. Article IV: No acts or activities taking place while the present treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica or create any rights of sovereignty in Antarctica. no new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica shall be asserted while the present treaty is in force. To promote the objectives and ensure the observance of the provisions of the Treaty, “all areas of Antarctica, including all stations, installations and equipment within those areas … shall be open at all times to inspection” (Art. VII). The 53 parties make their recommendation, reports or decisions in their annual Consultative Meetings where they focus on scientific cooperation, protections of plants and animals, management of tourism and more. In all the topics related to Antarctica, the parties meet in a chosen country, where they work with resolutions, guidelines, reports or other working documents to regulate any matter within the territory of Antarctica. They also work with different organizations that contribute to their decisions as the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs and the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators. The most significant goal of this treaty is the encouragement of continued international cooperation in scientific research. The member States have the job to regulate all the programs in Antarctica. They are also responsible of solving any situation that may arise in the territory.

Member States The Treaty has 29 Consultative Parties and 24 Non-Consultative Parties, only the Consultative Parties have voting rights at the Consultative Meetings (ATCM). Furthermore, all the decisions in the meetings require a consensus. The Member States of the ATCM are: Consultative Parties: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Czech Republic, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Uruguay, and United States. Non-Consultative Parties: Austria, Belarus, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Denmark, Estonia, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Iceland, Kazakhstan, the Democratic Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Monaco, Mongolia, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Portugal, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, and Venezuela.

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WORKING PAPERS In this CILA 2016 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) you will have to submit a Working Paper per each topic on the agenda. According to the ATCM’s Revised Rules of Procedure 2015 “Working Papers shall refer to papers submitted by Consultative Parties that require discussion and action at a Meeting and papers submitted by Observers” (ATCM, 2015) Normally, working papers are composed of two parts: a Cover Sheet and a Measures Proposal. The Cover Sheet explains the intended effects of the proposal, the history of the matter being discussed and what your country has done on the matter; its purpose is to facilitate consideration of the proposals and drafting of the measures that the ATCM will consider. The Measures Proposal includes the actions to be taken by the ATCM to address the situation and recommendations that are being presented by the parties. An outline of a Working Paper should be as follows: Cover Sheet: • Topic being addressed and the country presenting the Working Paper. • Summary of the Topic. • Background information on what has happened, what action has been taken so far, etc. • What has your country done on the matter. Measures Proposal: • Proposal • Recommendations

UN Photo/Mark Garten

The in

role of Antarctica

global climate

Antarctica is the clue to understand a lot of climate processes in our world; it is where you can find how heat moves from place to place. It has influence in several scientific aspects that affect the process of air purification, the oceans currents, winds, land ice, snow cover, our atmosphere and climate process in general. The role of Antarctica in global climate processes is a very interesting topic because Antarctica is a unique part of Earth where climate has been affected by a lot of factors. Scientists are beginning to unravel how human caused climate changes and how this is affecting global climate. All of this occurs because of some characteristics that this continent has, like the sea ice and seawater. The influence Antarctica has in the global climate processes happens because of the following factors: - Thermohaline Circulation: also called Great Conveyor Belt, is the pattern of ocean circulation that transports heat from the tropics toward the poles and this increases the ability of the ocean to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. (Gale, 2008) - Melting of the sea ice: because of global warming the sea ice starts melting and Earth becomes a better absorber of heat which makes it warmer, and it can also increase the level of the oceans around the world. -

Sea ice:

a) Snow and ice can reflect solar energy to space. And, in this process, a balance is very necessary. This is why, long-term ice shelves (frozen sheets of sea-water) that reduce the amount of energy Earth absorbs, are necessary. (NASA, 2015) b) Sea ice isolates the water from air, reducing the transfer of energy between winds and ocean currents. c) When sea ice melts, it adds freshwater to the surrounding ocean, reducing its saltiness. d) Sea ice can fluctuate by thousands of square miles from winter to summer; the freezing and melting of sea ice are significant drivers of ocean circulation.

e) Sea ice moved by wind and currents, as it melts, deposits freshwater onto the ocean surface to stabilize the water column. f ) Sea ice can modify surface radiation balance due to its high albedo and influencing the exchange of momentum, heat, and matter between atmosphere and ocean. - Sea water: is a very capable absorber of solar energy. Also, when it freezes salt is pulled out because it cannot be accommodated in the atomic structure. This salt rejection makes the ocean denser, causing current to flow. These processes affect the way in which deep and polar waters trade places with surface and tropical waters over time.

Circulation Warm circumpolar water passes through the Drake Passage and flows eastward in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Some of the flow is diverted southward into the Weddell Gyre and becomes denser, sinks, and flows out near the bottom. The inset illustrates the two processes that increase the density: lowering the temperature by giving up heat to the atmosphere, and raising the salinity of the remaining sea water by forming nearly salt-free ice in a cold environment. (National Science Foundation, 1996) For heat transfer, the cryosphere (the frozen water part of the Earth system) is a crucial part of this process, snow limits absorption of solar energy, and when water freezes and ice melts it changes how heat transfers. (Allison, 2002). Ice and snow are also very important because they provide evidence to science and future investigations. Also, sea ice is the key to climate processes because it’s associated with global warming and its consequences.

Our atmosphere and biological production As we explained in the introduction, the only plants that can live in a place that cold are moss and algae, which are a key for science. When there is a change on the sea ice, these species are at risk, because this alternates the biological production and affects the supply of iron which is important for phytoplankton (microscopic marine algae) growth. Reduced production by phytoplankton means reduced atmospheric CO2 uptake. (Australian Government , 2015) A fact that we have to mention is the power of the greenhouse gases to increase or speed up the melting of sea ice which also affects our atmosphere. When we mention this, it’s impossible not to put emphasis on the Hadley Cell, an atmospheric circulation in which air rises at the equator, creating the tropical belt of low pressure, and descends in the subtropics, forming the subtropical high pressure belt. (Scientific Comittee on Antarctic Research, 2014)

The chemical composition of the atmosphere is also a factor. Understanding the relationship between sea ice, the ocean and the atmosphere is necessary to understand the climate processes and the ecosystem.

The Southern Ocean A change in the circulation of the Antarctica ocean (Southern Ocean) is expected to have large and extensive effects, including a reduced in the ability of the ocean to absorb carbon dioxide, and a modification in the Global Overturning Circulation which is the circulation that transports heat around the world’s oceans. The Southern Ocean absorbs one sixth of our current annual emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2). But this will no longer happen if climate change continues changing the Global Overturning Circulation. (National Science Foundation, 1996) All of these processes can work if there is a suitable procedure of ventilation of the ocean. When this doesn’t happen the temperature of the atmosphere increases at high latitudes and the ability to remove carbon dioxide decreases.

Where are we now? Nowadays the global ice decrease has accelerated: ‘‘in the first half of the record (1979-96), the sea ice loss was about 8,300 square miles (21,500 square kilometers) per year. This rate more than doubled for the second half of the period (1996 to 2013), when there was an average loss of 19,500 square miles (50,500 square kilometers) per year – an average yearly loss larger than the states of Vermont and New Hampshire combined.’’ (NASA, 2015) “This doesn’t mean the sea ice loss will continue to accelerate,” Parkinson said. “After all, there are limits. For instance, once all the Arctic ice is gone in the summer, the Arctic summertime ice loss can’t accelerate any further.” (NASA, 2015) But in recent investigations, NASA has found out that an increase in Antarctic snow accumulation that began 10,000 years ago is currently adding enough ice to the continent to outweigh the increased losses from its thinning glaciers. The Antarctic ice sheet gained 112 tons of ice a year from 1992 to 2001. (NASA, 2015) The research challenges the conclusions of other studies, including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) 2013 report, which says that Antarctica is overall losing land ice.

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According to Zwally: “If the losses of the Antarctic Peninsula and parts of West Antarctica continue to increase at the same rate they’ve been increasing for the last two decades, the losses will catch up with the long-term gain in East Antarctica in 20 or 30 years — I don’t think there will be enough snowfall increase to offset these losses.” This thickening, sustained over thousands of years and spread over the vast expanse of these sectors of Antarctica, corresponds to a very large gain of ice – enough to outweigh the losses from fast-flowing glaciers in other parts of the continent and reduce global sea level rise.

“Even though Antarctic sea ice reached a new record maximum this past September, global sea ice is still decreasing...”. “That’s because the decreases in Arctic sea ice far exceed the increases in Antarctic sea ice.” This means that we are still in front of a climate problem because the increases of the ice sheets do not make up for the sea ice already lost.

All of this data has got the attention of the international community, this is why in 1991, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting adopted the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty to make a commitment with the environment of this continent and the consequences it has in Claire Parkinson, author of the global warming. study and climate scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Studies are difficult in AntarcCenter in Greenbelt, Md, said tica because of its harsh wea-

ther, but satellite observations has increased scientist’s ability to understand what is happening with the global climate processes in this continent. The international community knows what is happening, but we need to make more powerful decisions and start working for this territory, and for the entire world.

Adopting a Strategic Approach to Environmentally Managed Tourism and non-governmental activities in Antarctica The first commercial expeditions in the Antarctic started in the 1950s, since then, commercial tourism using both ships and aircraft has increased. The total number of tourists visiting Antarctica in the 2007/08 season was around 46.000. The majority of these visitors travel to the Antarctic Peninsula region from South America specifically Argentina. (Secretariat of the Antarctic) Regular sightseeing passenger flights began in 1977 and developed using passenger aircraft flying from Australia. The discussions about this topic, including the management and regulation of tourism have been conducted by the Antarctic Treaty Parties, being first discussed at the Fourth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) in 1966 in Santiago. (ATCM , 2012) The ATCM has focused on safety and environmental issues, including factors as the ships sizes, rescue matters, passenger’s limits and general guidelines. The central ATCM regulations and guidelines for tourists and expedition organizers are contained in the Environment Protocol and Tourism Guidelines attached to Recommendation XVIII-1 (1994). This provides the requirement of tourist expeditions to submit reports on their visits. The main activities undertaken by tourists in the Antarctic are closely related to the mode of tourism, defined in the previous section, as: (Antarctica New Zealand, 2016): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. chts)

Ship based tourism, normally including shore landings (expedition cruising) Ship based tourism, not including landings (cruise only) Yacht based tourism (yachting) Scenic flights (overflights) Land based tourism (mostly supported by air transport, also supported by ships and ya-

The ATCM also issues specific guidelines for the sites most visited by tourists that include guides

IAATO has been proactive in abiding by the Recommendations, Measures and Resolutions agreed by ATCPs, but they have also developed their own standards and guidance materials including: IAATO currently has more than 100 members comprised of: • Members or Associate B1 members: Companies that organize and operate travel programs to the Antarctic themselves, • Associate B2 members: Tour operators, travel agents or other marketers that book their customers into other Members’ or Associate B1 members’ Antarctic programs. • Affiliate members: Companies or organizations with an interest in supporting Antarctic tourism and IAATO objectives, but do not market Antarctica tours.

Incidents The data suggests that the most vulnerable are the groundings of vessels that can hit with uncharted rocks, driven by wind or currents. The largest single-event loss of life in Antarctica occurred as a result of the crash of the Air New Zealand flight TE901 on Ross Island in November 1979, with the loss of all 237 passengers and 20 crew on board. In 2010 three vessels engaged in either tourism or non-governmental activities sunk in the Antarctic: The Southern Quest sank in the Ross Sea in 1986 after being caught in and then crushed by packed ice, the Bahia Paraiso sank near Anvers Island, Antarctic Peninsula in 1989 after running aground on rocks, and the Explorer sank in Bransfield Strait, Antarctic Peninsula in 2007 after a collision with ice. (ATCM , 2012) The Explorer was the only sinking incident strictly involving a tourist vessel. Also, The Bahia Paraiso was a national program transport vessel in route to re-supply a base, with tourists on board. When the vessel attempted to afford the tourist on board a shore landing, the incident occurred. The largest amount of oil spilt in Antarctica followed the grounding and sinking of the Bahia Paraiso, when around 600,000 litters of fuel oil were lost to surrounding waters. Only minor fuel leaks have otherwise been reported from known incidents. (ATCM , 2012)

Atmospheric emissions Another worry is greenhouse gas emissions from Antarctic tourism. The estimated average of CO2 emissions caused by cruises in Antarctica is 6.3 tons per passenger per trip. Amelung and Lamers (2007) estimated the flight emissions at 3.2 tons of CO2 per passenger, resulting in a total average of 9.5 tones. (ATCM , 2012)

Impacts Environmental aspect Potential impact 1. Presence The presence of people and human-made Modification of, or risk to aestheobjects in the Antarctic. tic, or wilderness significance and intrinsic values. 2. Atmospheric emisDischarge of emissions to the atmosphere Pollution of marine, terrestrial, sions (including greenhouse gases and particu- freshwater and atmospheric envilates) from engines, generators and inci- ronments. nerators, signalling or marking devices. 3. Anchoring Interaction with the seafloor or coastal Disturbance and damage of benthic mooring sites from deploying and retrie- marine species, communities and ving anchors and anchor chains. habitats. 4. Light emission Discharge / escape of light from windows Injury or death of seabirds striking and other sources during dark hours. vessels (see interaction with wildlife). 5. Generation of noise Sound arising from activities in water, on Disturbance to wildlife. land or in the air from the operation of vessels, small boats, aircraft, and equipment or from individuals or groups of people. 6. Release of waste• Release or loss of any garbage, sewage, Pollution of marine, terrestrial and chemicals, noxious substances, pollutants, freshwater environments. equipment or presence of toxic coatings (e.g. antifouling on hulls). 7. Release of fuel, oil or Leak or spill of oil or oily wastes to the Pollution of marine, terrestrial and oily mixtures environment, including the subsequent freshwater environments. movement of such substances. 8. Interaction with water Disturbance to the water column, by vesand ice sel movement or propulsion. 9. Interaction with iceDirect or indirect contact with land by Physical changes to the landscape free ground foot traffic, vehicles, camp equipment, etc. (e.g. erosion, tracks) 10. Interaction with Direct or indirect contact with, or Changes to wildlife behaviour, phywildlife approach to, wildlife. siology and breeding success. 11. Interaction with Direct or indirect contact with vegetation Physical damage to flora. vegetation or controls on vegetation abundance (e.g. altered water availability). 12. Interaction with his- Direct or indirect contact with historic Detrimental changes to the historic toric sites sites, monuments or artifacts and taking values of the areas or items of historic significance. 13. Interaction with Direct or indirect contact with science Degradation of scientific values. scientific stations or equipment, monitoring or research sites scientific research and with station activities. 14. Transfer of non-nati- Unintended introduction to the Antarctic Alien species introduced. ve species or propagules region of species not native to that region, and the movement of species within Antarctica from one biogeographic zone to any other.

Release of oil The release of fuel, oil or oily mixtures is reported as the most widespread environmental aspect of human activities in Antarctica (Bargagli, 2005) with mostly land-based activities, contributing by far the most known releases of fuel and oils. The spilt fuel affected a major portion of the Arthur Harbour ecosystem within a few kilometers of the wreck (Kennicutt and Sweet, 1992). Intertidal macroalgae, limpets, birds, sediments, and shores were coated with fuel (Kennicutt et al., 1991a and b), and limpet populations were reduced by 50% within the first few weeks of the spill.

Regulation of Antarctic tourism and non-governmental activities In addition to the application of the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and the Environmental Protocol, between 1959 and 2011 the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs) have taken a total of 30 decisions at their regular meetings on the issue of Antarctic tourism, many of which relate to environmental aspects. (ATCM , 2012) In 1991 the Parties adopted the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. Articles 3(4), 8(2) and 15 (1) (a) of the Protocol make clear its applicability to tourism and non-governmental activities. In 1994 the ATCM adopted the Recommendation XVIII-1 (‘Guidance for Visitors to the Antarctic’ and ‘Guidance for Those Organizing and Conducting Tourism and Non-governmental Activities in the Antarctic’). The first recommendation on tourism was adopted in 1966, when Antarctic tourism was a relatively new and after that a lot of regulations were adopted on this matter, focusing on the following measures: a) Advanced notification for station visits. b) Restrictions on tourist access to protected areas. c) Consideration for the establishment of areas of special tourist interest. d) Need for operators to carry appropriate insurance. Other helpful sources for investigation: • Guidance for organizing tourism (http://iaato.org/guidance-for-those-organising-tourism) • Visitor guidelines (http://iaato.org/visitor-guidelines) • Visitors’ slide show (http://iaato.org/visitors-slide-show) • Don’t pack a pest (http://iaato.org/dont-pack-a-pest) • Decontamination guidelines (http://iaato.org/decontamination-guidelines) • Wildlife watching guidelines (http://iaato.org/wildlife-watching-guidelines) • Guidelines for Small Boat Operations in the Vicinity of Ice (IAATO, 2010)

Application of Nuclear in the

Energy

Treaty Area

Article V of the Antarctic Treaty determines that: 1. Any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there of radioactive waste material shall be prohibited. 2. In the event of the conclusion of international agreements concerning the use of nuclear energy, including nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste material, to which all of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings, provided for under Article IX are parties, the rules established under such agreements shall apply in Antarctica. Following Article V, on the very first ATCM meeting in 1961, Recommendation I-13 was adopted. Recommendation I-13 focused on the “Exchange of information on nuclear equipment and techniques”, adopted at the First Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting in Canberra (Australia) in 1961 indicated that “taking into consideration the provisions established in Article V of the Antarctic Treaty, the Representatives recommend to their Governments that they exchange by all means deemed advisable information on the application of nuclear equipment and techniques in the Treaty area” (ATCM, 1961). After its approval by all Consultative Parties at the time, it entered into force on April 30th, 1962. Also, on May 19th 1995, at ATCM XIX in Seoul, Resolution 2 (1995) was adopted on the subject of Disposal of nuclear waste negotiations. The resolution recalled that “Aware that Article 4.6 of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal prohibits the export of hazardous wastes or other wastes for disposal within the area south of 60° South latitude, whether or not such wastes are subject to transboundary movement” (ATCM, 1995) and urged the governments of the ATCP to “Coordinate their positions in any negotiations relating to the disposal of nuclear waste in which they participate, with the objective of the inclusion of provisions prohibiting the transfer of nuclear waste to, and the disposal of nuclear waste in, the Antarctic Treaty Area.” (ATCM, 1995) As Article II of the Antarctic Treaty proclaimed one of the main principles of international cooperation in the region – freedom of scientific investigation. These provisions gave the right to the national Antarctic programs of the signatories to the Antarctic Treaty to use different technologies for scientific research, including nuclear technologies, with an attendant obligation to inform all Consultative Parties.

Thus, the United States during the period 1960 to 1972 constructed and operated an atomic power plant at its main Antarctic station McMurdo, which was later completely disassembled and removed to the United States and the place it had been located was subjected to the required reclamation. In the early 1960s, a similar project was ordered by the SAE for installation at Molodezhnaya station; this project, however, was never implemented. (Russian Federation and United States, 2015) As we can see the application of nuclear energy in the region has been discussed and practiced since the 1960’s. Sadly, the practice of using nuclear energy in the region hasn’t been successful as the radioactive waste and radioisotopes have affected the Antarctic region. As we can see the application of nuclear energy in the region has been discussed and practiced since the 1960’s. Sadly, the practice of using nuclear energy in the region hasn’t been successful as the radioactive waste and radioisotopes have affected the Antarctic region. Also, the US McMurdo station’s nuclear power plant suffered several breakdowns, by fire and by radioactive leaks back in the 1970’s (Francioni and Scovazzi, 1996). The recurrence of such accidents in Antarctica can affect, not only the environment of the region, but the entire world as Antarctica plays a crucial role in the global climate system, as a key element of global circulation in the atmosphere and ocean, and as a significant control on global sea level.

UN Photo/Mark Garten

This is why the use of nuclear energy in Antarctica must be strictly regulated and the practice done with the outmost security measures in place. Apart from Annex III to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty about Waste Disposal and Waste Management, little regulations exist on the disposal of radioactive waste and no specific regulations on the use of nuclear energy exists on the Antarctic System. It is time to make way for specific regulations on the use of nuclear energy in the area and a comprehensive and environmentally safe practice in the Antarctic region.

References 1. Allison, I. (2002, May). Australian Government, Department of the Environment . Retrieved June 25, 2016, from Antarctic ice and the global climate system: http://www.antarctica.gov.au/magazine/2001-2005/ issue-3-autumn-2002/feature/antarctic-ice-and-the-global-climate-system 2. Antarctica New Zealand. (2016). Antarctic Environments Portal. Retrieved 2 July, 2016, from Environmental aspects and impacts of Antarctic tourism and non-governmental activities: https://www.environments. aq/current-priority-issues/environmental-aspects-and-impacts-of-antarctic-tourism-and-non-governmental-activities/ 3. ATCM (1961). Recommendation I-XIII. Retrieved July 13, 2016, from: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings_meeting_measure.aspx?lang=e 4. ATCM (1995). Resolution 2 (1995). ATCM XIX. Retrieved July 13, 2016, from: http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ ats_meetings_meeting_measure.aspx?lang=e 5. ATCM . (2012). CEP Tourism Study. 6. Australian Government . (2015, October 15). Australian Antarctic Division. Retrieved June 29, 2016, from 7. Sea ice and oceans: http://www.antarctica.gov.au/science/climate-processes-and-change/oceans-and-marine-ice-in-the-southern-hemisphere 8. Francioni, F. and Scovazzi, T. (1996). International Law for Antarctica. Retrieved July 13, 2016, from: https:// books.google.com.do/books?id=cIFAZPBKKuwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false 9. Gale. (2008). Encyclopedia. Retrieved June 2016, from Antarctica: Role in Global Climate: http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-3079000028/antarctica-role-global-climate.html 10. International Association Antarctica Tours Operations. (1994). IAATO. Retrieved July 1, 2016, from Guidance for those Organising and Conducting Tourism and Non-governmental Activities in the Antarctic: http:// iaato.org/guidance-for-those-organising-tourism 11. NASA. (2010, December 08). NASA Knows! Retrieved June 25, 2016, from What is Antarctica?: http:// www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-antarctica-k4.html 12. NASA. (2015, February 10). Ice. Retrieved July 2, 2016, from NASA Study Shows Global Sea Ice Diminishing, Despite Antarctic Gains: http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/nasa-study-shows-global-sea-ice-diminishing-despite-antarctic-gains 13. NASA. (2015, November 15). Study: Mass gains of Antarctic ice sheet greater than losses. Retrieved June 27, 2016, from Global Cimate Change: http://climate.nasa.gov/news/2361/ 14. National Science Foundation . (1996). National Science Foundation . Retrieved June 18, 2016, from Circulation: http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1996/nstc96rp/images/arrobimg.jpg 15. National Science Foundation. (1996). Antarctica: A Unique Laboratory for Science. Retrieved June 17, 2016, from Antarctica’s Important Role in Global Ocean Circulation: http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1996/nstc96rp/ sb6.htm 16. Natural Environment Research Council /British Antarctic Survey. (2015). British Antarctic Survey . Retrieved June 29, 2016, from The Antarctic Treaty Explained: https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/the-antarctic-treaty/the-antarctic-treaty-explained/ 17. Russian Federation and the United States (2015). Russia-U.S. Removal of Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators from the Antarctic. Information Paper 68 of the ATCM XXXVIII. 18. Scientific Comittee on Antarctic Research. (2014, August 22). The Antarctic environment in the global system. Retrieved June 28, 2016, from The role of the Antarctic in the global climate system: http://acce.scar. org/wiki/The_role_of_the_Antarctic_in_the_global_climate_system 19. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty . (2011). ATS. Retrieved June 19, 2016, from The Antarctic Treaty: http:// www.ats.aq/e/ats.htm 20. Secretariat of the Antarctic. (n.d.). Antarctic Treaty. Retrieved June 22, 2016, from Tourism and non Governmental Activities: http://www.ats.aq/e/ats_other_tourism.htm

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RA A P S E N N O Ó I I C C DA ELEGA N E M D O R C E O J R E M A SER L UNADR Photo/ Apolinar Moreno

TEMAS DE LOS COMISIÓNES: • Conozca extensamente la Agenda: temas, asuntos relevantes, convenciones, resoluciones, declaraciones, etc. • Siga la dirección y orientación del debate por parte de la Mesa Directiva de la respectiva CAUCUS - HABILIDADES Y TALENTOS: • Demuestre cortésmente sus habilidades de persuasión, negociación, mediación • Sostenga siempre su compromiso por encontrar una solución que beneficie a toda la comunidad DISCURSO - DEBATE FORMAL: • Tenga presente que la presentación de su discurso debe incluir contacto visual, lenguaje corporal, tono de voz razonable y, sobretodo, • Mantenga su objetividad y posición de Delegado. • Sea un orador diplomático. • Desarrolle la habilidad de expresar y exponer sus pensamientos claramente. PAPEL DE POSICIÓN: • Defina cada tópico de la agenda y su relación con el interés nacional de su país. • Vaya directo a la esencia de cada tópico y delimite su información (muy importante).

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