ANNEX 5: Summary of available wastewater data

ANNEX 5: Summary of available wastewater data a. Targets regarding Domestic Wastewater MED Sewage treatment plants in cities with more than 100,000 ...
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ANNEX 5: Summary of available wastewater data

a. Targets regarding Domestic Wastewater MED

Sewage treatment plants in cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants & appropriate out falls and/or treatment plants for cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants

BSEP

Comprehensive national studies on the discharges of insufficiently treated sewage will be prepared by each Black Sea state by January 2000. They serve as a basis for taking decisions and implementing significant reductions of the inputs of insufficiently treated sewage from large urban areas by 2006 (SAP, 1996).

OSPAR HELCOM

50% reduction in N respectively P loads 50% reductions in nutrient inputs before 2005 Facilitation & monitoring of the elimination of the 132 hot-spots. Implementation HELCOM recommendations, e.g.: limitation of discharges from incineration of household waste, phosphorus and nitrogen removal at municipal sewage water treatment plants.

CEP

Development of regional strategies for pollution reduction e.g.:‘through the use of demonstration pilot projects, investigation of cost effective means of treating municipal waste waters & produce regional recommendations within 5-10 years".

EAF

WACAF EAS

More qualitative targets regarding wastewater management exists on national level Ensure solid domestic & industrial wastes are not dumped on or around sensitive coastal habitats Use of remotely-sensed imagery detecting & assessing the physical damage to coastal habitats by siltation, solid domestic or industrial waste Initiate a monitoring programme Develop a sewage-treatment plant No information yet available Sewage is classified with the highest priority. Develop a Regional Agreement dealing with Water Recycle Manag. & Criteria and Standards for the release of sewage and urban run off into waterways (water quality standards)

SAS

India accepted MDG and strives towards covering all the inhabitants and give the population access to better water and sanitation hardware as well as knowledge-ware before 2015

SEP SP

Sanitation service coverage goals for Chile, 77.9% for the year 2005 and 93.8 % for 2010 34,9 million people sanitation coverage by the year 2015 ; respectively 25,5 million in urban and 9,4 million people in rural areas.

NWP CAR

No information yet available Domestic wastewater shall be treated by a new or existing domestic wastewater system with specified effluent limitations

NEP PERSGA ROPME

Target for total suspended solids, 150 mg/l; BOD, 150 mg/l. No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available

b. % untreated wastewater reaching fresh / coastal waters

CEP EAF

Total: 9,001,000 m3/day =53% No information yet available 2-20% order of 14% MWWTP for 2 areas of 1.6million inhabitants 60% Maputo is the only city in the region with a central sewage system and WWTP. Untreated wastewater directly discharged is 50%

WACAF

Total sewage flow from households connected to a sewer system is 67.500 m3/yr from total sewage flow of 164.600 m3/yr

EAS SAS

80% of wastewater in Nigeria is untreated 89% of the domestic BOD untreated (data from four countries) Out of the total estimated 7000 MLD sewage generated, treatment is done to a limited extend; 300 out of 2000 mld in Mumbai and 47 out of 757 mld in Karachi (resp. 15 and 6%) is treated.

MED BSEP OSPAR HELCOM

SEP SP

Average untreated wastewater in India is 80% 79-85 % of domestic wastewater is untreated in SEP countries No information yet available

NWP CAR NEP PERSGA ROPME

No information yet available More than 86 % of domestic wastewater collected in Latin America is untreated. Jamaica generates about 455 million litres of sewage per day, of which 75 % is untreated No information yet available No information yet available Untreated and treated sewage discharged in the region was 940,033 tons/yr

c. Number & capacity of treatment plants versus numbers of people served MED

BSEP OSPAR

HELCOM

Population served by a sewerage network and a treatment plant is 41,445,000 = 70% The total number of cities with more than 100, 000 inhabitants served by a treatment plant = 79 % Cities with a wastewater treatment plant 374 = 69 % No information yet available Total number of Local Authority sewerage schemes in the country is 856; of these, 635 serve areas having 'population equivalents' greater than 200. Remaining 221 schemes are generally small sewer systems serving housing developments on outskirts of towns. Approximately 13 million inhabitants are connected to 155 MWWTPs (no data available for Russia), producing 2950 million m3/a treated wastewater Treated wastewater from 264 small settlements with total of 377000 inhabitants was 555 million m3/a (thus less than 2% of total direct discharge)

CEP

Most major cities have municipal WWTP, but only part of inhabitants are connected Smaller towns and settlements do not have a central collection system Wastewater treatment plants exist in Azerbaijan (2 largest plants); one in Apsheron with a capacity of 5.7 m3/s and one in Sumgayit 1.7 & m3/s. Minor plants: flow from these plants contributes with less than 10% from the Apsheron plant.11 plants other located in coastal region for municipalities with inhabitants between 2000-70000 Most of them not functioning. Russia - Astrakan: 3 plants serving 500000 inhabitants & small biological treatment plants with a flow less than 5% of Astrakan

EAF

WACAF EAS SAS SEP SP NWP CAR

Kazakhstan: Aktau 75% WW biological treatment In Turmanistan and Iran there are no WWTP The domestic sewerage system in Mombasa serves about 15-20% of the population Maputo is the only city in Mozambique with central sewage systems, serving 30% of the households In Dar es Salaam (4 million inhabitants) 14% connected to sewage system No information yet available No information yet available 39% of the population in South Asia have adequate sanitation facilities (69 % in Urban areas) No information yet available 12 % of the municipalities in Colombia have wastewater treatment plants. No information yet available Sewerage service coverage for Urban areas is average 85,88% and 55,01% for rural areas 93% of the population have access to improved sanitation; and 88% has access to improved water supply (note both Fiji and Kiribati have water supply and sanitation coverage below 50%) Total sanitation coverage in CAR is 78%, with 87% and 49% at urban and rural areas, respectively. Population served by sewage systems varied from 2 - 16% 93% of the urban population and 62% of rural population have adequate water supply services (less than 50% sanitation coverage, in Belize and Haiti)

NEP PERSGA ROPME

No information yet available No information yet available 75 % of Bahrain’s population is covered by a sewage treatment network, and approx. 100 % of the United Arab Emirates and Oman, and 79 % of the Islamic Republic of Iran

d. Tonnes N, P, BOD fresh and/or marine pollution load MED BSEP

OSPAR HELCOM CEP

No information yet available Total BOD 1,114,067 t/yr, N: 647,292 t/yr, P: 50,496 t/yr (River & country point sources), Domestic BOD: 68,955 t/yr, N 20,294 t/yr, P 6,655 t/yr Industrial BOD 81,820 t/yr, N 146,934 t/yr, P 2,024 t/yr Total N 194622 t/yr and P 1670 t/yr from sewage treatment works and sewerage (excluding France) Domestic wastewater BOD: 1140 080 t/a, N: 761 000 t/a, P: 38 000 t/a Domestic wastewater loads treated or non-treated discharged directly into the Caspian sea; BOD 87200 t/yr, N: 26000 t/yr t/yr, P: 6850 t/yr

EAF

There is a large degree of uncertainty regarding BOD loads reaching the sea; data are mainly available on national level (UNEP, 1998) BOD load for Mobassa (Kenya) is estimated at BOD: 4588 t/yr. Contribution of wastewater from the beach hotels in Mombasa is BOD: 4369 t/yr , N: 622 t/yr, P: 94,6 (18% of total BOD per year)

WACAF EAS

SAS

Seychelles (1995): BOD: 2783.1 t/yr, Total N: 5481.7 t/yr, Total P: 4576.6 t/yr In Tanzania 71% (16927 t/yr) of total BOD produced in Moputa, e.g.: N: 3246 t/yr; Dar es Salaam: BOD: 11,681t/yr (55% of total BOD), P: 3,320 t/yr; Tanga BOD: 4991.7, N: 571.4 t/yr Comoros: BOD;3248 t/yr Madagascar: BOD: 10398 t/yr No information yet available Regional BOD estimate from municipal sewage: 288,961 tons /yr, BOD industrial pollution: 47,269 tons/yr Metongo study 1997: Total BOD: 110.019 t/yr, N 3052 t/yr, P:370 t/yr Houses connected to sewage collection system: BOD: 18.222 t/yr, N 3.052 t/yr, P:370 t/yr 6 million t/yr BOD generated by the coastal population of 7 participating countries of the South China Sea (data are per country available); 11% (655 103 t/yr) removed by treatment. Typical Domestic Sewage with effluents from small/medium industries, Mumbai: BOD 258 mg/l; N 35 mg/l; P 6 mg/l

SEP SP NWP CAR NEP PERSGA ROPME

34847 kg BOD/day generated from sewage in Sri Lanka No information yet available Domestic Wastewater loadings: BOD 16733, N 8286,P 1010 tonnes/yr No information yet available Havana Bay reported concentrations of 70 umol/l of ammoniac nitrogen and 0.7-2.5 umol/l P. No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available

e. Domestic wastewater pollution load compared to other pollution sources MED BSEP

OSPAR

No information yet available BOD: Domestic 6.1 %; Industrial 7.2 %; Riverine 4.8%; International 81.8% N: Domestic 3.1%; Industrial 22.7 %; Riverine 7.7%; International 66.5% P: Domestic 13.2 %; Industrial 7.2 %; Riverine 9.8%; International 738% Sewage treatment works, sewerage N 27 %, p: 37%; House-holds not connected N: 4%,P: 8%; Industry: N: 5%, P: 9%; Diffuse losses N; 65%, P: 46%.

HELCOM

Only differentiation between municipal and industrial discharge and (riverine/coastal runoff) Riverine runoff from monitored rivers: 434690 mill m3/a Runoff unmonitored rivers and coastal areas 266 190 mill m3/a Treated direct municipal discharge: 3000 mill m3/a Untreated municipal discharge: 490 m3/a Treated direct industrial 1950 mill m3/a Untreated industrial: 0.42 mill m3/a Sources N& P: Industry 4% N; Municipal: 37% N; Agriculture:59 N / Industry 6% P; Municipal 32%; Agricultural 62%

CEP EAF

No information yet available Main pollution source is domestic waste. Industrial BOD pollution is 21,1% of total pollution load Kenya Mombassa produces 18% of total BOD per year Tanzania Dar es Salaam produces 55% of total BOD Domestic BOD 288.961 t/yr Industrial BOD:47269 t/yr (16.3 % of Domestic BOD) Domestic BOD 5714.5 (103 t/yr)4 Industrial BOD:432,888 t/yr No information yet available No information yet available Domestic sources constitutes the majority of the relative pollution load compared with Industrial and Agricultural sources; For BOD >50%, SS >80%, N >95%, >60% for P

WACAF EAS SAS SEP SP NWP CAR NEP PERSGA ROPME

No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available

f. Amount of money spent (country/region) on municipal wastewater collection or treatment MED BSEP OSPAR HELCOM

No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available From the 132 hotspots, currently 46 are deleted and 3 partially. For 31 deleted hotspots 1114 M Euro was invested (Nov 2002) In 1999 estimated costs for 115 hotspots was 7500 M Euro, of which 29 M for solid waste treatment and 4029 M Euro for the municipal sector

CEP

Investment costs for upgrading the collection systems, are roughly estimated to be around 1.8 billion EURO. Comprehensive renovation & extension of the collection systems (partially) biological treatment of the collected sewage is here included. Investment costs related to WWTP’s varies according to the level of nutrient removal from 470 million EURO (BOD removal only) to 770 million EURO (Extensive nutrient removal).

EAF WACAF EAS SAS

No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available Total Sanitation Campaign (India) entails a total financial outlay of USD 718 million to improve rural sanitation facilities. For Sri Lanka a total cost of 49 million USD was calculated The Asia Urbs Program supported by EC: Euro 26.3 million for public/private sector partnerships to improve living and environmental conditions in urban areas (management and planning systems, of policy development, of health, and marketing schemes, rehabilitation of buildings, water and sanitation systems)-Karachi Water and Sewerage Board to improve quality of water: (a) Treatment Plant ; (b) Pipri Treatment Works and (c) Pumping Station. Total Loan of 10.3 billion JY for completion in 2004.

SEP

Total annual investment for 2000-2010 (SEP- countries) was calculated US$45.0 million for drinking water and US$9.2 million for sanitation to reach 92,6 and 93,5% coverage, respectively. Total investment for Colombia’s (1999-2000) was 3 billion USD of which 56% for drinking water an 44 % for sewage systems

SP NWP CAR NEP PERSGA ROPME

No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available No information yet available

g. Costs per capita for domestic wastewater collection resp. treatment SAS

Cost for a sewer network and pumping station in Srilanka was estimated to be 14 million USD yet this same project would have benefit /cost ratio of 2.27 which is economically highly significant.

SEP

Cost for drinking water is US$3.50 per capita and US$0.71 for sanitation Average cost treated water service per capita is 1.35 USD in Colombia, the total investment per capita is 180 USD for Sewage System Coverage in metropolitan areas and 100 USD in rural areas. Investment in wastewater treatment plants amounts 130 or 30 USD for cities > or < 250.000 inhabitants

h. % domestic wastewater re-used (probably after treatment) CAR

Re-use of effluent 31 plants (21%); sub-surface discharge, 20 plants (14%); marine disposal, mainly on the shoreline, 42 plants (28%); lagoons and streams, 32 plants (22%); and on site disposal, 21 plants (14%).

Mediterranean Sea (MED) Targets As early as 1975, under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Mediterranean governments launched a programme (The Mediterranean Action Plan) which aimed at the protection of the Mediterranean Sea region. The Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) consisted of three components: 1. scientific (a programme of marine pollution monitoring and research called the MED POL Programme), 2. legal (the development of a regional legal framework) and 3. socio-economic (the analysis of the socio-economic trends). In 1985 the Genoa Declaration was adopted to cover the second decade of the Mediterranean Action Plan. Ten targets to be achieved by the end of the decade were approved. Amongst the targets approved, one of the priorities was ‘the establishment of sewage treatment plants in all cities around the Mediterranean Sea with more that 100,000 inhabitants and appropriate out falls and/or appropriate treatment plants for all cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants’. Discharges The UNEP/MED report (2000) describes the result of data collection and analyses of 19 Mediterranean countries, on the quantity and quality of wastewater collection. The general results include; • Total number of cities with more than 100, 000 inhabitants served by a treatment plant = 79 % • Cities with a wastewater treatment plant 374 = 69 % • • Population served by a sewerage network and a treatment plant 41,445,000 = 70% • Population served by a sewerage network only 17,378,000 =30% • Cities without a wastewater treatment plant 132 = 24% • Cities with no information at all 39 = 7% • Cities with a wastewater treatment plant 374 = 69 % • Primary treatment 83 = 22% • Secondary treatment 241 65 % • Tertiary treatment 37 = 10% • Unknown treatment 13 = 3% • Total cubic metres of waste water treated per day 8,037,000 =47% • Total cubic metres of waste water untreated per day 9,001,000 =53% • Total wastewater, cubic metres per capita per day 0.290 The conclusions of this study indicate that in spite of the efforts of Mediterranean countries to improve their information system, there are still important gaps to overcome. • Inaccurate population data, or existing information not updated, especially that concerning seasonal increases of population; • Incomplete or diffuse information on the generation of wastewater treated or untreated; • Insufficient information concerning the kind of services being provided to the population. For example: exact population serviced by treatment plants, by a sewerage network only, by other disposal systems; or simply information on the degree of treatment plants in operation, (primary, secondary or tertiary). • Data on the year of construction of plants was also incomplete. This information is needed for upgrading services and re-dimensioning systems according to the present needs. According to estimations, land-based sources of pollution constitute more than 80% of the total pollution load of the Mediterranean.

A 2000 UNEP/MED report states that for the Mediterranean region, water consumption of 150-250 l/cap per day (can be substantially less in some countries and cities) can be taken as a reasonable estimate. Of the total quantity that is conveyed to communities by means of water supply systems, 7080 % reaches the sewerage system, the rest evaporating or infiltrating into the soil. This does not include industrial wastewater, which, according to local circumstances, should also be taken into account. Nor does it include infiltration inflow into the sewer, which depends upon hydrological conditions in each community. In addition, the report reads ‘Municipal wastewater is discharged directly into the immediate coastal zone either untreated or subjected to various treatment procedures. It reaches the sea through out fall structures of variable length, or it reaches the sea by seepage as a result of leaks in sewerage systems, or ‘through the hydrographic river network’. Wastewaters are treaded in order that they may either be discharged in a controlled manner into the water systems or reused. Water treatment is carried out applying physical operations and chemical and biological processes. In order to eliminate wastes from the water, different operations and processes are applied at a facility defined as water treatment plant. Wastewater discharge into the sea is the most common manner of final wastewater disposition in coastal residential and tourist communities, as well as in industrial zones in the Mediterranean. The selection of the manner o discharge depends upon hydrographical, topographical and geological conditions in the coastal zone and oceanographic conditions in the sea. In order to contribute to the implementation of the Genoa Declaration targets, PAP/RAC started in 1985 actions oriented to the improvement of solid and liquid waste management in the Mediterranean countries. Enjoying the support and collaboration of a number of international and national specialised organisations (such as WHO/EURO, EU, CEFIGRE, BRGM), PAP/RAC created a network of experts, organised several meetings and training courses, and produced a number of training materials on management and maintenance of liquid waste and on planning and design of liquid waste treatment plants in large Mediterranean cities. Also, two major documents were prepared, namely: Code of practice for liquid waste management and Code of practice for solid waste management. Although the results achieved through this action have been used in the framework of the first generation of CAMP projects, due to financial constraints, the action had to be temporarily set aside. Indicators: Drawing up a common set of "indicators for sustainable development in the Mediterranean" (ISD) is one of the activities of the Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development (MCSD). The Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention (20 Mediterranean-rim nations and the European Community) approved the recommendations derived from it at their meeting in Malta in October 1999. This exercise is part of a world-wide effort undertaken by the United Nations Commission for Sustainable Development (UNCSD) which following on from the Rio Conference of 1992 on the Environment and Development, has, for the whole world produced a set of 134 indicators defined in the "Blue Book": "Indicators of sustainable development: framework and methodologies". The indicators for sustainable development make no claim to measure sustainable development but are a tool at its service, by giving indications on the interaction between economic development, society and the environment according to the Pressure-State-Response framework. The set of Mediterranean indicators also enables the measuring differences in situations and rhythms in each of the countries and the progress towards sustainable development by identifying the achievements and difficulties encountered. The 130 Mediterranean indicators were selected at the two Mediterranean workshops in Tunis, June 1998 and Sophia-Antipolis in May 1999 from a list of some 250 indicators, 134 of which came from the UNCSD. Only 40 indicators of these 134 were retained for the Mediterranean countries, the specificity of which was thus eventually stressed.

The indicators below have been adopted by the Contracting Parties in Malta, 1999. They were selected during two-years of work by the Mediterranean Commission of Sustainable Development (MCSD), and were validated by the Contracting Parties. The numbers between brackets respectively indicate the relevance and the availability with a notation of 1: weak, to 4: strong. • Global quality of coastal waters (4,2) • Density of the solid waste disposed in the sea (4,2) • Coastal waters quality in some main "hot spots" (4,2) • Quality of biophysical environment (4,2) • Protection of specific ecosystems (4,3) • Existence of monitoring programs concerning pollutants input (4,3) • Wastewater treatment rate before sea release for coastal agglomerations over 100 000 inhabitants (4,3) • Share of distributed water not conform to quality standards (4,2) • Water global quality index (4,2) • Share of collected and treated wastewater by the public sewerage system (4,3) • Existence of economic tools to recover the water cost in various sector (4,3) • Access to safe drinking water is one of the accepted indicators; With respect to the last indicator: in most Mediterranean countries the percentage of the population which has access to drinking water is greater than 80% in 1995. In 1995, the indicator had values close to 100% in European Union countries (except Greece), in Monaco, Slovenia, Cyprus, Malta, Libya, Israel and the Lebanon. Libya has the highest percentage (95%), followed by Tunisia (90%). In Morocco, The indicator remains less than 60%. It has decreased regularly in Egypt to come to 84% in 1995. This case of decreasing indicator value has also been observed in Albania, at 92% in 1985 to 76% in 1995 and in Croatia, from 70% in 1985 to 63% in 1995. Tunisia, Libya and Greece are the countries where the indicator has increased most since 1975. This indicator may hide important regional disparities between urban and rural areas. Often, low values in certain countries are the indirect consequence of a higher share of rural population. Documents/publications • •





PAP/RAC - CEFIGRE, France, 1988. Sewage Treatment Plants Management and Maintenance / Gestion et exploitation des stations d'épuration du bassin méditerranéen, 290 p. (TC.1), PAP/RAC - CEFIGRE, France, 1990, 290 p. (TC.3). ENG/FRA This document offers practical information for the appropriate and rational operation and maintenance of wastewater treatment plants, and for the improvement of the quality of coastal waters. The text is thematically divided into 5 parts: general aspects of sewage treatment (composition and characteristics of sewage, importance of sewage treatment, sewage treatment processes, failures in sewage treatment plants, waste discharge regulations); treatment of domestic sewage (preliminary treatment, settling, flotation, physical and chemical treatment, biological treatment, lagooning, activated sludge processes, tertiary treatment); treatment of sludge; odour control; operation and maintenance of treatment plants, control measures, safety and hygiene. KATSAOUNIS, A.; TSOTSOS, D. 1990. Code of Practice for Environmentally Sound Management of Liquid Waste Discharge in the Mediterranean Sea / Guide pratique de gestion, saine pour l'environnement, des effluents a évacuer dans la mer Méditerranée, PAP/RAC, i-iv + 217 p. + Annexes I-VII PAP-7/COP.2. ENG/FRA In conformity with the provisions of the Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution from Land-based Sources (1983), and the Genoa Declaration (1985), PAP launched a series of actions towards the promotion of an appropriate liquid waste discharge and pollution control programme, this Code of Practice being one of the outputs of this effort. The document is divided into 7 chapters, namely: Introduction, Local Conditions (water uses, conservation of the ecosystem, coastal water, pollution sources); Quality Criteria (assimilative capacity of the marine environment, sea water quality criteria, effluent characteristics); Systems Design (general characteristics of the collection and treatment systems, environmental conditions,

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information system network, planning stages and programme formulation); Environmental Impact Assessment (concept of EIA, marine pollution implications of coastal area development); Organization and Finance (establishment of a coastal water control organization, management of waste water facilities, monitoring of coastal water and effluents, research, and funding); Manpower and Training (manpower and safety, and training). PAP/RAC - Ville de Marseille, 1990. Station d'épuration en zone littorale méditerranéenne / Sewage Treatment Plant in Mediterranean Coastal Municipalities, 275 p. + drawings, tables. ENG/FRA This document provides general recommendations addressed to decision makers in the field of planning, designing and exploitation of sewage treatment plants in Mediterranean coastal cities. The report is structured in 14 chapters, namely: The marine environment; History of the sewage treatment network of Marseilles; The campaign against liquid pollution; The centralized sanitation computer network; The marine environment in Cortiou; General characteristics of the marine environment in Cortiou; Studies for the Marseilles sewage treatment plant; Purification scheme studies; A methodological approach to wastewater treatment designs in large agglomerations; The Sanitary Department budget; Realization of the Marseilles sewage treatment plant; Community control of operations; Disposal standards; and Study of marine environment in a zone of urban pollution. MAIFREDI, P.; PICCAZZO, M. 1991. Code of Practice for the Management of Urban Solid Waste in Coastal Mediterranean Countries / Guide pratique de gestion des déchets solides urbains dans les pays riverains de la Méditerranée, PAP/RAC, i-v + 66 p. PAP-7/COP.1. ENG/FRA Taking into account the specific conditions prevailing in different Mediterranean countries, this practical guide is elaborated with the aim to assist the responsible authorities in choosing the methods and techniques which will enable the problems of household and other solid wastes to be resolved efficiently. It is divided into 13 Chapters: Introduction; Collection of basic data (waste quality, quantity, origin and composition); Criteria for the choice of collection methods (influence of the local conditions, socio-economic parameters, choice of equipment); Organization of the collection (in urban, and in rural areas); Various possibilities of transfer and transport; Methods of processing and disposal; Landfilling (site research and study, criteria for the choice of landfill type and operation methods, protection of the environment, types of wastes which can be disposed for landfilling); Composting (procedure, area needed for a composting plant, choice of the appropriate composting plant); Incineration (general characteristics, procedure, protection of the environment); Resource recovery (principles, initial conditions, recycling procedure); Environmental impact assessment; Importance of service organization (management, training of personnel); and maintenance (organization of maintenance, equipment). TEDESCHI, S. 1992. Planning and Designing of Urban WasteWater Treatment Projects in Mediterranean Coastal Towns (Introductory communication) = Planification et conception des projets d'assainissement dans les agglomérations côtieres méditerranéennes (Communication d'introduction), PAP/RAC, 90 p. + drawings, tables. ENG/FRA The aim of this document, presented at the International Training Course on Urban Waste Water Treatment (Rabat, 1992), was to transfer knowledge and experience in the methodological approach to planning and designing the collection and discharge of municipal waste waters into the coastal sea under acceptable sanitary and ecological criteria. The document contains the following 6 Chapters: Introduction; Marine Environment (geophysical, oceanographic, chemical, and biological data); Sources of Pollution (domestic, industrial and agricultural wastewaters, urban runoff, impact of wastes on sea water quality); Quality Criteria and Standards (sea water uses, quality criteria for the coastal sea, standards for effluents); Protection of the Marine Ecosystem (wastewater treatment, wastewater discharge into the coastal sea; discharges into bays and estuaries, alternatives of water reuse); and Water Discharge by Means of Marine Outfalls (initial dilution, diffusion and dispersion, disappearance of micro-organisms, designing marine outfalls, construction and maintenance of marine outfalls, monitoring). SHEFFER, M. 1993. Treatment and Reuse of Municipal Wastewater for Irrigation, PAP/RAC, 37 p. ENG



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This study is yet another output of PAP in its effort to enable transfer of knowledge and experience among Mediterranean countries on the management of water resources in general, and waste water in particular. Reuse of wastewater for irrigation is one of the efficient ways of water resources management in the areas lacking water which, at the same time, contributes to the protection of coastal and marine environment. The study describes two treatment and reuse projects in Israel: (a) the Dan Region treatment plant and recharge-recovery system; and (b) the Ra'anana City wastewater project (description and technical characteristics of the system, process management and effluent quality, reuse costs and benefits, public health and environmental protection). TEDESCHI, S. 1994. Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste: Sanitary Landfills, PAP/RAC, 55 p. + figures, tables. ENG This document is addressed to the responsible authorities in their decisions and recommendations concerning the planning of sanitary landfills as one of the ways of managing urban solid waste. It presents the acquired experience and knowledge in disposing non-hazardous waste of municipal origin. The document is divided into 6 chapters: Introduction; Purpose of the document and target users; General principles for solid waste management; Site selection for municipal solid waste disposal (topography and soil, geology and hydrogeology, climate and hydrology, land use, costs of landfilling, public acceptance, assessing the suitability of landfill site); Environmental and health impacts of solid waste (leachate, landfill gases, other impacts, environmental impact assessment); Sanitary landfills (planning and projects, operating procedures, monitoring of environmental and health impacts, economic aspects, experiences and common problems, management procedures). RIBAROVIC, Z. 1994. Solid Waste Management in Mediterranean Countries: Case Study "The Kastela Bay", Croatia, PAP/RAC, 19 p. ENG This case study on the neutralisation of industrial and domestic wastes in the communes of Split, Solin, Katela, Trogir, Sinj and Omi{ is part of a project which was jointly financed by the World Bank and the Municipalities of Split and Ka{tela. In designing any system of waste management the main problem is how to neutralise wastes after the measures have been taken to avoid waste generation as well as those for the exploitation of useful substances from the wastes. In this particular case, the dilemma was solved in favour of landfills rather than incineration. The study focuses on the following topics: principles of urban solid waste management; hitherto practices and specific aspects of solid waste management in the study area; management concept proposed in the study (main principles, and phasing of the project); feasibility of the proposed concept; authorities responsible for the control of the waste management system (an Ecological Council) through appropriate administrative and professional structures; financing; possibilities of getting loans from the World Bank and paying back of the loans through efficient taxation. UNEP/MED POL: Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants in Mediterranean Coastal Cities. Map Technical Reports Series No. 128, UNEP, Athens 2000. SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE MANAGEMENT, http://www.pap-thecoastcentre.org/activitiestext-priority-waste.html, jan-04. United Nations Environmental Programme Mediterranean Action plan, http://www.unepmap.org/, jan-04 Indicators for Sustainable Development (ISD) Indicators leaflets, http://www.planbleu.org/vanglaise/3-5a3.htm, jan-04

Black Sea – BSEP

Targets With regard to the reduction of Land based pollution sources, comprehensive national studies on the discharges of insufficiently treated sewage will be prepared by each Black Sea state by January 2000. It is recommended that this activity be co-ordinated by the Istanbul Commission, through its Advisory Group on the Control of Pollution from Land-Based sources. These studies should analyse the national and regional benefits to public health, the environment and recreation as well as the economic costs of installing sewage treatment plants. The studies shall serve as a basis for taking decisions and implementing significant reductions of the inputs of insufficiently treated sewage from large urban areas by 2006 (SAP, 1996).

A number of heavily polluting land-based point sources within coastal areas of each Black Sea coastal country have severe impacts on some or all of the following areas: human health, beach tourism, commercial fisheries and biodiversity. Economic valuation of the effects of pollution from these ‘hot spots’ and other polluting sites indicate that, in the case of beach tourism alone, actions leading to a 20% improvement in Black Sea water quality could generate $550 million in annual economic benefits to coastal economies. This estimate does not include expected benefits to human health and fisheries. Discharges In 1996 a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis has been carried out. The following data have been gathered: SOURCES Domestic Industrial Riverine Industrial TOTAL

BOD t/yr 68,955 81,82 55,318 934,974 1,114,067

% 6,1 7.2 4.8 81.9 100

N t/yr 20,294 146,934 49,526 430,538 647,292

% 3,1 22.7 7.7 66.5 100

P t/yr 6,6655 2,024 4,941 36,876 50,496

% 13,2 4.0 9.8 73.0 100

All Black sea states, in particular those countries with transition economies, do not have sufficient economic power to resolve the existing problems in the municipal sector to which most of the priority

pollution sources belong. In the majority of the Black Sea coastal states the construction of wastewater treatment facilities is not sufficient for eliminating pollution from priory sources. Their sewer systems, built in 1960-1970’s, need upgrading. For example, in the Ukraine over 25% of sewer and water supply pipelines are completely worn out. As a result, frequent accidental discharge of untreated wastewater occurs and/or technological requirements are not met. A similar situation was reported for Georgia (Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution, 2002). References

• • •

Black Sea Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis, 1996. Strategic Action Plan for the Rehabilitation and Protection of the Black Sea,1996 Commission on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution, 2002. State of the Environment of the Black Sea, Pressures and trends 1996-2000

NE – Atlantic OSPAR Targets One major impetus to work on eutrophication was given in the 1980s by the events in the German Bight which led to large-scale algal blooms and, with their death and decay after the nutrients had been exhausted, to major fish deaths from the resulting lack of oxygen in bottom waters where there was a reduced vertical water exchange. Work had produced a range of measures at the international level – commitments in the North Sea Conference, European Community legislation 4, other international agreements 5, and OSPAR measures. Among these were: • PARCOM Recommendation 88/2 on the Reduction in Inputs of Nutrients to the Paris Convention Area; • PARCOM Recommendation 89/4 on a Co-ordinated Programme for the Reduction of Nutrients; • PARCOM Recommendation 92/7 on the Reduction of Nutrient Inputs from Agriculture into Areas where these Inputs are likely, directly or indirectly, to cause Pollution. PARCOM Recommendations 88/2 and 89/4 include a 50% reduction for nutrients. (OSPAR, 2003) The EC Directive on Urban Wastewater Treatment (91/271/EEC) provides for the required level of treatment for wastewater. The deadlines for this application are from 31 December 1998 to 31 December 2005, depending on the size of the population, its agglomeration and the sensitivity of the surface waters. Discharges In 2002/2003 Belgium, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland submitted reports on the implementation of PARCOM Recommendations 88/2 and 89/4 with respect to their achievements of the 50% reduction target for nutrients. All these Contracting Parties have met the reduction target for phosphorus. However, none of them have achieved the 50% reduction target for nitrogen. Agriculture and sewage treatment are still the major sources. Only the Efforts have been made in the region towards the collection of urban and industrial wastewater and the application of appropriate levels of treatment. Nevertheless, even if households and industries are served by tertiary treatment, exceptional rainfall or tourism during the summer could reduce the efficiency of these systems.

The proportion of the population connected to sewage treatment ranges approximately from 80 – 98%. (OSPAR, 2000) In many OSPAR Contracting Parties the treatment capacity for municipal wastewater increased significantly between 1985 and 2000. This is a result of an increase in the number of treatment plants, and/or of an increase in the capacity at existing treatment plants. The estimated reductions in losses from wastewater treatment plants for the period 1985 to 2000 vary between 40% in Sweden and 89% in Denmark for the phosphorus inputs, and between 4% in Belgium and 80% in Denmark for nitrogen (Table 3). The discharges from sewage treatment works and sewerage was an important source of nitrogen discharges/losses in 2000 in most OSPAR Contracting Parties that have reported, between 25% of the anthropogenic discharges/losses in Germany and 50% in Switzerland, but only 5% in Denmark. It was also an important source of phosphorus discharges in most countries; it was the most important source in Belgium and Switzerland where it represented 58% and 79% respectively of the total discharges/losses of phosphorus in 2000 (OSPAR, 2003). In total is that 205692 N t/yr and 16702 P t/yr Table 3Nutrient discharges (tonnes) from sewage treatment works and sewerage

Country

N–1985

N–2000 30614

Reduction (%) 4

P– 1985 9870

P– 2000 4319

Belgium

31960

Denmark France Germany Netherlan ds Norway Sweden Switzerlan d

Reduction (%) 56

10000 NI 245500 38410

1981 NI 119700 28959

80 NI 51 25

1900 NI 46858 10800

207 NI 8139 2846

89 NI 83 74

10510 9200 18000

6688 5450 12300

36 41 32

964 262 2300

134 157 900

86 40 61

Remarks Includes households not connected

NI: No information.

The proportion of the nitrogen and phosphorus discharges of sewage from households not connected to public sewerage compared to the total discharges of sewage from wastewater treatment plants and households, represented a relatively high figure for Germany1, Norway and Sweden in 2000 (see Table 4). The discharges from industrial plants represented, in the year 2000, less than 6% of the total nitrogen discharges in all OSPAR Contracting Parties that have reported. The contribution from the industrial sector in the Netherlands to the total Dutch phosphorus discharges/losses represented about 20% in 2000, Norway 15%, whereas for Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland the contribution was less than 8% of the total discharges/losses in 2000. Table 6A shows discharges/losses from the various sources of phosphorus and nitrogen in OSPAR Contracting Parties in 2000. Table 6A Losses and discharges of nutrients (tonnes) per country and anthropogenic source in 2000 Diffuse losses

Belgium Denmark France Germany Netherlands Norway Sweden Switzerland 1)

2)

3) 4)

N 45560 38167 NI 304300 80864 13554 14500 118814)

P 2313 987 NI 12943 4210 326 260 2074)

Sewage treatment works, sewerage 1) N P 30614 4319 1981 207 NI NI 119700 8139 28959 2846 6688 134 5450 157 12300 900

Industry 3)

House-holds not connected 2) N 1350 1254 NI 20700 601 1299 1995 100

P 204 288 NI 2832 64 121 143 10

N 5728 484 NI 25100 3990 1562 855 800

P 797 38 NI 1104 1755 102 88 20

Aquaculture N 84 1106 NI 0 0 49 62 30

Includes discharges of nitrogen and phosphorus by combined sewer systems, by separate sewer systems, by systems that are not connected to wastewater treatment plants and households within the agglomeration which are not connected to a public sewer system, but that are expected to be connected in the near future. Households not connected to public sewage systems include both scattered dwellings and households within urban areas that are not likely to be connected in the near future (five to ten years). Concerns industrial plants with direct discharges of nitrogen and phosphorus from production water into surface waters. 2001 data.

Total N and P loads for the OSPAR region (OSPAR, 2003) Sources Diffuse losses 1

N t/yr 496945

P t/yr 21039

N% 65

P% 46

The discharges comprise not only households not connected to public sewerage, but also discharges from combined sewer overflows, separate sewers and sewers without Waste Water Treatment Plants.

P 14 85 NI 0 0 10 9 3

Sewage treatment works, sewerage House-holds not connected Industry Aquaculture TOTAL

205692 27299 38519 1331 769786

16702 3662 3904 121 45428

27 4 5 0

37 8 9 0

Only a few time trend data sets exist for areas other than the North Sea area. Although there is no clear trend in the area as a whole, this is not the case in local areas that are directly influenced by anthropogenic inputs. For example, a significant decreasing trend in phosphorus concentration was detected in Danish waters (between 1989 and 1997) and the German Bight. The decrease in the phosphorus concentrations in nearly all Danish areas is due to a significant decrease in the load from sewage, industry and detergents (80% reduction in the phosphorus). For most of the maritime area Direct inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus have reduced by 30% and 20% respectively since 1990. However, inputs may vary on a local scale. Consideration of losses and discharges of nitrogen at source indicates that some improvement (up to 25% reduction) has been achieved in the North Sea catchment area. The atmospheric deposition of nitrogen to the North Sea has remained static at about 350 000 t/yr. The relative proportions of nitrogen input for riverine, atmospheric and direct inputs are 10:3:1. In general, rivers are the dominant source of nutrients in near shore areas. Although the pattern of nutrient input to estuaries closely follows that of river water flow, which varies widely within and between years, the net seaward flux of nutrients through estuaries to coastal waters may be strongly influenced by estuarine processes. Although nutrient fluxes associated with the import of oceanic water masses are substantially higher than anthropogenic inputs, only a proportion of these fluxes is available for primary production. Nevertheless, on parts of the Atlantic seaboard upwelling of nutrient-rich oceanic water plays a significant role in seasonal phytoplankton production (OSPAR, 2003) Treatment capacity data are available on national level. For instance the Report for the Years 2000/2001 on Urban Wastewater Discharges in Ireland reports that: Around two-thirds of the population in Ireland now lives in urban areas. Towns with populations greater than 200 persons total 641, of which almost half are in the smallest size category of 200 to 499 persons (NESC, 1997). The total number of Local Authority sewerage schemes in the country is 856; of these, 635 serve areas having population equivalents greater than 200, an increase of 16 since 1996. The remaining 221 schemes are generally small sewer systems serving housing developments on the outskirts of towns1.

The National Development Plan, 2000-2006 of Ireland includes 4.4 billion for water services, including Rural Water and Wastewater Infrastructure. The major proportion of this expenditure will be directed towards investment in the provision and upgrading of wastewater treatment facilities. This 1 Population Equivalents To take account of the total amount of organic waste entering sewer systems, including that from industry and trade, the total organic load is expressed in terms of population equivalents (p.e.). One population equivalent is defined in the urban waste water treatment Directive (CEC, 1991a) as the organic biodegradable load having a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of 0.06 kg of oxygen per day. This same figure may be applied also to an organic load discharging directly to water. It provides a convenient means of categorising sewerage schemes by size, in terms of the overall organic waste load entering the sewerage systems.

investment will largely complete Ireland's implementation of the EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive. Nutrient reduction facilities are being provided where required to protect water quality. References • www.ospar.org • OSPAR commission 2003, Implementation of PARCOM recommendation 88/2 an 89/4; Inputs of Nutrients into the Convention area Implementation of PARCOM Recommendations 88/2 and 89/4 • OSPAR Commission 2003. Annual Report 2002 - 2003, Volume 1. OSPAR Commission, London. 79 + ii pp. • OSPAR Commission 2000 Quality status report 2000 OSAPAR commission London 108 +vii pp • Urban Waste Water Discharges in Ireland Report for the Years 2000/2001

Baltic Sea – HELCOM Targets Contracting Parties agreed to take all appropriate measures to control and minimize land-based pollution of the marine environment of the Baltic Sea Area through (HELCOM website): • The 1988 Ministerial Declaration, in particular concerning reaching the target of 50% reductions in nutrient inputs before 2005 (review in 2003). • The Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme (1992, JCP]) to facilitate and monitor the elimination of the 132 most polluting sources within the Baltic Sea catchment area - known as "hot-spots"2. • Implementation of the HELCOM recommendations. These include the limitation discharges into water from incineration of household waste and phosphorus and nitrogen removal at municipal wastewater treatment plants. In its effort to further reduce nutrient levels, HELCOM recommends e.g. (BSEP No89, 2003): • More efforts must be made to reduce inputs, especially from agriculture. • The relationships between sources and impacts must be evaluated more accurately, in order to facilitate the preparation of more cost-effective measures, some of which can be tailor-made to deal with regional problems. • The existing HELCOM reduction goals for inputs of nutrients must be harmonised with objectives of the EC WFD, inter alia the objective to achieve good quality status by 2015. • It must also be remembered that other diffuse sources contribute significantly to the nutrient inputs entering the Baltic Sea, and there is an urgent need to reduce airborne inputs of nitrogen from both land-based and sea-based sources. Nutrient discharges connected with small municipalities and urban areas (small settlements without sewerage systems or MWWTP, separate sewers, combined sewer systems) discharges from scattered settlements must also be addressed. Discharges The large municipalities in the Baltic countries have made major improvements in wastewater treatment, reducing pollution loads substantially. In other regions serious problems must still be solved before hot spots can be deleted, and investment plans are being actively sought to this end. One problem is that the financing of municipal projects by suddenly raising consumer tariffs may have negative social and economic consequences. However, attitudes are gradually changing regarding the integration of environmental considerations into decision-making. EU directives such as the Water Framework Directive, the Urban Wastewater Directive, also contributes to this (BSEP No88, 2003). Evaluation of the JCP after ten years has shown that the deletion of Hot Spots has contributed to a 21% reduction in the BOD load, 25% in the COD load, 22 % in the tot-N load, 27% in the tot-P load, 89% of the AOX load, and 4% and 3% of the NOx and SOx loads, respectively. These data are, however, not suitable to judge whether the 50% reduction goal has been reached (BSEP No88, 2003). In the municipal sector, reported reductions in wastewater discharge reduction had been moderate compared to the resources allocated. The reductions in wastewater emissions had varied from 24% to 53% between 1992 and 1998, and 33% of the necessary funding had reportedly been allocated. No reductions in air emissions in the municipal sector were reported by 1999 (BSEP No88, 2003). The major antropogenic source of waterborne nitrogen is clearly agriculture, while the biggest source for phosphorus is point sources, mainly municipalities. Most of the phosphorus loads originates from point and diffuse sources in Poland. However, discharges decreased considerable trough improvement of sanitary conditions in rural areas by supplementing village water supply systems with adequate sanitation solutions (BSEP No89, 2003).

2

HELCOM at this moment specifically focussed on the hot pots, which includes point sources of industrial and municipal treatment plants. It is, however, in many cases difficult to separate the contributions of the latter two.

References: • Website: http://www.helcom.fi • Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No 89, 2003; The review of more specific targets to reach the Goals Set up in the 1988/1998 Ministerial Declarations Regarding Nutrients). • Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No70, 1998; Third Baltic Sea Pollution Load Compilation (PLC 3) • Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No 88, 2003; The Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Program. Ten years of Implementation. • Lead country report on implementation of HELCOM Recommendations concerning municipal wastewaters, was not included in the above summary.

From BSEP 70

From BSEP 89

Caspian Environmental Programme (CEP) Targets The strategic action plan (SAP, 2003) notes 6 specific Environmental Quality Objectives (EQO). For each of the objectives, targets and actions have been formulated. The actions are prioritised and have deadlines. Targets for ‘improving water quality’ include: 1. Strengthen environmental enforcement and management in the littoral states 2. Implement a regionally co-ordinated water quality monitoring programme 3. Development of regional strategies for pollution reduction • Example of one of the actions (3.1): ‘through the use of demonstration pilot projects, investigate cost effective means of treating municipal waste waters and produce regional recommendations. (M) 5-10 years. 4. Develop and initiate implementation of a regional action plan for contaminated land 5. Promote environmentally sound agricultural practices in the Caspian region 6. Disaster prevention and response Further implementation of the SAP-targets is organised through the National Caspian Action Plans (NCAP). These plans do directly refer to domestic waste and water supply issues and have formulated National targets. These are, however, general. E.g. (NCAP, Kazakhstan & Iran, 2003): “to improve the quality of life of the population of the region through”: • Solving the problem of providing settlements with drinking water of good quality water. • Solving the problems with regard to city waste waters in the coastal zone of the Caspian oblasts. • Implementation of Solid Waste Disposal and Management in Programme Major Coastal Cities • Implementation of Sewage Treatment Plant in Major Coastal Cities • Develop Guidelines for: • Waste Management • Sewage Treatment Plant Discharges & upgrading costs For the whole Caspian Sea, it is estimated that some 60 % of the municipal wastewater is discharged directly to the Sea without any treatment. The remaining 40 % have received mechanical, and in most cases, also biological treatment. This means that around 60 % of the municipal wastewater are discharged directly to the Caspian Sea without any treatment (Waste Water report, 2000) scenarios for upgrading of the collection and wastewater systems in which a comprehensive renovation and extension of the collection systems are assumed. The investment costs related to the upgrading of the collection systems are roughly estimated to be around 1.8 billion EURO. Implementation of biological treatment of the collected sewage is also part of all three scenarios, but nutrient removal is assumed to a different extent for the different scenarios. Investment costs related to WWTP’s varies according to the level of nutrient removal from 470 million EURO (BOD removal only) to 770 million EURO (Extensive nutrient removal). Most major cities have municipal wastewater collection systems, but in general only part of the inhabitants are connected to the collectors. Data on coverage are only available for Azerbaijan. The City of Baku makes up the largest single point source, with a discharge of municipal wastewater corresponding to approximately 40% of the total flow of municipal wastewater discharged to the Caspian Sea. It also seems, that the municipal collection systems in the region, in generally are in bad or very bad physical conditions, mainly due to lack of maintenance. In many smaller towns and settlements, there are no central collection systems. Wastewater from these agglomerations is typically disposed to small deep ponds (pits). During periods with high hydraulic loads, or in situations where the pit is filled with sludge, there will be an overflow of wastewater, and the wastewater may finally be discharged to the Sea.

All treatment plants identified in the study area are assumed to have been constructed during the Soviet period. The process layouts and the applied machinery and control concepts, appear to be quite similar for all the plants, and typical for the Soviet era. All treatment plants identified have been either mechanical plants or mechanical biological plants designed for BOD removal only. In general, the treatment plants in the region seem to be in bad or very bad physical conditions. Monitoring of operational parameters, process control and data sampling and processing, are typically conducted manually and locally at the different unit processes. References: • Web site: http://www.caspianenvironment.org • Web site Thematic centre: http://www.caspianenvironment.org/human/ • CEP - Strategic Action Programme for the Caspian Sea, 2003 • Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the Caspian Sea, Volume 1, Executive summary and Environmental Quality Objectives, 2002, • Caspian Environment Programme Facilitating Thematic Advisory Groups in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, & Turkmenistan Domestic Wastewater – Load Inventory and Abatement Scenarios February 2000 • Republic of Kazakhstan, Ministry of Environmental Protection , Caspian Environmental Programme , National Action Programme on Enhancement of the Environment of the Caspian Sea, 2003-2012 (DRAFT) • Caspian Environment Programme, Caspian Health Profile, CRTC “Human Sustainable Development & Health” Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, August 2002

Eastern African (EAF) The Eastern African Region includes the coastal and marine waters of Kenya, United Republic of Tanzania, and Mozambique. Priority Issues & targets e.g. • The microbial contamination of groundwater resources by coastal populations resulting from onsite disposal systems or poorly developed/maintained sewerage infrastructures; • Saline intrusion leading to degradation of coastal groundwater resources and destruction of coastal habitats through siltation • Physical removal of mangrove vegetation to pave the way for the physical development for homes, industries, hotels, etc. • Degradation of coral reefs by algal blooms associated with elevated inorganic nutrient concentration from domestic waste and agrochemicals may be a problem in the future; • Destruction of coastal habitats through an inadequate disposal of solid domestic waste. The countries experience a diverse range of land- and marine-based types of pollution. Although several countries share certain pollution problems, the degree of impact and significance varies. For example, disposal of solid waste at the coast is extremely challenging in the Comoros, but is not as significant in Namibia. The range of responses to deal with pollution and waste management problems also varies greatly in the different countries. Major Constraints • • •

Lack of monitoring data. Few scientific studies have been conducted to determine the concentration of specific pollutants Lack of infrastructure and treatment facilities for the large quantities of domestic sewage Increasing number of visiting tourists.

In many instances, the challenges constraining effective and efficient pollution and waste management were similar. Several country representatives stated the need to develop, implement and enforce pertinent legislation, policy and regulations. Many of the countries that already have relevant legislation in place are often hampered by fragmented responsibility at various authority levels. Capacity constraints to implement legislation appeared to be a universal problem, as is the need for funding. Very often there was inadequate political support to ensure that waste management is seen as a priority. Public awareness is often limited. The endorsement of international protocols and conventions pertaining to pollution and waste management by the represented countries varied considerably. Some are in the process of considering ratification, others, have already ratified all the relevant conventions and protocols, while others are not party to any of these. Strategies and Measures • • • •

Ensure that solid domestic and industrial wastes are not dumped on or around sensitive coastal habitats such as mangroves Use of remotely-sensed imagery detecting and assessing the physical damage to coastal habitats and coral by siltation, solid domestic or industrial waste, or phytoplankton blooms Initiate a monitoring programme for heavy metals, hydrocarbon derivatives, and BOD in ports and harbours where industrial activities are likely to lead to high pollution loads Develop a sewage-treatment plant.

Discharges The elevated pollution from the industrial sector is relatively small compared to domestic discharges. The industrial sector was reported to account for only 21.1%(BOD - Annual Biochemical Oxygen demand) and 15.4% (TSS - Total Soluble Solids) of the total load. The major source of pollution is the discharge of domestic sewage.

Expanding coastal population implies an increase in quantity of domestic sewage and solid waste and the degradation of groundwater and freshwater resources through sewage population and/or saline intrusion. The majority of the population in the region uses septic tanks and pit latrines. The release of untreated domestic sewage has been associated with the occurrence of eutrophication, phytoplankton blooms, and the degradation of coastal habitats and reduced fish catches. Pollutants also include discharge of industrial chemicals, heavy metals, food and brewery processing waste, and inadvertent oil spills. The increased use of agrochemicals can lead to an elevated concentration of nutrients. Health problems are associated with poor water quality. References • •

East African Region, http://www.gpa.unep.org/seas/workshop/EAFRICAN.htm, jan-04 IMO Networking workshop, http://seawaste.uwc.ac.za/downloads/IMO%20Report-final.pdf, jan04

West & Central Africa (WACAF) The West and Central African region includes the coastal and marine waters of Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote D'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equator Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Cabinda, Angola, Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic, Chad, Mali, and Niger.

The Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region (Abidjan Convention) was adopted 1981, and came into force in 1984 (UNEP).

As mentioned in the UNEP/GPA (1999) report, one of the major environmental issues for the WACAF marine, coastal and associated freshwater environments is directly related to water quality deterioration, mainly around urban areas, eutrophication and associated impacts on Environment and public health. Detailed studies and analysis through the whole WACAF region, including the landlocked countries, show clearly that sewage constitutes the main source of pollution as a result of land-based activities. All the countries assessed reflect high urban, domestic loads, sometimes from industrial origin, which include BOD, suspended sediments, nutrients, bacteria and pathogens (Fig. 4; Tables 1 and 36-40 in annex I). The annual total BOD for the WACAF region was estimated to be 288,961 tons from municipal sewage and 47,269 from Industrial pollution, while the annual total suspended sediments (TSS) was estimated around 410,929 tons from municipal sewage and 81,145 tons from industrial pollution. Again, the rapid growth of urban populations is far beyond the capacity of relevant authorities and municipalities to provide basic and adequate services such as water supply, sewage and other wastewater treatment facilities. As consequences of all these domestic and organic biodegradable material discharges, contamination of the water quality, surface waters as well as shallow aquifers and groundwater, is a current phenomenon, mostly in the sub and peri-urban areas, where the conditions of overcrowding and poverty are increasing with the growing number of people. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report, indicates that Africa (WACAF and EAS) has the lowest total water supply coverage of any region, with only 62% of the population

having access to improved water supply. This figure is based on estimates from countries that represent approximately 96% of Africa's total population. The situation is much worse in rural areas, where coverage is only 47%, compared with 85% coverage in urban areas. Sanitation coverage in Africa also is poor, with only Asia having lower coverage levels. Currently, only 60% of the total population in Africa has sanitation coverage, with coverage varying from 84% in urban areas to 45% in rural areas. In global terms, the continent contains 28% of the world's population without access to improved water supply. It also contains 13% of people without access to improved sanitation world-wide. It is predicted that Africa will face increased population growth over the coming decades, with the greatest increase coming in urban areas. As a result, approximately 210 million people in urban areas will need to be provided with access to water supply services, and 211 million people with sanitation services, if the international coverage targets for 2015 are to be met. A similar number of people in rural areas will also need to gain access. Given the Assessment's findings concerning change in coverage over the 1990s, it appears that future needs for rural services may continue to be the most difficult to meet. Table 6.1 provides data for the years 1990 and 2000, and composite coverage data are presented in Maps 6.1 and 6.2. Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show urban and rural coverage in 1990 and 2000 for water supply and sanitation, respectively.

6.1 and 6.2, which are based on Table 6.1, show how few countries in Africa have either water supply or sanitation coverage of more than 90%. Indeed, almost half of all the countries for which there are data have less than 50% coverage for sanitation. Even for water supply there are relatively few countries with more than 75% total water coverage.

Ten African countries have less than 50% coverage for both their current national water supply and sanitation coverage. These countries are Angola, Burkina Faso, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mauritania, Rwanda and Sierra Leone. The year 2015 targets are to reduce the proportion of people without access to improved water and sanitation by one-half, and to achieve universal coverage by the year 2025. The graphs show that the total number of people in the region with access to water supply has increased considerably over the 1990s. For example, the data show that 135 million people in Africa gained access to improved water supply between 1990–2000 (Figure 6.3). The majority of these people (87 million) were in urban areas (Figure 6.4). For sanitation, the increase in numbers of people with access has been smaller than that for water coverage. In total, 98 million additional people gained access to improved sanitation services between 1990–2000 (Figure 6.6), with the vast majority of these (84 million) living in urban areas (cf. Figures 6.7, 6.8).

Figures 6.3–6.8 also indicate population projections and targets. The African population is expected to increase by 65% over the next 25 years. This presents a huge challenge to services in the region. To achieve the year 2015 goal for urban water supply coverage – halving the percentage of those without access – an additional 210 million people over the next 15 years will have to be provided with service. In rural areas, an estimated additional 194 million people will need to have access to meet the target. Therefore, a total of approximately 400 million additional people will need to be provided with access to improved water supply to meet the 2015 target. Given the findings of the Assessment 2000, this will require a tripling of the rate at which additional people have been gaining access between 1990–2000. New approaches will be needed to face this challenge. References • http://www.gpa.unep.org/seas/workshop/wacaf.htm • UNEP: Overview of Land-based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine, Coastal and Associated Freshwater Environment in the West and Central African Region. UNEP/ GPA Coordination Office & Caribbean Environment Programme (1999). 110 pp. No. 171 http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/technical/rseas_reports/171-eng.pdf • WHO, Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report, 2000, http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/Global8-1.htm

East Asian Seas (EAS) EAS covers ten countries including Australia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand and Vietnam. However, there are many data gaps and differences in data detail. Targets Regional Programme of Action sewage has been classified with the highest priority. It is anticipated in the Programme that a Regional Agreement will be established to deal with Water Recycle Management and Criteria and Standards for release of sewage and urban run off into waterways. Four concrete actions have been formulated and there associated ancillary actions and responsibilities The four actions include (timeframe is not found): 1. Establish a data and information network to link the GPA Clearing House, based on the existing monitoring network in the region. 2. Establish the necessary infrastructure for enhancing the exchange of scientific information on e.g. sewage discharge and its impact on the marine environment, marine habitats and human health. 3. Reduce the discharge of sewage using treatment systems for the key sources, with potential technical transfer to other sewage sources. 4. Assistance in establishing national regulations on sewage discharge in order to protect marine environments in the region. The third Draft Version of the Strategic Action Programme for the South China Sea (UNEP SCS/SAP, 1999) however shows more specific targets for land-based pollution sources, including timelines and cost estimates for the actions: • By 2003 develop and agree on regional water quality objectives; make recommendations for water quality standards for use in coastal waters; make recommendations for effluent standards/or mitigation measures for municipal, industrial and agricultural (including aquaculture) activities; • By 2003 develop guidelines for monitoring coastal waters, taking into account already published guidelines; • By 2003 determine principal pollutants in the region, estimate the carrying/assimilative capacity of relevant ecosystems for relevant pollutants - BOD, nutrients, metals, sediments etc. • Establish a regional contingency plan for South China Sea to handle incidents of oil and chemical or hazardous waste spillage; • By 2004 develop a regional South China Sea Plan of Action for land-based activities to meet regional water quality objectives; • By 2005 identify 10 Priority Discharge Sites for action and develop appropriate mitigation activities; • By 2005 develop regional funding mechanisms for mitigation activities; • By 2006 initiate mitigation activities on the Priority Discharge Sites; • By 2008 review recommended water quality standards in national legislation. During the Regional Workshop on Protection Coastal and Marine Ecosystems from Land-Based Activities in the Asia-Pacific Region, Toyama, Japan (September 2001) it was agreed to establish a Steering Group. The Group will develop, building upon Background Paper No.2, regional guidelines [framework] consistent with the GPA to address specific issues needs priorities in the NOWPAP and EAS regions. The Regional Guidelines should not be standards [regulatory instruments], but rather provide a framework for the identification of values, goals, objectives, targets and criteria, consistent with the objectives of the GPA. Table 4.17 Cost of Action: Land-Based Pollution (in thousand US dollars) Component Sub-component

Gover

GEF

CoFi

Activities 3. Land-based Pollution 3.1 Regional Water Quality standards (2005) • Identify National and Regional experts and form regional and national expert working groups : guidelines/action programmes for implementation of the GPA; • and prepare draft regional water quality objectives and water quality and effluent standards • review and assess existing knowledge of regional water quality, determine information gaps, • evaluate carrying/assimilation capacity of sub-regions within the South China Sea, transboundary movements of contaminants • adopt water quality objectives, prepare guidelines for the development of national management plans, including capacity building legislation, and other appropriate components to achieve the agreed water quality objectives; review national capacity to test, monitor, control and enforce water quality and effluent standards • develop and finalise national and regional management plans to reach these objectives within specified time frames; to be incorporated into the Strategic Action programme for the South China Sea • Initiate capacity building activities that lead to improvement in water quality testing and monitoring and conduct an evaluation of the sensitivity of key ecosystems to specific pollutants or regional and transboundary significance 3.2 Determination of Regional Priority “hot spots” (2005 • Discuss and agree on criteria for evaluating the regional importance of nationally identified pollution "“hot spots”" in the Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis (severity of pollution, feasibility/ease of mitigation, transboundary effect • Assess and evaluate data relating to national “hot spots” and prepare and agree on a regional priority listing for investment • Conduct a preliminary evaluation of the costs and benefits of alternative mitigation measures for selected priority “hot spots”; pre-feasibility studies for three selected priority pollution “hot spots” • Develop and agree on a South China Sea strategic approach to mitigating priority regional “hot spots” (including priority investment portfolio, cofinancing arrangements, national and regional actions) 3.3 Personnel Cost 1/6 P5 1/6 P3 2/6 GS 5 -

TOTAL

n.

Finan.

70

14

35

140

140

210

70

140

GPA, HOTO

GIPME

28

35

60

70

210

70

35 1500

35

525

65

23.6 16.6 14.3 2,456. 5

Discharges The Regional programme of action for the protection of the marine environment of the East Asian Seas from the effects of land-based activities (UNEP 2000), Sewage has been classified with the highest priority regarding land-based pollution sources. About 6 million tons of BOD are generated by the coastal population of the 7 participating country of the South China Sea. Of this, only 11% is removed by sewage treatment in four countries. Assuming the same population growth rates prevail up to 2005,the generated BOD will increase to 6.6 million tonnes. There is clearly a need to raise the

volume removed by sewage treatment especially in coastal waters that receive the pollutants from large urban centres (see tables and figures below). Ranking of pollution sources in the South China Sea was done during the Second Meeting of National Co-ordinators (June 1998). It showed that there is a fair database regarding domestics waste available and that is has a high impact on the aquatic ecosystem in China, Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam and a moderate impact in Malaysia. References • UNEP. 2000. Overview of land-based sources and activities affecting the marine environment in the East Asian Seas. UNEP/GPA Co-ordination Office &EAS/RCU. 74 pp. • UNEP. 2002. Report on Regional Workshop on Protection Coastal and Marine Ecosystems from Land-Based Activities in the Asia-Pacific Region, Toyama, Japan. • UNEP. 2000. Regional programme of action for the protection of the marine environment of the East Asian Seas from the effects of land-based activities. UNEP/GPA Coordination Office &EAS/RCU. 24pp. • Transboundary Diagnostics Analysis for the South China Sea (Version 3, 3 February 1999)

Figure and table on this page: UNEP: Chia,L.S.and H.Kirkman. Overview of Land-Based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine Environment in the East Asian Seas. UNEP/GPA Coordination Office &EAS/RCU (2000) Regional Seas Report and Studies Series.74 pp.

Biological Oxygen Demand from Domestic Sources in the South China Sea (Transboundary Diagnostics Analysis for the South China Sea (Version 3, 3 February 1999) •

Total Nitrogen in the South China Sea (Transboundary Diagnostics Analysis for the South China Sea (Version 3, 3 February 1999)

South Asian Sea (SAS/ SACEP) SACEP Member Countries include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Targets Various aspects of Coastal and Marine Environmental Management is presently being covered in three of SACEP's fifteen Priority Subject Matter Areas, namely Conservation of Corals, Mangroves, Deltas, Coastal Areas, Conservation of Island Ecosystems and Regional Seas Programme, which were identified by experts of the region at its formative stages. The South Asian Regional Seas Programme, The Action Plan for the South Asian Regional Seas Programme was formally adopted at a Meeting of Plenipotentiaries of the concerned countries held in New Delhi, on March 24th 1995. The fourth Priority area of SAS is Landbased sources of Marine pollution. One of the activities associated with this priority area is the development of a regional programme to identify the special problems of the largest coastal cities, each having a population of more than 10 million by the year 2000, and of the island States in the areas of: (i) disposal of domestic effluents; and (ii) collection and disposal of solid wastes. In Bangladesh, arsenic contamination of groundwater has created additional burden in the rural water supply management, demanding water treatment and water quality surveillance. In order to cope with this, a new approach for ‘Arsenic Free Safe Water Supply’ has been initiated through Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project (BAMWSP) The Project was conceptualised with the joint effort of the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) and The World Bank - Swiss Agency for Development & Co-operation (WB-SDC) and was launched in 1998. Specific objectives have been formulated e.g.: construction, rehabilitation and augmentation of water supply and sanitation schemes, awareness and capacity building at community level, preparation of detailed proposals for a national rural and urban water and sanitation program for arsenic mitigation, the set up of Task Force, Steering Committee and Technical Advisory Committee, etc. In addition, a National Arsenic Mitigation Information Center (NAMIC) which collects all information. The centre provides detailed maps regarding the contamination of wells on different depths (see last page; BAMWSP, 2003). The sanitation coverage in India in terms of individual household latrines during the country’s 9th Five-Year Plan (1997-2001) was 16-20 percent of total rural households. The National Sample Survey (NSS), 54th Round Report, published in July 1999 (Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in India) indicated that 17.5 percent of the rural population were using toilets. By the end of the 9th Plan, household data from the 2001 Census showed that 22 percent of rural household use sanitary facilities. At the same time, growth in rural sanitation coverage has not been keeping pace with that of rural drinking water (see figure 1). This is attributed largely to the fact that until recently in India, as elsewhere, focus had been more on providing infrastructure for drinking water (for which there is a natural demand) rather than on sanitation. But even where toilets were in use, generally only women used them regularly. Men-folk and children continued with open defecation. Highlighting the health hazards of open defecation continued to be the main plank of communication and Information, Education and Communication (IEC). With regard to water supply, more than 95% habitations in India are covered with a source of drinking water, when in comes to use about 75% families are regularly taking drinking water from a protected source.

Figure 1: Trends in rural water supply and sanitation usage Disparities across states exist. An analysis of rural home toilet use based on household data from the 2001 Census for major Indian states shows the level of disparity (see figure 2 below).

Figure 2: Interstate disparities in rural home toilet use Figures range from as high as 81 percent in Kerala and 60 percent in Assam to as low as nine percent in Madhya Pradesh and eight percent in Orissa. The Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) launched in 1999, as a component of the sector reforms process, has helped overcome some of these obstacles. Of the 138.2 million rural households in India, (2001) nearly 3.3 million have constructed household toilets with support from the TSC. Of these, nearly 2 million constructed in 2002-2003, reached in a single year five percent of poor rural households. Likewise, over 1,700 women’s complexes, 41,000 school toilets have been built, apart from other support facilities such as Rural Sanitary Marts (RSMs), at a total cost of just over Rs. 2.92 billion (approximately US $ 62 million). The financial break-up below reflects the pattern of sharing resources. Significantly, the community has invested US$ 11 million so far. The total financial outlay under the TSC is Rs. 33,780 million (over US $ 718 million) as follows: In addition, In the Johannesburg conference in 2002, challenging MDG and targets were set to reach the unreached. India accepted the MDG targets and has since then evolved its policies and instruments to in fact go beyond them. For instance, it plans to cover all the habitations and give the population access to better water and sanitation hardware as well as knowledge-ware well before 2015. In general, information seems very fragmented. Further research could possibly more relevant information: - For instance, based on the objectives and prepared ‘country paper’ the results of the South Asian Conference on Sanitation (SOCOSAN) might be very informative. We could, however, not find these easily. The web site http://www.sdnbd.org/sacosan/background.htm that ‘although much has been achieved in last decade, the sanitation picture is still dismal in Asia. Only 39% of the

population in South Asia, and 48% in East Asia and the Pacific, have adequate sanitation facilities (HDR, 2002- report not found)’. -

The overall goal of the conference in 2003 was to accelerate the progress of sanitation and hygiene work in South Asia so as to enhance people's quality of life, in fulfilment of the Millennium Development Goals and more particular to e.g.: - To raise the profile of sanitation, health and hygiene - To generate a joint declaration that prioritises and facilitates a regional policy and strategy for sanitation and hygiene including national targets; - To assess the state of sanitation and hygiene in South Asia, sharing experiences and lessons by people and organisations working in the field; - To explore the possibility for SACOSAN to become an annual event to be hosted in turn by each South Asian country. During the conference ‘Country papers’ have been discussed, which could possibly include information on the status of country approaches and a SMART Action Plans regarding waste water and sanitation (See below)

-

The full version of the Asia-Pacific contribution to the first Global Environment Outlook (AsianPacific Outlook, UNEP 2002?) present in Table 1.9: Urban Water and Sanitation Coverage in the Asia-Pacific region Water % population covered % served by: - house connection - public standpost - other

-

% 80. 9 48. 4 24 27. 6

Sanitation % population covered % served by: - house connection to sewer/septic system - pour-flush latrine

% 69. 8

-

ventilated improved pit latrine

42. 7 43. 1 2.7

-

simple pit latrine other

8.5 3

The South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme (SACEP) Strategy and Programme (1992– 96), for example, has 15 priority areas, including regional co-operation in social forestry; wildlife conservation and genetic resources; conservation of corals, mangroves, deltas and coastal areas; regional seas; energy and environment; and environmental impact assessment and cost-benefit analysis. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Strategic Plan of Action on the Environment has several strategies, including a regional framework on biological diversity conservation and sustainable use of its components; promotion of protection and management of coastal zones and marine resources; and promotion of environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals and hazardous wastes and control of transboundary movement of hazardous wastes.

Financial aspects The Asia Urbs Program is an economic cooperation program supported by the European Commission. The total budget allocated for the Program is Euro 26.3 million and its main purpose is to fund public/private sector partnerships involving a Pakistan and a European Union project partner, or, studies which seek to improve living and environmental conditions for those living in urban areas (improvement of management and planning systems, of policy development, of health, and marketing schemes, rehabilitation of buildings, water and sanitation systems.

Another project is being implemented by Karachi Water and Sewerage Board (Pakistan). The main objective of the project is improvement in quality of water. The project has three components: (a) Treatment Plant at Hub – 455 Mld (approx. 100 MGD); (b) Pipri Treatment Works – 114 Mld (approx. 25 MGD); and (c) Pumping Station at Manghopir – 478 Mld (approx. 100 MGD). Designing of mechanical and electrical plant equipment has been completed; procurement, shipment and storage of plant equipment is in process. The civil work for the projects has not yet started. The project is being financed under the JBIC Loan Agreement No PK-P40. The total amount of loan is 10.3 billion JY and it is scheduled for completion in 2004 (Japanese Bank of International Cooperation). Country papers for SACOSAN 9 countries participated in the South Asian Conference on Sanitation (SACOSAN) in Dhaka, Bangladesh, October 21-23, 2003, which was attended by 4 Ministers, State Ministers, senior civil servants, professionals from sector institutions, academia, civil society, NGOs, Development Partners, and the private sector. The event brought together a number of ‘Country Papers’ that look at what is being done to counter the problems arising from inadequate sanitation coverage, both in terms of the approaches (people-centred, awareness-raising, subsidy-free), and the processes (facilitative, demandresponsive, participatory, etc) being undertaken. It also gave an outline of a future Plan of Action that represents a series of stretching, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-bound commitments to formulating and implementing policy. These should represent a series of stretching, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-bound (SMART) commitments by the governments to formulating to implementing policy. Plans should be arrived at in consultation with widest possible range of actors working to raise the profile of sanitation and hygiene in each country. Country consultation workshops are recommended for this purpose References: - Web site SACEP - http://www.rrcap.unep.org/about/sacep.cfm - Status Report of Bangladesh Arsenic Mitigation Water Supply Project, 2003 (http://www.bamwsp.org/) - Towards Total sanitation and Hygiene – A Challenge for India, South Asian Conference on Sanitation, Dhaka, Bangladesh, October 2003 (http://www.ddws.nic.in/Data/Speeches/SACOSAN.htm) - Cost-Benefit analysis of the proposed sewer network at Moratuwa/Ratmalana in Sri Lanka as a measure to protect the coastal areas from land-based source pollution, 2000 - South Asian Seas Programme - Water and Sanitation Programme – South Asia : http://www.wsp.org/08_Region_output.asp?Region=South+Asia - South Asia Consortium for Interdisciplinary Water Resources Studies: http://www.saciwaters.org/ - International Water Management Institute: http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/ - Global Water Partnership – South Asia http://www.gwpforum.org/servlet/PSP?iNodeID=131 - Arsenic mitigation in water supply of Bangladesh - http://www.bamwsp.org/ - Towards Total Sanitation and Hygiene: A challenge for India: http://ddws.nic.in/Data/Speeches/SACOSAN.htm - South Asian Conference on Sanitation: http://www.sdnbd.org/sacosan/ SACEP documents: 1. An overview of socio-economic opportunities related to the protection of coastal and marine environment from land-based activities 2. Cost-Benefit analysis of the proposed sewer network at Moratuwa/Ratmalana in Sri Lanka as a measure to protect the coastal areas from land-based source pollution

South East Pacific (SEP) Within the framework of the Plan of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas of the South East Pacific (Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Panama and Peru) the socio-economic aspects of the wastewater problem in the South East Pacific have been described (ref 2001). Discharges SE/P countries’ water, sewage and sanitation providers are generally of varying types. State participation predominates in some countries, such as Peru and Panama, while in Chile, the private sector is an important participant. The role of the municipalities varies in each country; municipalities are active in this area in Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. It is difficult to compare quality, quantity and continuity of drinking water service in the different countries. There are marked differences among SE/P countries in such variables as the number of hours of service provided, purification and water quality, intra-domicile delivery or water carrying, all variables that fundamentally indicate that the population’s health is at risk. Untreated wastewater has a significant negative impact on human, land and marine environments; this has been widely demonstrated by public health and environmental impact studies. It is important that SE/P countries have emphasised extending wastewater collection coverage. In the second half of the 1990s, over 70% of the urban population had access to sewage service. On the other hand, treatment or sanitary disposal of wastewater has progressed more slowly in SE/P countries; by 2000, treatment coverage was between 5 and 21%, usually through the use of stabilisation ponds.

DRINKING WATER COVERAGE

COUNTRY URBAN Colombia 89,2 % Chile 99;20 % Ecuador 82,50 % Panama 86,70 % Peru 86,80 %

RURAL 41,70% 65,70% 51,40 % 76,10% 50,60 %

SEWAGE SERVICE COVERAGE

COUNTRY URBAN Colombia 78,60 % Chile 92,10 % Ecuador 70,50 % Panama 98,70 % Peru 89,50 %

RURAL 16,60 % 96,00 % 37,00 % 85,95 % 39,50 %

The rate schedule is one of the most important factors holding back development in water and sanitation services. Many utilities are subsidised in the SE/P and have obsolete rates; other countries have rate systems in the development process, and some have fair, realistic rates. Governments world-wide are analysing ways of attracting private sector companies to supply drinking water and wastewater service, which is gaining in importance in SE/P countries. Since all the countries have the legal framework to allow the private sector to intervene in some way in urban water and sewage services, important factors will be an adequate rate system, incorporating state of the art technologies, and delivering service in accordance with technical standards and local administrative systems. In the SE/P region, there have been difficulties in attracting investment for the collection and treatment of wastewater due to the fact that the public is not willing to pay for wastewater treatment. It is more willing to pay a higher price for access to drinking water than to treat sewage. Structuring rates and the regulatory regime to go along with them should be a high priority in the SE/P countries. There are numerous problems, both causes and effects, that are directly or indirectly associated with wastewater and that have to do with the overall development of the countries. Among the related factors are level of economic development, the general level of health and the educational background of the populations.

The countries of the region have varying situations regarding poverty. A large percentage of both urban and rural populations in the region lived below the National Poverty Line in the 1990s, although the poverty rate was much higher in the rural zones. The International Poverty Line, the percentage of households living in abject poverty and the illiteracy rate are all indicators that describe the situation of the SE/P countries. Most of these factors are found in the rural households in the region. A high percentage of urban domestic wastewaters in the region are collected in sewage systems, but most do not receive sanitation treatment before being disposed of in bodies of water. Industrial and commercial effluents are also discharged into collection systems and bodies of water without treatment. As a consequence, water bodies contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants that affect public health when the water is used for irrigation of crops, recreational use, aquaculture, and for human consumption without being previously treated. These waters’ impact on health due to recreational activities and aquaculture in coastal waters is an issue that has recently received growing attention in the region. The type and magnitude of chemical contamination of oceans from land related sources depends on the degree of industrialisation and urbanisation, as well as on the scope and intensity of agriculture, which, in the SE/P region countries, are generally quite high. Human exposure to toxic chemical pollutants in coastal waters brings on a risk of long-term, chronic effects. Exposure is generally to low concentrations of substances in the water. The most important exposure is that which occurs over long periods of time through the consumption of seafood, which concentrates and accumulates substances, particularly metals and organic compounds. The risk associated with hazardous substances found in fish and seafood is higher in populations for whom these foods are a dietary staple. Finally, a major effect of inadequately treated and dumped wastewater in SE/P countries is the various economic losses incurred by different productive and services sectors associated with the coastal marine environment. Important among these are tourism, recreation, agriculture, aquaculture and fishing. Deteriorating natural coastal resources can directly or indirectly affect the economic dimension. In order to demonstrate more objectively these adverse economic effects and their related after-effects, it is highly advisable to remind the SE/P countries of the benefit of evaluating the economic impact through cost-benefit studies in this area, allowing the participation of as many players as possible that have benefited and/or suffered from the situation. A case study, despite the differences in scale in urban areas and, in particular, in wastewater discharges, is carried out within a common methodology based on fundamental principles for evaluating environmental impacts and future improvement projects in economic terms, focusing on the direct or indirect economic losses and gains to society A cost-benefit analysis focuses on the losses and profits to society, and not, as is the case in conventional financial analysis, on financial flows from the point of view of agency implementation. The following are proposed for case studies on the socioeconomic effects of domestic waste contamination in the SE/P region: Panama Bay, Panama; Tumaco Bay, Colombia; Gulf of Guayaquil, Guayaquil City, Ecuador; Callao and Miraflores Bays, Peru; and Concepción-Penco-Talcahuano, Chile. Costs It is estimated that by the year 2015 the SE/P region will have a total population of 122,357,828 inhabitants (CEPAL, 2000). A high percentage of these inhabitants will live on the coast. The average indicators calculated as described above turned out to be US$3.50 for drinking water and US$0.71 for sanitation; total investment for the period 2000-2010 was calculated to be nearly US$45.0 million for drinking water and US$9.2 million for sanitation. This would achieve drinking water coverage of 92.6% (population served: 1,244.3 / total population: 1,344.1) and sanitation coverage of 93.5% (population served: 1,256.6 / total population: 1,344.1).

The total figure of US$54.1 million (45.0 + 9.2) represents a first approximation, until better projections can be obtained after completing the relevant evaluations and diagnosis through the Character Study which is presently underway. Based on this figure, total investment required for the next decade (2000 to 2010) would be US$365.42 million, with an annual average investment in the area of US$36.5 million, roughly equivalent to almost three times the annual average investment which has occurred in the present decade, at approximately US$13.1 million. Considering the 10 largest companies with more than 10,000 clients each, together with the large and medium sized enterprises, we can conclude that only 18 companies supply sanitation service to 99% of clients of the sector. This shows the service supply to be highly concentrated among the largest companies. There are at least twenty reliable studies, most of them of prospective design, that clearly support the conclusion that the frequency of infections and diseases in bathers increases constantly as faecal contamination in coastal water increases; all of them contribute to ∗the establishment of an unquestionable dose-response relationship (Pruss, 1998). During the decades of the 80s and 90s, water supply did not keep pace with world urbanisation and population growth. The combination of the two caused sanitation services to deteriorate, which, in turn, generated economic, political and social conflicts. The inability of governments to resolve these problems was the main reason for encouraging the private sector to participate. Chile - Targets The coverage goals for the country are 26.6% for 2001, 77.9% for the year 2005 and 93.8 % for 2010. It will be a great challenge for the Chilean sanitation sector to reach these goals, and that is the focus of the incorporation of private investment into the state enterprises. UNEP 1999 – Executive Summary of the Regional Assessment: This regional assessment was prepared following the guidelines included in paragraphs 16 to 24 of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities. The report carried out an analysis of the problems faced by the countries of the South-East Pacific region, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Panamá and Perú, with respect to the marine pollution produced by various categories of sources, which affect the quality of water in marine and freshwater areas. This report also reviewed other forms of degradation originating in industrial wastes, and urban, agricultural, forestry and mining runoff, among others. It also identified coastal water basins whose waters flow into the seas carrying various loads of pollution from anthropogenic activities, causing serious deterioration of the environment. The results of this study indicate that wastewaters are the main source of pollution in the South-East Pacific, because of the volume of organic waste, petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals and pesticides that are discharged through domestic and industrial effluents, degrading the quality of the marine environment and because of the effects that these effluents have on public health and their repercussion on the economies of the countries. In Colombia, the main polluted areas are the Tumaco and Buenaventura Bays, which show high values of organic pollution, heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbons as a result of the pollution from anthropogenic activities, which affects the quality of seawater and coastal resources. At the present time, to promote conservation and the rehabilitation of areas affected by pollution from various human activities, programmes of environmental education have been set up at all levels, including training and technical assistance for the segment of the population involved in fisheries, forestry and agricultural operations. In Chile, pollution from wastewaters from anthropogenic activities is one of the highest pollution loads, which is correlated with the major population centers of the country, such as regions V ** EEC, 1976. Quality of bathing waters – Council Directive of 8 December 1975 of the European Economic Communities, Directive No. 76/160/EEC, Brussels, Belgium. *** USEPA, 1986. Ambient water quality. Criteria for bacteria-1986. Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Criteria and Standards Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C.- Federal Register 51(45)

and VIII. Medium- and long-term programmes have been set up to minimise industrial wastes. The target is to reduce or prevent pollution by discharges from domestic sewage systems. Ecuador has a similar problem with domestic and industrial wastewaters, which are discharged directly to the sea in the Provinces of Esmeraldas, Manabi, Guayas and El Oro. Another major source of contamination is the Guayas River, which besides organic loads also discharges insecticides thus contributing to the degradation of the Guayaquil Gulf. In order to preserve the marine and coastal ecosystem, monitoring is being carried out to define the areas affected by effluents and for the planning of actions to eliminate or minimise the effect caused by the problems identified in the coastal area. In Panamá, waste waters also constitute the main source of pollution; to address this, and to protect the marine environment, a rehabilitation master plan for Panama Bay has been prepared. In the rest of the country, local authorities have city sanitation projects for sewage, including wastewater treatment. In Perú, the main pollution sources are wastewaters originating in anthropogenic activities affecting the areas of Callao, Chimbote and Pisco. In the southern area, mining activities have seriously affected the marine and coastal ecosystems, because of atmospheric, agricultural and water-borne pollution. The management policy to conserve the environment is sectoral; each Ministry constitutes the competent authority for tackling the environmental matters related to projects and activities of the mining, energy, industrial, fishery, and agricultural sectors, among others. For this purpose, various management instruments have been developed, such as sectoral by-laws, technical protocols and inter-sectoral coordination through the National Environmental Council. This assessment also considers the establishment of priorities and management objectives for the most vital problems brought up by the representatives of the Governments of the countries of the South-East Pacific, based on information provided by the countries and their affordability, and mainly directed at pollution of the organic type. References - UNEP. 1999. Assessment of land-based sources and activities affecting the marine, coastal and associated freshwater environments in the South East Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies N° 169. - Cabrera, N. 2001, Socio-economic aspects of the wastewater problem in the South East Pacific. Report to CPPS/UNEP, July 2001. (Unpublished).

South Pacific (SP / SPREP) Targets The South Pacific Regional Environmental Programme is the Regional Co-ordination Unit for the South Pacific. SPREP is a regional organisation established by the governments and administrations of the Pacific region. The establishment of SPREP also sends a clear signal to the global community of the deep commitment of the Pacific island governments and administrations towards sustainable development, especially in light of the outcomes of the World Summit on Sustainable Development in the form of the Plan of Implementation, the Millennium Development Goals and Declaration, the Barbados Plan of Action and Agenda 21 (web site). One of the many projects is the Strategic Action Programme for the International Waters of the Pacific Small Island Developing States. This project addresses to some extend the Millennium Development Goals and deals with domestic waste water and sanitation issues trough its four immediate objectives: 1. To enhance transboundary management mechanisms. 2. To enhance conservation and sustainable use of coastal and watershed resources. 3. To enable the conservation and sustainable yielded of ocean living resources. 4. To maximise regional benefits from lessons learned through community-based participation and to catalyse donor participation. The programme runs until 2006 and is financed by GEF. The following countries are involved: Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. The SAP for the International Waters of the Pacific Small Island Developing States has given priority was given to those transboundary concerns that arise from the following imminent threats to the health of those waters. The priority concerns include: • Pollution of marine and freshwater (including groundwater) from land-based activities • Issues related to the long term sustainable use of marine and freshwater resources • Physical, ecological and hydrological modification of critical habitats • Unsustainable exploitation of living and nonliving resources, particularly, coastal and ocean fishery resources. The site mentions that targeted actions will be carried out in two complementary, linked consultative contexts: Integrated Coastal and Watershed Management (ICWM) and Oceanic Fisheries Management (OFM). Through the ICWM and OFM approaches, the SAP sets out a path for the transition of Pacific islands from sectoral to integrated management of International Waters as a whole, which is essential for their protection over the long term. No evidence has been found on the Internet of these targets. Priority areas for action mentioned in the Overview of land-based sources and activities affecting the Marine, coastal and freshwater environment focus on issues like data gaps, technical capacity, regulation and enforcement. In addition, during a workshop country and regional concerns focused on sewage and the need to develop and implement a pollution control and regulation / permit systems was defined. It further need legal assistance to upgrade legislation as a lack of legislation and regulation was seen as a barrier to develop the system (UNEP, 2000; Annex 3) Discharges Domestic sources of pollution remain the major contributors to marine pollutant loads. Seven Contaminants of concern associated with domestic sources include nutrients, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), solids, and microbial pollution. Much of the region’s domestic wastewater is man aged and disposed of through individual systems such cesspools, septic tanks, and simple latrines. Only the largest urban centres have reticulated sewage collection and treatment schemes. The increased concentration of the individual systems increases

the overloading of the land’s ability to absorb the wastes and both surface waters and groundwater is increasingly degraded. The nutrient overload to marine waters particularly threatens coral reef ecosystems, weakening the reef carbonate skeleton and smothering the reef with algae. Increased solid waste generation with inadequate disposal system results in smothering of wetlands and reef flats with the solid waste and release of nutrients and toxic chemicals to the environment. The domestic sources of land-based pollution have been identified as domestic sewage, solid waste (including litter), land alterations from urbanisation. Table 6 summarises pollutant contributions from domestic wastewater calculated by the WHO Rapid Assessment method.27 These may represent point or non-point sources. Virtually no quantitative data is available for non-point data or the pollution resulting from land, ecosystem, and hydrological modifications. Nevertheless, there is visual and anecdotal evidence of their effects from eutrophication of la-goons to completely removed and filled in wetlands. Solid waste generation from domestic sources has been included in the overall solid waste generation summarised in the contaminant discussion below. Overview from WHO, 2000. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report: Urban and rural water supply and sanitation coverage figures are shown by country, area or territory for both 1990 and 2000. Maps of current coverage are also presented. Graphs illustrate regional changes in coverage over time, as well as coverage targets associated with projected changes in population. Oceania is the least populated of the regions described in this report. The current status of its sanitation coverage appears to be relatively good, with 93% of the population having access to improved sanitation; and 88% of the population has access to improved water supply. These figures are strongly biased by the large and well-served population of Australia. When the figures for Australia are excluded, coverage levels are much lower. Patterns of urban and rural coverage are difficult to distinguish, as some of the small islands in this region define themselves as either entirely urban or entirely rural. Population growth in Oceania is expected to continue over the coming decades. To meet the 2015 international development targets, this means that an additional 7.3 million people will need access to improved water supply services, and an additional 6.5 million will need access to sanitation. The specific characteristics of the islands need to be taken into account in efforts to increase water supply and sanitation coverage. In Box 9.1 some of these aspects are discussed Trends and future needs As there are few data for 1990 from the region, analysis of any change over the 1990s should be done cautiously. Figures 9.1–9.6 present projected population change and the international development targets. It is predicted that the total population of the region will increase by 14% over the next 15 years, mainly in the urban areas of Oceania. To achieve the 2015 goal, an additional 4.5 million urban people and 2.8 million rural people will need access to water supply. For sanitation, 4.5 million additional urban people and 2.1 million rural people will require access to facilities. The people requiring service are largely in the small island states of the Federated States of Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia. Water supply and sanitation coverage Table 9.1 provides water supply and sanitation coverage data for 1990 and 2000, by country, area or territory. Composite coverage data are presented in Figures 9.1–9.6. Two countries in the region, Fiji and Kiribati, report having both water supply and sanitation coverage below 50%. Papua New Guinea also has less than 50% water supply coverage. References • http://www.sprep.org.ws/ • UNEP: Overview of Land-Based Pollutant Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine, Coastal, and Freshwater Environment in The Pacific Islands Region. UNEP/GPA Coordination Office & SPREP (2000). Regional Seas Report and Studies Series no. 174. 45 pp.



WHO, 2000. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report

Other relevant reports: • Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for International Waters of the Pacific Islands Region (June 1998); Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Landbased Activities (1995), UNEP, Washington, D.C; • Report to the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) (1996), SPREP, Apia, Samoa; • Land-Based Pollutants Inventory for the South Pacific Region (1993), by N. Convard, SPREP Reports and Studies Series No. 68, SPREP,Apia, Western Samoa. • Strategies and measures for preventing and mitigating land-based sources of pollutant’s to transboundary waters in the pacific region. Prepared for international water SAP, Convard, N., et al. 1997 • Land-based Pollutant Inventory for the South Pacific Region. SRS 68 1/1/2000 • Water Quality Studies on Selected South Pacific Lagoons. SRS 49 1/1/2000

UNEP, 2000

WHO, 2000

WHO, 2000

North-West Pacific (NWP) This vast region of the North-West Pacific includes the People’s Republic of China, Japan, the Russian Federation, the Republic of Korea and the Democratic Republic of Korea. It also features extensive coral reefs, mangrove forests and island ecosystems with their spectacular marine life and commercially important fishing grounds. The North-West Pacific is among the most highly populated parts of the world, resulting in enormous pressures and demands on the environment. Its people are particularly dependent on the sea for their food and livelihoods. Yet their health – and the health of their environment – are under growing threat, mainly from land-based activities and sources of pollution. Coastal development, industry, transport, and activities such as land reclamation and intensive mariculture take an ever-greater toll on coastal ecosystems. Chemical and industrial wastes, untreated municipal sewage, agricultural pesticides and nutrients in run-off cause widespread damage and stimulate eutrophication and harmful algal blooms (red tides). Added to these are oil pollution from wastewaters and accidental spills, atmospheric pollution and marine and coastal litter. The countries of the region realised that by joining forces they could strike a wise balance between provision for human needs, use of resources, and economic development on one hand, and the protection, enhancement and sustainability of the environment on the other. They launched (1991) and formally adopted (1994) the Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP). The Plan focuses on the wise use, development and management of the coastal and marine environment in order to achieve the greatest long-term benefit for the human populations of the region while protecting human health and ecological integrity for future generations. The plan incorporates six priority projects to be implemented through a network of Regional Activity Centres (RACs). Four of these are in operation and deal with information management, pollution monitoring, environmental assessment, and marine emergency preparedness and response. NOWPAP’s Regional Coordinating Unit (RCU), co-hosted by Japan and the Republic of Korea, will serve as nerve centre and command post of the Action Plan’s activities. Ours is a young programme, so our priorities over the coming years are fairly basic: to set up a regional monitoring and assessment system; to develop a network of public outreach and environmental education; to put in place a contingency plan for oil and chemical spills; and to prepare a regional strategic plan to abate pollution from land-based activities (in accordance with UNEPGPA); to set up regional programmes to protect marine and coastal biodiversity; and to initiate programmes for sustainable management of living marine resources based on the ecosystem approach. And we intend that our ground-breaking programme will serve as a regional platform for the implementation of Multilateral Environmental Agreements and other global programmes and initiatives concerning the marine and coastal environment. The adoption of our Action Plan was an extraordinary and historical moment. As work begins through the regional centres to implement the Action Plan, NOWPAP is well on its way to becoming one of the world’s most remarkable examples of regional cooperation for the environment.

Wider Caribbean (CAR) As stated in the UNEP/GPA report (1999), sewage is a very serious problem in the region and although there are no on-going systematic monitoring programmes it is evident that the lack of sewage collection and treatment is generalised in almost all countries and territories of the region. In table 8 there are some estimates regarding access to water and sanitation of some countries in the region. In Havana Bay it is reported that there are concentrations of 70 umol/l of ammoniac nitrogen and between 0.7 umol/l and 2.5 umol/l of phosphorus, causing eutrophication in certain areas. In Jamaica it has been estimated that the country generates about 455 million litres of sewage per day, of which only 25 % is collected and treated. A WHO report (2000) indicates total coverage with water supply is approximately 85% of the population (Figure 8.1), while total sanitation coverage is slightly lower at 78% (Figure 8.2). Large disparities are apparent between urban and rural areas, with an estimated 87% of the urban population having sanitation coverage, but only 49% of the rural population having coverage. For water supply, 93% of the urban population enjoys coverage, while only 62% of the rural population is covered. Part of these discrepancies may be due to local definitions of "safe" or "improved" service. For example, some countries in the region, for which household surveys were not conducted, may have used higher standards when defining services. In these cases, the coverage figures may be underestimated. The water supply and sanitation coverage data for the year 2000 are presented in Maps 8.1 and 8.2, and are based on the data in Table 8.1. The maps show that in the vast majority of countries in the region more than 75% of the people have both water supply and sanitation coverage. The countries of the Caribbean tend to have the highest reported coverage levels in the region, although the maps do not show this clearly. In only one country of the region, Haiti, is less than 50% of the population without improved water supply. Similarly, there are only two countries with less than 50% sanitation coverage, Belize and Haiti. Table 8.1 provides data for 1990 and 2000 by country, area or territory. Composite coverage data are presented in Maps 8.1 and 8.2, and in Figures 8.1 and 8.2.

The International Development Research Centre of Canada (IDRC) and the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO/WHO) signed an arrangement for the execution of the project Integrated Systems for the Treatment and Recycling of Waste Water in Latin America: Reality and Potential, to be carried out by the Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences (PAHO/CEPIS) during 2000 and 2002. The project was aimed at analysing wastewater management experiences in Latin America, recommending strategies for the design and implementation of such systems, and identifying new opportunities. According to PAHO/WHO (2001) in 1998 less than 14% of the 600 m 3 /s of domestic wastewater collected in Latin America had some treatment before being disposed of in rivers and seas, and only 6% had an acceptable treatment. Besides, considering that 40% of the urban population in the Region suffers infectious diseases related to water, the disposal of raw sewage demands urgent attention since it represents an important source of parasites, bacteria, and pathogenic viruses.

Sewage is one of the most significant pollutants affecting the coastal environments of the Wider Caribbean Region, especially in the developing nations. In 1993, Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO) indicated that only 10% of the sewage generated in the Central American and Caribbean Island countries were properly treated. A more recent survey conducted in eleven CARICOM countries by PAHO reported that the percentage of population served by sewage systems varied from 2 to 16%. The inadequate number of sewage treatment plants in operation, combined with poor operating conditions of available treatment plants, and the disposal practices of discharging mostly untreated wastewater are likely to have an adverse effect on the quality of coastal waters. The population of coastal dwellers in most of the countries in the region continues to grow steadily, thus increasing the amounts of poorly treated or untreated sewage waste waters being discharged into the coastal waters. The discharge of sewage can cause public health problems either from contact with polluted waters or from consumption of contaminated fish or shellfish. The discharge of untreated sewage effluents also produces long-term adverse impacts on the ecology of critical coastal ecosystems in localised areas due to the contribution of nutrients and other pollutants. Pollution due to inadequate sewage disposal causes nutrient enrichment around population centers, and high nutrient levels and even eutrophication near treatment facilities and sewage outfalls. Increased nutrient concentrations promote increased algal and bacterial growth, degradation of seagrass and coral reef ecosystems, decreased fisheries production, along with risks to human health. Because of the lack of the necessary municipal sewerage systems, hotels are placed in the position of operating their own treatment plants. According to current reports, only 25% of the treatment plants operated by hotels and resort complexes are in good operating condition. The problem is further exacerbated by the common practice of discharging untreated or inadequately treated industrial wastewater into the domestic waste water stream. As a result, most sewers contain a variety of toxic and nonbiodegradable substances, which make their treatment less effective and more costly. It is estimated that less than 2% of the urban sewage is treated before its disposal, and that the proportion of treated sewage from rural communities is probably even lower. The outfalls of the sewerage systems are usually very short, contributing to the pollution of nearshore waters. The survey carried out by PAHO included eleven CARICOM countries and provided estimated levels of BOD5 and total suspended solids from domestic and industrial point sources together with the volume of the discharged wastes. Sewage has been identified as one of the most significant pollutants affecting the coastal environment of the WCR, particularly in developing countries. The ecological and health problems posed by the discharge of untreated sewage in coastal waters of the WCR needs to be examined on a short and a long-term basis for its mitigation and eventual control. In the short term it is imperative to make an

assessment of the availability and operational conditions of the sewage treatment plants serving coastal communities within the region. Concerning the operational conditions of the sewage treatment plants operating in the CARICOM countries, a recently published survey conducted by CEHI/PAHO (21) revealed shows the inadequate number of sewage treatment plants in operation, considering the population of the surveyed countries, together with the poor operating conditions of the available treatment plants. The report also indicates that approximately two thirds of the plants surveyed were poorly maintained package plants used in the absence of municipal sewerage systems. With regards to the disposal of the effluents from the surveyed sewage treatment plants, the CEHI/PAHO report described the following waste disposal practices: Re-use of effluent 31 plants (21%); sub-surface discharge, 20 plants (14%); marine disposal, mainly on the shoreline, 42 plants (28%); lagoons and streams, 32 plants (22%); and on site disposal, 21 plants (14%). The above information clearly shows that the disposal practices of discharging mostly untreated wastewater are likely to adversely affect the quality of coastal waters. The CEHI/PAHO report also pointed out that of the 138 plants surveyed only 82 regularly monitor the quality of their effluent. However, monitoring data was available from only 54 plants of which only a third provided unreliable data. The information presented in the NCPDI report provides an insight into the relative importance of sewage treatment plants as point-sources discharging into the estuarine and coastal areas of the U.S. Gulf Coast. In 1990 there were 1,293 municipality owned sewage treatment plants serving the U.S. Gulf Coast. Most of these plants provided secondary treatment and discharged approximately 3,790 x 103 m3 a day of treated wastewaters, mainly into estuarine environment, with only six of the 113 municipalities discharging into coastal areas (22). Based on the projected demographic growth of the US Gulf coast, it has been estimated that sewage loadings in the state of Florida are expected to increase up to 300% by the year 2000 (23). Similar trends can be expected for the rest of the Gulf coastal states. The sludge generated by the above mentioned sewage treatment plants are commonly incinerated and disposed of in landfills. Management The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region was adopted in Cartagena, Colombia on 24 March 1983 and entered into force on 11 October 1986, for the legal implementation of the Action Plan for the Caribbean Environment Programme. The Convention has been supplemented by three Protocols: A Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region which was also adopted in 1983 and entered into force on 11 October 1986; A Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) in the Wider Caribbean Region which was adopted on 18 January 1990. The Protocol entered into force on 18 June 2000. A Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities. The Contracting Parties to the Cartagena Convention decided in 1987 at a meeting in Guadelope to give priority to a Protocol on Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS). The adoption of this Protocol took place on 6 October 1999 in Aruba. Sixteen Member States signed the Final Act to adopt the Protocol, and four (Costa Rica, France, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and the United States of America) signed the Protocol itself. Their signature demonstrates their intention to ratify. The Cartagena Convention has been ratified by 21 United Nations Member States in the Wider Caribbean Region. Its Area of application comprises the marine environment of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the areas of the Atlantic Ocean adjacent thereto, south of 30 north latitude and within 200 nautical miles of the Atlantic Coasts of the States. Targets The full implementation of the LBS protocol in the near future could be the most efficient tool to control land-based pollution in the region. As defined in ANNEX III on Domestic Wastewater of the Protocol concerning pollution from landbased sources and activities to the convention for the protection and development of the marine

environment of the wider Caribbean region (Adopted at Aruba on 6 October 1999). The contracting parties shall ensure that domestic wastewater that discharges into, or adversely affects, the Convention area, is treated by a new or existing domestic wastewater system whose effluent achieves the effluent limitations specified below in paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 of this Part, in accordance with the following timetable: Effective Date of Obligation (in years after Effluent Sources Category entry into force for the Contracting Party All new domestic 1 0 wastewatersystems Existing domestic wastewater 2 10 systems other than community wastewater systems Communities with 10,000 3 10* 50,000 inhabitants Communities with more than 50,000 inhabitants already 4 15 possessing wastewater collection systems Communities with more than 5 20 50,000 inhabitants not possessing wastewater collection systems All other communities except 6 20 those relying exclusively on household systems * Contracting Parties which decide to give higher priority to categories 4 and 5 may extend their obligations pursuant to category 3 to twenty (20) years (time frame established in category 6).

1. Discharges into Class II Waters Each Contracting Party shall ensure that domestic wastewater that discharges into, or adversely affects, Class II waters is treated by a new or existing domestic wastewater system whose effluent achieves the following effluent limitations based on a monthly average: Parameter Effluent Limit Total Suspended Solids 150 mg/l* Biochemical Oxygen Demand 150 mg/l (BOD5) pH 5-10 pH units Fats, Oil and Grease 50 mg/l Floatables not visible * Does not include algae from treatment ponds 2. Discharges into Class I Waters Each Contracting Party shall ensure that domestic wastewater that discharges into, or adversely affects, Class I waters is treated by a new or existing domestic wastewater system whose effluent achieves the following effluent limitations based on a monthly average: Parameter Effluent Limit Total Suspended Solids 30 mg/l* Biochemical Oxygen Demand 30 mg/l (BOD5) pH 5-10 pH units Fats, Oil and Grease 15 mg/l Faecal Coliform Faecal Coliform: 200 mpn/100 ml; (Parties may meet effluent or limitations either for faecal a. E. coli: 126 organisms/100ml; coliform or for E. coli (freshwater) b. enterococci: 35 organisms/100 and enterococci (saline water).) ml Floatables not visible * Does not include algae from treatment ponds

Percentage of population with access to Water and Sanitation (1988) CARDIQUE estimated that in 1996, 41,900 cubic meters of sewage was discharged per say into Cartagena Bay. According to CORPES (1992) only 53,92% of the population of the Colombian Caribbean has access to potable water and only 24% has access to sanitation. Population with access to sanitation according to UNDP (1990-1996)

References • Web site: http://www.cep.unep.org/ • Mood, E.W. (1977). Beach Pollution in the Caribbean Environmental Health Assessment and Suggested Health Strategy. Proceedings of a Conference/Workshop on Environmental Health Strategy. Grenada PAHO. • Vlugman, A. A. (1992). CEHI/PAHO Assessment of Operational Status of Wastewater Treatment Plants in the Caribbean, pp.57 and Annexes. • UNEP: Assessment of Land-based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine, Coastal and Associated Freshwater Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region. UNEP/ GPA Co-ordination Office & Caribbean Environment Programme (1999). 121 pp. No. 172 http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/technical/rseas_reports/172-eng.pdf • Bahías y Costas (1997). Estudio de Caso: Bahía de la Habana –PNUD/FMAM Proyecto GEF/RLA/93/G41, Proyecto Regional de Planificación y Manejo de Bahías y Areas Costeras Fuertemente Contaminadas del Gran Caribe. La Habana, Cuba, 1997. • Government of Jamaica (1995). National Environmental Action Plan. Kingston, Jamaica. CORPES (1992). El Caribe Colombiano: realidad ambiental y desarrollo. Santa Marta, Colombia. • CARDIQUE (1998). Estudio de caso: Bahía de Cartagena, Colombia. Proyecto Regional de Planificación y Manejo de Bahías y Zonas Costeras fuertemente Contaminadas del Gran Caribe. Proyecto GEF/RLA/93/G41. Cartagena, Colombia. • United Nations Development Programme. Human Resources Development Report, 1997. New York. • WHO, Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report, 2000, http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/Global8-1.htm • Regional Project Integrated Systems for the Treatment and Recycling of Waste Water in Latin America: Reality and Potential IDRC–PAHO/HEP/CEPIS Agreement Original: Spanish http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org/bvsaar/e/proyecto/rejecutivoeng.pdf

North East Pacific (NEP)

The North East Pacific Region includes the countries of Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama. These countries' coastal areas are noted for their productive fisheries and their biodiversity-rich mangroves, but these resources – and the societies that depend on them – are threatened from a number of directions: overexploitation of resources, maritime trade, rapid development and political conflict. The result has been poverty, food insecurity and inland degradation. On 18 February 2002, the North-East Pacific countries adopted a Convention and Action Plan for their region. The Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Northeast Pacific and its Plan of Action were signed by six (Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica and Panama) of the eight countries of the region, at a Conference of Plenipotentiaries convened at the invitation of the Government of the Republic of Guatemala by the Executive Director of UNEP. Priority Issues • Poverty; • Food insecurity; • Inland degradation. Strategies and Measures • Training and capacity building activities; • Draw on the long list of potential partners for guidance and support; • Convene a First Intergovernmental Meeting on the Action Plan to launch the programme; • Participation of civil society; • Integrated Coastal Area Management (ICAM); • Environmental security; • Liability; • Food security.

Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region includes the coastal and marine waters of Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen, Djibouti, and Somalia.

The problems of physical alteration and destruction of habitats are a result of dredging and filling operations associated with urban expansion, tourism, and industrial development. In general, the main sources of marine pollution come from land-based activities, including urbanisation and coastal development, industries including power and desalination plants, refineries, recreation and tourism, wastewater treatment facilities, coastal mining and quarrying activities, and oil bunkering. Priority Issues • Physical alteration and destruction of habitats (quarrying activities in the coastal areas); • Sewage treatment (direct discharge of treatment plants effluents); • Organic pollution (uncontrolled use of insecticides and pesticides); • Heavy metals (discharge of wastes from tanning factories); • Litter (direct from dumping or possible leak from landfill in the vicinity of the coast). Major Constraints - A lack of harmonised legal instruments (laws, regulations, guidelines and codes of practice); - Develop national institutional arrangements to integrate all coastal activities under the umbrella of a coastal area management plan; - Identify ways and means of meeting the financial obligations for the selected managerial objectives; - The need for strengthened capacity of national experts to deal with local issues and large-scale issues. Strategies and Measures -

Develop national integrated coastal zone management plans; Develop coastal tourism in accordance with a regional development plan; Establish a regional system of coastal protected areas specifically intended for the protection of environmentally sensitive areas and the maintenance of genetic polls of regional biodiversity; In the regional development plans, address the detrimental effect on the coastal environment from continued shoreline alteration, dredging and land-filling; Promote the exchange of information on the protection of the coastal and marine environment; Enforce the use of EIAs(Environmental Impact Assessments) for all tourism and coastal development projects; Establish programmes to monitor all industrial discharges, to ensure their compliance with local standards and criteria;

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Establish a comprehensive monitoring programme to provide baseline information with respect to marine environment resources and biodiversity; Develop and implement the effective control of the dredging and filling of coastal and marine areas; Establish and implement wastewater treatment and disposal quality criteria; Develop and implement a water quality monitoring programme; Establish programmes to restore coastal habitats that have suffered decline or loss as a result of tourism and other development activities; Adopt measures to ensure that the location and design of the systems produced to discharge treated effluents into the marine environment meet the appropriate environmental quality criteria; Adopt tested economical and effective pollution control technologies, capable of reducing the impact of sewage disposal on the coastal and marine environment; Consider the use of ultraviolet radiation as an alternative to the locally used chlorinating systems.

Sewage and solid waste is considered an important environmental threat throughout the region; Saudi Arabia. Most of the treatment plants in Jeddah are overloaded and, hence, the effectiveness of treatment is very low, hence, the low quality of treated effluent from the plants. In Jordan untreated sewage was discharged directly into the Gulf of Aqaba in the vicinity of the port up until 1987, when the city started treating its wastewater. The treated effluent is used for irrigation purposes in the vicinity of the treatment plant. Considerable amounts of sewage are, however, being discharged into the Gulf from cargo vessels, tour boats, ferries and private yachts. In Saudi Arabia's Red Sea coastal cities of Jeddah and Yanbu, domestic wastewater treatment is considered quite adequate. The advanced Yanbu treatment plant produces wastewater suitable for irrigation, and only a limited amount is discharged to the sea. Egypt. One of the main sources of pollution on Egypt's Red Sea coast is the discharge of poorly treated or untreated sewage effluents into the marine environment. Tourist areas located outside city limits have their own sewage treatment facilities, many of which use compact treatment units which operate under widely fluctuating flows, the result of significant variations in hotel occupancy. Treated effluents are occasionally discharged into the sea. Damage to marine life is evident in Taba, Nuweiba and Sharm el Sheikh on the Gulf of Aqaba, and at several localities on the Egyptian Red Sea coasts. Somalia. Although sewage tops the list of environmental problems in Somalia, the threat is not considered imminent. Nevertheless, because of the untreated domestic and municipal wastes dumped into the sea through the port facilities in Mogadishu and other parts of Somalia's Red Sea coast, the handling (collection, treatment and disposal) of such wastes in an environmentally sound manner is considered a priority. Urban solid waste dumps form another possible source of local pollution in Somalia. A large open tipping site is located right on the coast at Mogadishu, close to the city abattoir. In the rainy season, leachates run off directly into the sea. Jordan. Solid waste is considered a particular problem in Jordan. The beaches and near shore reef and sea grass areas of Jordan's Gulf of Aqaba are heavily polluted by discarded plastic and other refuse materials. Management The Jeddah Convention of 1982, formally titled "Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment," provides an important basis for environmental cooperation in the Region. It was the result of a Regional Intergovernmental Conference, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme. The Regional Intergovernmental Conference also adopted a "Programme for the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA)," and established a Secretariat for the Programme in Jeddah. In addition, the Conference produced two important instruments: (a) an "Action Plan for the Conservation of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden"; and (b) a "Protocol Concerning Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency."

The provisions of the Jeddah Convention are complemented by those of MARPOL and the Basel Conventions. Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen are Parties to the Jeddah Convention. References • • •

http://www.unep.ch/seas/main/persga/redconv.html UNEP/GPA, 1997. Assessment of Land-based Sources and activities affecting the Marine Environment, in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. http://www.unep.org.bh/

ROPME Sea Area (Kuwait Region) The Kuwait region includes the coastal and marine waters of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.

For the past three decades the Region has witnessed one of the world’s highest rates of economic growth. The rise in industrialisation together with high population growth and rapid urbanisation has resulted in ever-greater impacts from land-based sources of pollution on the region’s coastal waters. To take advantage of access to the sea for transportation and water, almost all development projects have been established on the coasts, where they release their effluents into the most productive areas of the marine environment. Municipal sewage, industrial wastes, dredging and reclamation activities are permanent features of many parts of the coast. In April 1978, the eight Governments of the Region adopted the Kuwait Convention and Action Plan, making it one of the first Regional Seas. The Plan mainly covers programme activities relating to oil pollution, industrial wastes, sewage and marine resources. Projects range over coastal area management, fisheries, public health, land-based activities, sea-based pollution, biodiversity, oceanography, marine emergencies, GIS and remote sensing, environmental awareness and capacity building. Article III, the general obligations of the Kuwait convention states; a) The Contracting States shall, individually and/or jointly, take all appropriate measures in accordance with the present Convention and those protocols in force to which they are party to prevent, abate and combat pollution of the marine environment in the Sea Area; b) In addition to the Protocol concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency opened for signature at the same time as the present Convention, the Contracting States shall co-operate in the formulation and adoption of other protocols prescribing agreed measures, procedure and standards for the implementation of the Convention; c) The Contracting States shall establish national standards, laws and regulations as required for the effective discharge of the obligation prescribed in paragraph (a) of this article, and shall endeavour to harmonise their national policies in this regard and for this purpose appoint the National Authority;

d) The Contracting States shall co-operate with the competent international, regional and subregional organisations to establish and adopt regional standards, recommended practices and procedures to prevent, abate and combat pollution from all sources in conformity with the objectives of the present Convention, and to assist each other in fulfilling their obligations under the present Convention; e) The Contracting Series shall use their best endeavour to ensure that the implementation of the present Convention shall not cause transformation of one type of pollution to another, which could be more detrimental to the environment. Milestones include the creation in 1979 of the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME), the establishment in 1982 of the Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre (MEMAC), and the adoption of four protocols addressing marine emergencies, hazardous wastes, land-based activities and sea-based pollution. Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report, presents for Asia (including the Kuwait region) the following Maps on Water supply coverage and Sanitation coverage.

According to the UNEP/GPA report (1999) two investigations were conducted to estimate the volume and quality of the sewage discharged into the ROPME sea area. The first was in 1980 and the second in 1986 (Taylor, 1986). The second study covered the urban centres in the coastal area, development of the sewage system, the existing sewer-age, the annual pollution load from domestic wastewater and future discharges into the ROPME sea area from each State. The total amount of treated and untreated sewage discharged in the area was 940,033 tons/yr. The highest discharged contaminant was total dissolved solids (840,543 tons/yr), representing 89.42 per cent of all domestic waste (Table 22). Waste sludge from only from Qatar (20,300 tons/yr) and United Arab Emirates (94,397 tons/yr) (ROPME, 1997). Before the Gulf War, nearly 95 per cent of Kuwait’s population was served by three-stage sewage treatment plants. Today, over 75 per cent of Bahrain’s population is covered by a sewage treatment network, as is close to 100 per cent of the United Arab Emirates and Oman, and 79 per cent of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Hinrichsen, 1996). Accordingly, there has been considerable improvement in recent years, with regard to controlling the discharge into the sea of municipal pollution water. Treated sewage waters are used mainly in landscaping and fodder crop irrigation and for some industrial uses. The main handicaps to reuse expansion are both social (psychological aversion and religion as opposition) and technical (microbiological pollutants, potential accumulation of heavy metals in irrigated soil, and industrial mixing).

If only 50 per cent of domestic water supplies are treated and recycled in agriculture, recycled water has the potential to meet more than 11 per cent of total water demands of GCC countries, could satisfy more than 14 per cent of their agricultural sector demands, and could reduce fossil groundwater withdrawal by more than 13 per cent by the year 2020 (Al-Zubari, 1997). Management and policies In fulfilment of Articles IV, V, VI and VIII as well as Annexes I, II and III of the Protocol, the following activities are envisaged for 1997 and 1998, to be carried out in close cooperation with UNEP and, possibly, UNIDO, as appropriate: - Preparation of a management scheme with high priority pollution abatement programmes and measures for land-based sources and activities in the ROPME region; - Development of regional guidelines and criteria along with programmes and measures for their industrial sources through joint or combined effluent treatment; - Development of regional regulations for waste discharges and for the degree of treatment of significant categories of land-based sources and activities; - Development of regional guidelines, standards or criteria for the quality of seawater used for specific purposes; - Provision of technical assistance for the development of technical guidelines for the assessment of potential environmental impacts and for the cost benefit analysis of activities major development projects. References • • •

Website: http://www.unep.ch/seas/kapcap.html UNEP. 1983 Action plan for the protection of the marine environment and the coastal areas of Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No 35. 15pp. UNEP: Overview on Land-based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine Environment in the ROPME Sea Area. UNEP/ GPA Coordination Office & ROPME (1999). 127 pp. http://www.gpa.unep.org/documents/technical/rseas_reports/168-eng.pdf