CHAPTER

Thirteen

Animal production technologies Most people are interested in animals. We keep them as pets and companions, make them work for us, use them for food and other resources, and enjoy looking at them in the wild. Problems often arise from the way wild, feral, farm and pet animals are treated. Animal rights issues are often in the news. If we are to keep animals in an ethical manner, it’s important that we develop an understanding of their needs and learn how best to care for them. Animals can be tricky subjects for design projects, but are very rewarding and are suitable for producing projects in all areas of study: Built Environments, Products, or Information and Communications. Chapter 13 provides information to help your class develop an interactive display based on the honeybee to feature in a local show. This chapter also includes an overview of beekeeping, and information about the materials, tools and techniques for animal production technologies.

Focus

Technobite The extinction of species has always been a natural part of evolution. Fossil records reveal that life originated about 4 billion years ago and most species that once existed are now extinct. Humans have accelerated this process by industrialisation and their behaviour towards animals and their habitats.

By the end of this chapter you will be able to: • research, select and justify the selection of animals for a specific purpose • select, justify and provide the appropriate feed and environment for a design project • select and correctly use appropriate tools and equipment for a design project • select and use techniques appropriate for the purposes of a design project • apply techniques in accordance with identified codes of practice • maintain animal records • correctly handle and package animal products if it is appropriate to the design project.

Switch on 1. Visit your local supermarket and list the different brands of honey. How are these processed and packaged? 2. Use the Internet to research the nutritional values of beef, lamb, pork, chicken and fish. 3. Write 30 words on each of the following groups of animals to show you understand what these words mean: wild, feral, farm and pet. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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13.1 Design process Design project Your design project for animal production technologies is to make an interactive display based on the honeybee and its products. Area of study: Built Environments Design specialisation: Architectural design

FIGURE 13.1: Beehives

Design situation Many towns and cities across Australia have annual shows in which schools participate, often by contributing interactive displays. Such activities help to build links between a school and the community, lift the profile of the school and showcase the talents of students who work collaboratively to develop skills in design and construction. The biggest show of all is the Sydney Royal Easter Show. Students from across New South Wales take part in many of the exhibitions and competitions. To find out more, visit the website for this book and click on the Easter Show weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25).

Design brief Look again at the design process in chapter 2 of the textbook, pages 20–1.

As a class, develop an interactive display based on the honeybee and its products to feature in a local show. Project materials: Your teacher will give you a list of available materials.

Be flexible in your approach to this design process. The order of the steps is not set in concrete and you may not always follow them in the sequence presented here. Some steps go hand in hand with others throughout the design project. Other steps need to be completed before you can move on. You should concentrate on using the combined steps to form a process that guides the development of your design. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Animal production technologies

Design Folio Production Your design folio is an important communication tool for design projects. It should tell the story of your design project’s development, from your first rough ideas on paper to the final evaluation of your design brief solution. Consider composing your design folio in electronic format for this technology.

Design process:

ONGOING EVALUATION

Essential for success Remember that ongoing evaluation is central to the design process and should occur at every step. Regular evaluation helps to identify problems and challenges at the right time for you to deal with them. Putting evaluation off until later is asking for trouble, for example: • wasted resources • lost time • failure to meet deadlines • increased costs.

Thinking about the design brief Write the design brief in your design folio, then underline, circle or highlight words that give you specific information or instructions. For example: As a class, develop an interactive display based on the honeybee and its products to feature in a local show. Project materials: Your teacher will give you a list of available materials.

Design process:

ANALYSIS

Establishing the aims of the design The display provides information about bees and bee products, and allows visitors to participate in interactive learning. Students run the display and answer questions. After developing an overall concept plan, work in small groups to develop individual elements of the display. When these are complete, bring the display together and stage it.

Switch on 1. As a class, brainstorm ideas about ways to present information in a display. 2. Form working groups to think about how the brainstormed ideas could be made interesting and interactive for visitors. 3. Look at examples of displays. In your design folio, write down features that make displays work well in terms of getting their message across. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Checklist • Use bright colours. • Make the overall message for the display clear and simple. FIGURE 13.2: Checklist for

a good display

• Place the main messages at adult headheight. • Use large, clear pictures — line drawings or clear, relevant photographs. • Use labels on objects and pictures to improve understanding. • Ensure text is written in a large font that can be seen from a distance. • Use standard font sizes for headings and text to unify the display. • Use simple text that contains only the essential points. • Ensure that text does not use jargon or assume knowledge. • Ensure that the information is accurate. • Ensure the display includes interactive and hands-on activities.

Criteria for success In your design folio, note the parameters of the display, including the available area. Don’t forget that the display is three-dimensional, so you also have to consider the height of the shed or tent where the display will be situated. If you are going to need electricity, for example, to power a computer, you will need to note the nearest power point. You will also need to take note of the available water, drainage and lighting. The rules and regulations of the society putting on the show or the site where you will be presenting the display may limit your project. Your budget will also be a significant limitation, and you will need to consider the cost of the resources you plan to use. Some resources may be disposable — for example, honey and spoons in a honey taste test — and will need to be replaced. Design process:

MANAGEMENT

Getting organised Management is a step that must be considered alongside other steps throughout your project and needs to be constantly reviewed as you progress with your work. • Develop action-management, time-management and budget-management plans. • Evaluate and justify any changes to management plans, outlining impacts on the design project’s development. This will mean re-evaluating your management plans at regular intervals during the making of your design project. • Plan and manage available resources effectively and efficiently. • Evaluate the appropriateness of available resources as they relate to your design brief and developed criteria for success. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Animal production technologies

Design process:

RESEARCH

Resources

Technobite A beekeeper can also be called an apiarist. A collection of hives forms an apiary. The study of beekeeping is called apiculture.

You will need to contact officers from the show society to establish the rules and regulations involved, and the space and resources they can provide — for example, the show society might help with display stands, tables and hay bales. Some resources could be available at school — for example, art materials for posters, and a computer on which to show a Microsoft PowerPoint display. You may need to approach the school or community for financial assistance for other project materials, such as beeswax, which you can purchase from craft supply shops. If you do not keep bees at school, you could contact the local branch of the Apiarists’ Association or Amateur Beekeepers’ Association for assistance. If you are lucky, a local beekeeper might be available to show you how to work a hive, and may even lend you beekeeping equipment or a frame of bees in a display case for your project.

Market, materials, tools and techniques In groups, research and develop the display elements. Present research findings to the rest of the class and produce some of the display elements. Use the Internet and other resources to find information about bees that you can use to develop your display. To get started, visit the website for this book and click on the Honeybees weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). Table 13.1 shows some topics and presentation styles that you could use. Try to make your display as interactive as possible by considering what the visitor could do. Even simple actions, such as pushing a button or moving an item, can help people to feel more involved. TABLE 13.1: Displaying information about bees

Information

Suggested format(s) or presentation style(s)

History

• Poster • Microsoft PowerPoint presentation

Life cycle

• Diagram • Poster

Castes

• Pictures with labels describing roles in the hive • Matching activity

Species and subspecies, including Australian native bees

• • • •

Flowers used by bees

• Fresh flowers in jars or pots with labels • Pictures • Poster

Stings

• Poster

Pictures Poster Display a hive with live bees Comparison of bee species and subspecies, for example, ‘Italian’ versus ‘Caucasian’

(continued ) © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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SWITCHED ON TABLE 13.1: (continued)

Information

Suggested format(s) or presentation style(s)

Management, including record keeping

• Poster • Microsoft PowerPoint presentation • Example of a beekeeper’s logbook

Tools

• Examples of tools such as a smoker and a hive tool • Poster

Protective clothing

• Dummy dressed in protective clothing, e.g. overalls, veil and gloves • Poster

Housing — both standard hive and alternatives

• Display of box and frames or model hive with labels of different parts • Comparison of different hive types, e.g. eight-frame versus ten-frame • Poster

Harvesting

• Examples of equipment, e.g. a honey extractor and an uncapping knife • Poster

Honey

• Taste test • Examples of different types of honey presentation, e.g. light, dark, candied, creamed, chunky • Poster

Wax

• Examples of wax products made by class, e.g. candles, furniture polish • Candlemaking demonstration or activity • Wax comparison — yellow versus white waxes

Pollination

• Poster

General

• • • • • •

Technobite Honey is one of the earliest forms of sweet substances known to humans.

Design process:

Quiz Worksheet Dramatic presentation Colouring in Information leaflet about your school Inexpensive gift or prize to take away, e.g. bookmark, balloon, sticker, honey sweet

IDEAS GENERATION

Brainstorming Brainstorm interesting ways in which you can present information. Pick out those ideas that are practical for your situation and resources. Think about how you can adapt other ideas. To see an example of a display, visit the website for this book and click on the Honey Display weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). Also consider the type of information you will present. You might like to divide the display into sections, for example, three different sections dealing with bees, products and equipment. Remember, the purpose of brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as possible in a short period of time. It is important not to judge the suitability of an idea at this stage — often the craziest thoughts spark the most creative and original ideas! © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Animal production technologies

Design process:

COMMUNICATION

Posters and pictures Posters and pictures should be large and bright. On A3-sized pieces of cardboard, draw pictures of the life cycle of bees: (a) egg in cell, (b) larva in cell, (c) pupa in cell and (d) adult worker bee. Cut out the pictures and laminate them. Arrange these pictures on a dark background in a circular life cycle, joining the stages with large arrows. Put labels on each stage, printed out in a 72-point typeface. Show the different castes of bees (worker, drone and queen) by drawing three A3-sized pictures and adding A4-sized labels that describe them and their roles in the hive.

Switch on There are many websites covering the life cycle and behaviour of bees. To get started, visit the website for this book and click on the Busy Bees weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). Design process:

EXPERIMENTATION AND TESTING

Final sketches

FIGURE 13.3: Collecting nectar

Think about arranging the display elements in the space you have to work with. Your layout will depend on: • traffic flow. How will people enter and leave your display? • services. What is the availability of electricity, water, drainage and lighting? • activity areas. Have you allowed room for people to stand and observe or participate in activities? Plan which elements you will display in the different areas of your space. You may need stands or tables for some elements, such as candles or jars of honey. Shows attract people of many different ages and with different levels of understanding. Make sure you have activities and focus areas that cater for both small children and adults. Draw some sketches in your design folio that show the features of possible display arrangements.

FIGURE 13.4: Possible display arrangement

Select the best arrangement to be used by the class for the display. Make a list of the materials that you will need to put the display together. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Honey tasting Put a number of honey varieties in containers marked with an identifying label, and ask class members to rate these honeys on their different characteristics using table 13.2. Varieties of honey that contrast well are yellow box and leatherwood. A poor choice is yellow box against Salvation Jane. You will need to give guidance to visitors at the show on how to taste the honey. Tasting should involve many senses. • Look at the colour and viscosity (runniness) of the honey. • Observe how clear and free of contamination the honey is. • Smell the aroma of the honey. • Taste the flavour of the honey on different parts of your tongue. • Feel the honey in your mouth and as you swallow. • Taste the lingering flavour of the honey in your mouth. TABLE 13.2: Honey tasting. Mark each characteristic out of 10. For each honey, add the

marks to get a total score out of 60.

Honey

Colour and viscosity

Clarity

Aroma

Flavour on tongue

Feel when swallowing

Lingering flavour

Total

Red gum Clover Salvation Jane Yellow box Leatherwood

Queensland • Spotted gum • Ironbark • Yellow box • Coolibah • Napunyah • Brush box

South Australia • Salvation Jane • Mallee • Canola • Blue gum • Lucerne • Clover

Brisbane FIGURE 13.5: Australia’s main

honey flora and distribution of honey-producing areas

Geraldton

Kalgoorlie

Ceduna

Perth Esperance

Sydney

Adelaide

Melbourne

Western Australia • Canola • Salvation Jane • Wildflower Tasmania • Wandoo • Leatherwood • Clover • Blue gum • Blackberry © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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New South Wales • Red gum • Coolibah • Ironbark • Mallee • Canola • Spotted gum

Hobart

Victoria • Mallee • Red gum • Ironbark • Lucerne • Red stringybark • Clover • Yellow box

Animal production technologies

Design process:

SAFETY AND RISK MANAGEMENT

Safety rules for public displays Safety Look again at the rules for general safety in chapter 2 of the textbook, pages 51–3, before beginning your project.

FIGURE 13.6: Clearly label containers for used and unused utensils.

• Your display must be safe. Make sure the components are secure and unbreakable. • Before developing activities, assess any potential risks to you and the public. • If people are eating, you must make sure you have a good standard of hygiene. Provide clearly labelled containers for used and unused tasting utensils. Supervise the samples to prevent double dipping, especially by small children.

Unused Leatherwood

Yellow box

Clover

Red gum

Canola

Salvation Jane

Used

You will find more safety rules that apply specifically to animal production technologies throughout this chapter in the places where they fit best. Observe them! Design process:

PRODUCTION

Preparing the display

FIGURE 13.7: Setting-up tools

Apart from your display elements, you will need additional materials to make the display attractive. Try to present a fresh, clean image by using materials that have been washed, repainted or purchased new. A school banner or flag will help to identify your display. You will need several metres of plain fabric to use as a background on display boards, to cover tables and any ugly or non-functional areas. Dark, neutral colours work well. Develop a roster so that a small number of students are supervising the display at all times. In this project, you will be working with the public and presenting an image of your school. It is important that this is a positive image. When supervising your display, wear similar clothing, such as a uniform, and present yourself as well groomed and helpful. Make sure that you have a good understanding of the materials you are presenting so that you can answer questions. Pack your display elements carefully to avoid damage during transport to the show. If your resources are well organised, you will find it easier and faster to set up, so label boxes of materials with the area in which they will be used. Take a box containing extra tools and materials for setting up, for example, a staple gun, hammer, screwdriver, Blu Tack, masking tape, scissors, wire, string, extra fabric, extension lead and power board. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Making candles Beeswax is a valuable by-product of honey production that can be used to make attractive candles. You can buy blocks of beeswax and candlewick from a craft shop. You will also need: Safety Molten wax is very hot — be careful not to let it touch your skin.

• a pot with a pouring lip to melt the wax in • a double boiler with hot water • a source of heat • a mould • a means of holding the candlewick in the centre of the mould, for example, a large paperclip or clothes peg.

FIGURE 13.8: Beeswax can be

Shaped candle moulds can be bought at craft shops, or you can make your own budget version from a plastic container, the cardboard core of a roll of kitchen paper or a foil pie tin that you can peel or cut away from the finished candle. Beeswax is flammable — to avoid the risk of it catching fire, melt the beeswax in a container placed in hot water and pour the liquid wax into a mould, with a piece of wick suspended in the centre. The beeswax will melt at about 63°C and should not be heated much above this temperature. Use a thermometer to monitor the temperature. When the beeswax cools, it becomes hard. Remove the candle from the mould and trim the wick. Polish the candle with a soft cloth to make it shine. Another method for making candles is to use a small decorative glass or ceramic container instead of a mould, in which the candle remains after it cools. You can also make simple candles without melting wax by using candlewick and pieces of foundation comb, available from beekeeping supplies shops or some craft shops. Place the wick on an angle on top of the foundation comb and gently roll the comb around the wick until you have a candle of the desired thickness. Trim excess wick and foundation comb. This method quickly and easily produces a tapering candle with an attractive hexagon pattern.

used to make candles. Design process:

FINAL EVALUATION

Test the product Set up your display at school for a trial run. Invite another class to participate, or set it up at a school event such as a parent information evening.

Overall success Consider how you will evaluate the success of your display. If your display is part of a competition, you could let a judge help you evaluate it. The visitors to your display could be another source of information. Collect subjective feedback from visitors by asking for their impressions. Objective measures of success could be the number of visitors that look at the display or the time that they spend there.

Design process checklist Go to the Online Resource Bank at www.jaconline.com.au/switchedontech and click on the Design Process Checklist. Use the checklist questions to self-evaluate your project and to help you finalise your design folio. You can also find more ideas for design projects at the Online Resource Bank. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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13.2 Beekeeping — an overview Handling bees

Safety

Technobite ‘To him who has known them and loved them, a summer where there are no bees becomes as sad and empty as one without flowers or birds,’ wrote Belgian dramatist and long-time beekeeper Maurice Maeterlinck (1862–1949) in The Life of the Bee (1901).

Handling bees can be as rewarding and fascinating as handling other animals. However, honeybees are conditioned to defend their hive and if you work with bees, there is a chance you will get stung. Correct equipment for handling bees includes a veil, a smoker and a hive tool. Wear gloves and overalls with no holes and elasticised ankles and cuffs to prevent bees crawling inside. To see an example of the correct clothing to wear while handling bees, go to the website for this book and click on the Beekeeper weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). There are some points to remember when handling bees. • Make slow, steady movements and avoid jarring or dropping frames and boxes. • Watch and help an experienced beekeeper before tackling a hive on your own. • Choose a small, quiet hive for your first solo hive inspection. Ask an adult to supervise this operation. • Ask a friend to help you by holding the smoker. • Know how to remove bee stings. • Place all equipment close at hand and open the hive for no more than 10–15 minutes. • Choose a warm clear day with no rain and little wind. The hive is less crowded at mid-morning when all the honey-gathering bees have left.

Lid

Environment

Ventilator

Bees live in bee boxes and hives, mainly made of timber, metal and plastic. The bee box or beehive protects the bees from temperature extremes and predators, and allows for bee management. The queen excluder divides the beehive into two sections. The honey super above contains eight or ten frames on which the bees build honeycomb, which is harvested to collect honey. The queen lays her eggs and the young are reared in the brood chamber or nursery below. Changes in temperature outside the hive do not easily transfer through timber walls. A small entrance at the bottom of the hive, combined with small holes in the lid, allow the bees to control the airflow in the hive. In hot weather, bees actively fan air into the hive on one side of the entrance and out again on the other. In cold weather, the bees seal any gaps in the boxes in order to reduce air movement and retain heat. Beekeepers often reduce the size of the entrance in cold weather to help conserve heat.

Frames Honey super Queen excluder Brood chamber Bottom board Space to allow bees to enter and leave

FIGURE 13.9: Parts of a beehive © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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When the temperature falls below 8°C, worker bees do not leave the hive to gather nectar. When the temperature reaches 40°C, they stop gathering nectar and gather only water. The temperature of the brood nest is maintained at about 34°C. Eggs and larvae can tolerate only small variations of this temperature before they die of cold or heat stress. When the temperature falls, worker bees cluster around the brood nest to keep the eggs and larvae warm. When the temperature rises, worker bees fan air across the nest to cool it.

Hive management Safety Bee boxes are heavy, so protect your back by bending your knees, straightening your back and tightening your stomach muscles to lift. Be especially careful when lifting and turning. Do not attempt lifting without adult supervision.

Lifting Beekeepers spend a lot of time lifting bee boxes. When inspecting hives, beekeepers lift each box onto the ground to inspect the bees and then lift the boxes back into position. Honey supers are lifted off the hive, transported to the extracting plant and then returned when the honey is removed. Hives that are never moved to other locations can be placed on stands, bringing them up to waist height and reducing the amount of bending required by beekeepers. Some beekeepers reduce the amount of bending by kneeling beside the hives.

Switch on 1. For helpful general information about keeping bees, visit the website for this book and click on the Backyard Beekeeping weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). 2. Compare standing over the hive with kneeling next to it to identify ways of reducing back strain when inspecting hives.

Hive tools Some hive tools are purpose built; others are just screwdrivers or bent bits of metal. The tool must be strong, have an edge for chiselling, have a curved section for levering frames apart and up, be easily held in one hand and be corrosion resistant. Hive tools are used to: • prise boxes and frames apart • lift frames out of the box • remove unwanted material (wax and propolis) from boxes and frames.

Inspecting the hive FIGURE 13.10: Hive tools —

the hole in the tool on the right is for pulling nails if you have to do simple hive repairs.

To inspect the hive, light the smoker so that it produces large amounts of cool smoke. Pine needles are an ideal fuel. Check the temperature of the smoke. If it’s too hot for you that means it’s too hot for the bees. Approach the hive so that you are not standing in the bees’ flight path. A quick look at the entrance of the hive and into the sky will tell you the direction the bees are entering and leaving the hive. Now follow the steps outlined in the figure on the following page.

© Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Animal production technologies

1.

2.

Remove lid on one side and smoke top of super.

Smoke entrance of hive.

3.

Remove super and smoke top of brood box.

FIGURE 13.11: How to

inspect a colony

4.

5.

Remove frames from brood box (outside frames first).

Inspect each frame, lightly smoking before removal.

6.

7.

Replace super when all brood frames are back in the brood box, smoke the top of the super and inspect each frame.

Technobite Honey, with 268 kilojoules (64 calories) per tablespoonful, contains more energy than a tablespoonful of granulated sugar, which has 192 kilojoules (46 calories).

Replace lid.

When inspecting a hive, beekeepers look for many things: • a healthy queen laying eggs • space for the queen to lay eggs • healthy bees and brood • honey supers: is there enough room for your honey crop? Keep a record of your visit (see table 13.3).

© Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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SWITCHED ON TABLE 13.3: Example of a record sheet for regular inspections

Queen type:

Italian

Requeening:

Oct. 05

Hive number:

1

Hive site:

School plot

Date

Sufficient room?

Queen present and eggs sighted?

Number of brood frames

Disease record

Honey stores

29 Jan 06

Yes

Yes

8

No

3 --- of 4 super

Comments

The number of visits required for you to manage your bees will vary from season to season throughout the year. The key hive management activities required in each season are listed in the table below. TABLE 13.4: Seasonal management

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

• Avoid starvation • Disease inspection • Brood manipulations • Re-queening • Space for expansion • Swarm control • Remove honey crop

• Maintain colony size and strength • Harvest honey • Hive shade and water • Swarm prevention

• Winter site selection • Sound hive material • Provide adequate stores • Probable re-queening

• Honey stores • Queen present and bee numbers adequate • Monitor disease • Hive location • Reduce hive entrance

13.3 What animals need Characteristics of different breeds People keep animals: • to produce food, such as meat, eggs or milk • to produce fibre, such as wool and leather • to work — providing transportation, pulling equipment, hunting, herding, guarding, tracking, ‘seeing’ for people with a vision impairment, ‘hearing’ for people with a hearing impairment • for companionship. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Animal production technologies

Breeding programs select those characteristics that best suit our purposes, and gradually, over many years, some animals have changed and become specialised into different breeds. The dozens of dog breeds, for example, were all developed from their wild ancestor — the wolf. Thousands of years of being with people have shaped dogs into what they are today.

FIGURE 13.12: There are many different breeds of dog.

Switch on 1. Find out about the different breeds of an animal species you are interested in. As a class, develop a database showing the special characteristics of the breeds. Give solo presentations on one of the breeds researched (live specimens are not required!).

Technobite In order to get the most out of their food, some animals eat their own faeces. This practice is called coprophagy. Many animals, including rabbits, rats, guinea pigs and birds, have micro-organisms in their digestive systems that break down fibre to produce valuable nutrients. This process happens too close to the end of the digestive system for the animal to absorb the nutrients produced, so the nutrients pass out of the animal’s body. These animals will sometimes eat their own faeces to give their digestive systems a chance to absorb these nutrients the second time through.

2. Compare modern animal breeds with their wild ancestors and assess how much they have changed in appearance and habits.

Feeding animals Animals must have adequate supplies of food and fresh water. Designers of food and water containers must meet a challenge: provide food and water in a manner that protects the animals from soiling or wastage but still allows them access.

Switch on Collect several different containers for supplying food and water to animals. Find out how to clean and fill the different kinds of container. Develop a table that lists their good and bad features. Design a food or water container that uses inexpensive or recycled materials.

Nutritional requirements Different animal species have different digestive systems, and process and use their food in different ways. It’s important to understand how each species digests food and what they require to stay healthy. When you eat, the chewed food from your mouth passes down a tube (the oesophagus) into the stomach where acid breaks it down. The food particles continue down a tube (the small intestine) and from there, the parts of the food that your body needs enter your bloodstream. Food that is not absorbed passes into the large intestine where water is removed from the waste before it leaves your body. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Many animals use micro-organisms in their stomachs to help break down food. The stomachs of a group called ruminants, which includes cattle, sheep and goats, allow the animal to survive on a diet of grasses. It would not be healthy for us to live entirely on grasses, as they are not easily broken down by our digestive system and mostly pass through our bodies as fibre.

Switch on Find out about the digestive system of a ruminant animal, such as a cow or sheep. Make a poster showing the different stomach compartments and label each compartment with its name, appearance and function.

Animal environments If we are responsible for an animal, we must provide a safe and comfortable environment for it to live in. This should satisfy the physical and mental needs of the animal. Bigger and more active animals need more space than smaller, quieter animals.

Switch on 1. Measure the area of several animal enclosures and compare them to the space recommendations in the Animals in Schools document. To view this document, go to the website for this book and click on the Animals in Schools weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). 2. Zoo enclosures are now much better designed. Visit the website for this book and click on the Lemur Enclosure weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). List the positive features of this enclosure.

Technobite

Battery hens

In June 1999, the farm ministers of the countries in the European Union (15 at that time) agreed to outlaw battery hen cages. The prohibition will come into effect in 2012.

Most eggs in Australia are produced by hens kept in battery cages. People who defend animal rights claim that the battery cages are too small and the way of life is cruel, depriving the birds of dust baths and other natural behaviour. Farmers who keep hens in battery cages say that keeping hens this way is very efficient and that unhealthy chickens will not lay eggs. By caging the birds, they can produce eggs that are much cheaper for consumers.

Switch on 1. Collect price information from a supermarket about the cost of different FIGURE 13.13: Hens in types of eggs. Survey the parents of class battery cages members to find out what sort of eggs they buy and why they buy them. Draw conclusions about what influences the buying decisions in most families in the class. 2. Find out more information about battery farming and the for and against sides of the argument. Split the class into two and debate the issue. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Animal production technologies

Cleanliness Accumulation of animal waste in a restricted enclosure can affect the health of the animal. As the waste breaks down, it produces chemicals, such as ammonia, that can damage the respiratory system of the animal. The waste provides a place for flies and other organisms to multiply, and the waste itself may contain disease-causing organisms. Some animals, such as dogs, cats, pigs and rabbits, can be trained to leave their waste in a tray that can be easily cleaned. These trays usually contain absorbent materials that reduce moisture and smell. Animals, such as chickens, that produce relatively dry waste, can be kept on absorbent material such as rice hulls, shredded paper or sawdust that will need infrequent replacement. Large stabled animals, such as horses, are often given a thick layer of straw, which is mucked out daily. Birds and small animals can be kept on a disposable surface, such as newspaper, which can be changed frequently. Animals may also reduce the cleanliness of their enclosure by spilling food or water.

Switch on Used animal bedding contains valuable nutrients. Think of some environmentally friendly ways to dispose of used bedding instead of putting it in a rubbish bin.

Protection If we keep animals away from their natural environment, it is our responsibility to protect them. Before putting animals in an area, it’s wise to check for things that could harm them, for example, poisons, sharp edges or wire. It’s essential to provide a secure enclosure to keep predators out and animals in. If the animals escape, they might, for example, wander onto the road and be run over. Animals also need places to shelter from extremes of heat and cold.

Switch on Make a list of dangers that a small animal, such as a pet rat, could encounter if released into your classroom.

Mental needs Some of the animals we keep are social animals, descended from wild animals that once lived in groups. Being alone may distress them. Some pet animals, notably cats and dogs, adapt by treating people as part of their social group, but leaving them alone for many hours of the day when we are at work or school may cause them to feel anxious or lonely. Another kind of mental distress can arise when we keep intelligent animals in an uninteresting environment. Studies have found that providing enriching and challenging toys can help.

Switch on FIGURE 13.14: Toys keep

animals mentally stimulated.

1. Find out about the toys produced by zoo staff for bored primates or elephants. 2. Design a toy for the animal that you are keeping. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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13.4 Tools Wild animals need to look after themselves. If they are not well adapted to their environment, they will not survive. When people put animals in an artificially made or unfamiliar environment, they need to help the animals to adapt. Tools can assist us with this task.

Grooming

Tip When grooming beef cattle, it is usual to groom against the direction that the hair grows. This makes the hair fluff out from the body and gives the animal a meatier appearance.

Most animals feel more comfortable if they are kept clean and well groomed, and loose bits of skin and loose hairs are removed. Some animal breeds have long hair or fur that requires daily attention. Pet shampoos, brushes and combs are available to suit particular animal types. When grooming, it’s important to handle the animal correctly and use tools carefully so you don’t cause excessive stress. Some body parts are more sensitive, for example, the face and the flanks, and you will need to be especially gentle in these areas. When brushing hair or fur, it’s usual to brush in the direction that the hair grows — this direction changes depending on the part of the body. When combing long hair, such as a horse’s tail, start combing at the bottom and gradually work your way up. Avoid washing sheep’s wool as it contains natural oils called lanolin that make it waterproof. The wool fibres naturally link together so that water runs off the wool surface. Brushing or opening up the wool will destroy this waterproofing.

FIGURE 13.15: Shearing sheep

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Switch on Draw an outline of the animal you are keeping, using arrows to indicate the direction that the hair or fur grows. Use blue to indicate sensitive areas that you need to groom more gently. Use red to indicate areas that will need particular attention.

Safety When grooming large animals, you need to watch out for your own safety first. If the animal is not used to being handled, you may need to confine it in a crush or other holding device. Avoid standing directly behind a large animal where you can be kicked.

Small animals can be dangerous if they do not like being groomed. Watch claws and teeth. An old towel and gloves are useful protection. The nails, hooves, beaks or teeth of some animals need attention. If these parts grow too long, they can make life difficult, or even cripple or kill the animal. Sometimes a veterinarian (vet) is required for these tasks. If you are clipping or trimming the nails or beaks of an animal, you should try to cut them back to a normal length using clippers or cutters. The outer edge does not contain nerves or blood vessels (just like the tip of your fingernail). In the middle there will be a quick (like the pink part of your fingernail), and you need to be careful not to cut this. On some animals, you can hold the nail or beak up to a strong light and see the darker shadow of the quick so you can avoid cutting it. If you are not sure what to do, seek assistance so you do not harm the animal.

Vaccination Animals kept by people are often more crowded than they would be in their natural environment, so diseases can spread more quickly. We vaccinate animals to help prevent a range of diseases that are particular to a species. Vaccination uses part of a dead or inactive disease-causing organism to make the immune system of the animal develop antibodies. If the animal then encounters an active version of the disease, these antibodies can quickly react and destroy it before the animal becomes sick. A vaccination is usually given to an animal using a syringe. Booster injections at regular intervals are often necessary.

FIGURE 13.16: A visit to the vet’s surgery — as well as checking this cat’s general health, the vet will also give it the required vaccinations, which will give the animal protection against some killer feline diseases.

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Switch on 1. Find out about the diseases that can be vaccinated against for the animal species you are keeping. Use a word processing program to develop a leaflet that advises pet owners about diseases and provides a vaccination timetable. Safety Keep your tetanus vaccinations up to date, especially when working with animals.

2. Find out about the vaccinations given to humans. Are you up to date with your vaccinations?

Internal parasites Many domestic animals pick up internal parasites that make them unhealthy. Medications can be given to kill these parasites. Sometimes the medication is given in a liquid by mouth (drench), sometimes by a tablet, and sometimes by using a medication absorbed through the skin (spot-on or pour-on). A drenching gun is often used to drench large numbers of farm animals. The gun must be calibrated so that the animals get the correct dosage for their weight.

FIGURE 13.17: Sheep being

drenched — medication in liquid form is pumped into their mouths.

Switch on 1. Work together in small groups to research some of the internal parasites that can affect the animal species you are keeping. Find out the following information: • their names (common and scientific) • where they live in the animal • their life cycles • the methods used to control them • whether the parasites can also infect humans. 2. Make a poster to present this information. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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13.5 Techniques Handling animals When handling animals, you must take responsibility for both your own and the animal’s safety. Some animals bite or scratch; others will kick or butt you. Keeping the animal calm, and handling it gently and confidently helps to avoid the animal panicking and struggling. If the animal knows you and is used to being handled, the danger of injury is greatly reduced.

FIGURE 13.18: When kids

(baby goats) are orphaned they must be fed from a baby’s bottle.

Birds

FIGURE 13.19: Handling an

older chicken

Birds that are finger tame will step onto your hand or finger when you press gently on the front of their legs above the feet. This action is a reflex (it happens without the bird willing it) and so it is relatively easy to train a bird to be comfortable with this method of handling, especially if you start when they are young. If you need to hold a bird more securely in your hand, make sure that you restrain their wings. Wild flapping can break the delicate wing bones. Most birds will try to bite your hands if they can reach them. Do not hold small birds too tightly or you may crush them. Young chickens can be held cupped in one hand. You need to cover them with the other hand to prevent them jumping off and injuring themselves. Older chickens are carried with one hand securely holding the legs and the other supporting the breast. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Small mammals Mice are most easily handled by lifting them by the base of their tails and then holding them on the palm of your hand. Don’t leave them hanging for too long or they will become uncomfortable. Rats are larger and may be injured if they are lifted by their tails. Pick a rat up by placing one or both hands under its chest, behind the front legs. Do not carry rabbits by their ears — support the body underneath with your hands.

Dogs and cats Dogs and cats are intelligent enough to learn to obey simple commands. Obedience training is particularly important for larger dogs and should begin when they are puppies. Some dogs are able to learn complex signals and commands they can use to help people in their work. FIGURE 13.20: Support rabbits

underneath their bodies when handling them.

FIGURE 13.21: Working dogs obey human commands.

Switch on 1. Look at dogs competing in sheep dog trials. Find out the signals that are used by handlers to direct their dogs. 2. Investigate the Guide Dogs NSW/ACT website by visiting the website for this book and clicking on the Guide Dogs NSW/ACT weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). 3. Research a dog’s remarkable sense of smell and the ways in which people use it to their advantage, for example, finding people buried in avalanches and earthquakes, hunting, locating drugs.

Sheep Sheep are flock animals so they should be moved as a group. Sheep anxious to rejoin others can injure themselves or their handlers. Sheep are most easily handled in correctly constructed yards. They are calm and quiet when restrained in a sitting position but you will need an expert to show you how to do this.

Cattle If cattle are not used to being handled, they can be quite dangerous. Handling equipment, such as a cattle crush, is needed to avoid injury. Cattle become easier to handle if they are handled frequently but they should always be respected. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Animal welfare codes of practice Safety A large unfamiliar animal can be very dangerous if not handled and restrained correctly.

Minimum standards for the care and handling of most farm animals have been established in Australia and New Zealand with the production of animal welfare guidelines, published by the respective governments.

Switch on Visit the website for this book and click on the Animal Welfare weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25). Look at some of the codes of practice. Develop a single-page checklist of minimum conditions for one type of animal. Compare the living conditions of animals that you see with your checklist.

Keeping records For most farm animals, there are government regulations requiring farmers to keep certain records about them. These records are mostly concerned with providing medication to animals so we can be sure the food products from the animals are not contaminated.

Switch on 1. Many farmers use special farm management software to keep records. Look at examples of different farm management software and list the good and bad features of these programs.

Technobite The process of turning animal skins into leather is known as tanning. The three most widely used tanning agents are vegetable tannin, mineral salts (for example, chromium sulfate) and fish/ animal oil. There is evidence that prehistoric humans practised vegetable tanning. In historic times, the Hebrews used oak bark, the ancient Egyptians used the pods of babul trees and the Romans used bark, certain woods and berries. The Arabs introduced the art of tanning to Europe during the Middle Ages.

2. Educational institutions are required by the Animals in Schools document to keep records about animals in schools. These records are kept so that animal welfare officers can ensure the animals are being cared for properly. Other records keep track of actions for future reference. Examples might be breeding records, noting the parentage of different animals, or management records, which record illness, use of medications and cages for different individuals. See table 13.3 (page 14) for an example of a record sheet. Design a record sheet for the animal you are keeping. Include the following features: • quick and easy to fill out • larger spaces for information that will need to be filled in more often • spaces for dates • logical arrangement, with similar records grouped together. Use your record sheet for a time and then evaluate it.

Handling and packaging animal products Many animals are kept for the useful products we obtain from them. If the products are to be eaten, special care must be taken to avoid contamination. There are laws that regulate harvesting, handling and packaging. Fibre is another important product that we obtain from animals. Certain breeds of sheep, goat, alpaca and rabbit produce fibre that can be harvested. © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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Switch on 1. Find out the recommended handling and storage procedures for a food product obtained from animals. What will happen to the food if it is not handled and stored correctly? Will the food simply spoil, or could it be dangerous to your health? 2. Learn a skill associated with processing animal fibres, such as spinning, dyeing, knitting, crocheting or weaving. You may find craft associations or your older relatives can help.

13.6 Animal production

technologies at work Careers with animals People who work with animals every day have the opportunity for their love of animals to be part of their career. Jobs with animals are diverse and frequently involve night or early morning work and, perhaps, being out in all weathers. Search in your library or on the Internet for information about careers with animals, or visit the website for this book and click on the Career Opportunities, Animal Care and Animal Job Guide weblinks for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’, page 25).

Switch on 1. Look at job advertisements online or in newspapers and list jobs that involve contact with animals. Write a few lines about the sort of tasks that are involved in each job. 2. Arrange a personal interview with someone who works with animals. Alternatively, you could interview the person via email or phone. Each class member should develop a question to ask the interviewee. Try to make your questions open-ended so that the interviewee cannot answer with a simple yes or no. Put the class questions together in a logical order before the interview. Record your interview (using a video camera or tape recorder) so you can review the answers later. 3. Watch a section of a nature documentary that features animals. As you watch, analyse the program by writing down the sequence of ideas presented and the camera shots or angles that are used. This is called a storyboard, and before filming the documentary, the film-makers would have produced one to guide the types of shots they took. 4. Think about the animal you are keeping and develop a storyboard that shows the important features of your animal’s care and handling. Use a digital video camera to take footage and edit your material into a short documentary. 5. Leave a camera running to record the natural behaviour of your animal when people are not around. Analyse the footage by noting © Peter and Su Annetts/John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2006

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down the time that the animal spends in different types of behaviour — for example, sleeping, eating, playing. Introduce a novel item into the environment, such as a new toy, and observe any changes in behaviour. 6. Some scientists think that birds might be as intelligent as some mammals. Read about Arthur, the web-browsing African grey parrot, by visiting the website for this book and clicking on the Arthur the Parrot weblink for this chapter (see ‘Weblinks’ below). What evidence does the article give to support this point of view?

13.7 Weblinks Go to www.jaconline.com.au/switchedontech to access the following weblinks. Easter Show Honeybees Honey Display Busy Bees Beekeeper Backyard Beekeeping Animals in Schools Lemur Enclosure Guide Dogs NSW/ACT Animal Welfare Career Opportunities Animal Care Animal Job Guide Arthur the Parrot

Acknowledgements • Australian Picture Library, page 1 (top)/Corbis/ Jim Craigmyle • Banana Stock, page 17 • Corbis Images, Page 18/© Corbis Corporation • © Digital Stock, page 15 • © Digital Vision, pages 1 (bottom), 16 • The Kondinin Group, pages 8, 11/ The Workbook Series: The Story of Pruducing Honey in Australia, Kondinin Group Inc, 1998 • McGraw-Hill Australia, page 13/Dynamic Agriculture Book 1. McGraw Hill Australia 1989 • Peter Annetts, pages 2, 7 (bottom), 12 • © PhotoDisc, Inc, pages 7 (top), 10, 19, 21 (right) • photolibrary.com, page 20

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