RAP PUBLICATION 2007/19

An overview of the impact of the tsunami on selected coastal fisheries resources in Sri Lanka and Indonesia

ERY COMMISSION or Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand fic.org

Funded by the people of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic

RAP PUBLICATION 2007/19

AN OVERVIEW OF THE IMPACT OF THE TSUNAMI ON SELECTED COASTAL FISHERIES RESOURCES IN SRI LANKA AND INDONESIA

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC Bangkok, 2007

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The designation and presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers and boundaries.

© FAO 2007

NOTICE OF COPYRIGHT All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for sale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to the Senior Fishery Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

For copies write to:

The Senior Fishery Officer FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road Bangkok 10200 THAILAND Tel: (+66) 2 697 4000 Fax: (+66) 2 697 4445 E-mail: [email protected]

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FOREWORD The earthquake and tsunami of 26 December 2004 killed more than 300 000 people and devastated the livelihoods of many more. Fisheries and aquaculture were the sectors most severely hit by the disaster; many boats, fishing gear, ponds and support installations were destroyed or damaged. Immediately after the tsunami, national and regional initiatives clearly identified an urgent need for comprehensive impact and needs assessment, prior to the planning and implementation of programmes aimed at rehabilitation of fisheries and aquaculture. Of particular importance to planning in the fisheries sector and the concept of “building back better” was how natural resources were impacted by the tsunami. Of particular concern was the possibility that during the relief stages fishing overcapacity might be created (through the provision of too many boats) with potential to negatively impact future fishery resources and the livelihoods of vulnerable communities. The project “A rapid assessment of the status of the fisheries in tsunami affected areas of Indonesia and Sri Lanka (OSRO/RAS/504/LAO)”1 aimed to provide technical advice to enhance knowledge of the impact of the tsunami on a limited number of affected inshore fisheries habitats and marine resources, and make this more accessible to policy decision-makers and for medium- to long-term sectoral planning in Indonesia and Sri Lanka. This publication is the final report of that project and provides an interesting account of the status and trends in the fisheries resources of Sri Lanka and Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam Province (Indonesia) prior to and immediately after the tsunami. The main findings of the report indicate that overall, the impact of the tsunami on fisheries was more related to ongoing and new tsunami-related “human” factors, than the direct physical or biological effects of the disaster on resources and ecosystems. This report highlights the need for continued support to medium- to long-term initiatives for post-tsunami fisheries sector management to ensure sustainable use of resources through the involvement of affected communities.

He Changchui Assistant Director-General and Regional Representative FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

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Implemented with funding support through donations from the Laotian people, diplomatic corps, international organizations, entrepreneurs, traders, residential expatriates, local provincial authorities and donors from different sectors in Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR).

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CONTENTS Page Abbreviations and acronyms ........................................................................................................

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Executive summary .......................................................................................................................

1

1.

Introduction .........................................................................................................................

3

2.

Approach ..............................................................................................................................

4

3.

Status of fisheries resources and ecosystems ....................................................................

4

3.1. Aceh, Indonesia ............................................................................................................ 3.1.1. Fished resources in Aceh ................................................................................. 3.1.2. Fisheries ecosystems in Aceh .......................................................................... 3.1.3. Fisheries trends leading up to the tsunami....................................................... 3.1.4. Aceh fisheries before and after the tsunami ....................................................

5 5 5 6 9

3.2. Sri Lanka ...................................................................................................................... 3.2.1. Fished resources in Sri Lanka .......................................................................... 3.2.2. Fisheries ecosystems in Sri Lanka ................................................................... 3.2.3. Trends in district fisheries pre- and post-tsunami............................................

9 9 11 12

4.

Mode of action of the tsunami on natural resources ........................................................

15

5.

Reported effects of the tsunami on fisheries resources ....................................................

17

5.1. Effects on fisheries resources reported in other studies ............................................... 5.1.1. Pelagic species ................................................................................................. 5.1.2. Trawled species — evidence from research cruises ........................................ 5.1.3. Reef fish ...........................................................................................................

18 18 18 20

5.2. Fisherfolk’s perceptions: PRAs in Aceh and Sri Lanka ............................................... 5.2.1. Results of the PRAs for Aceh .......................................................................... 5.2.2. Results of PRAs for Sri Lanka ........................................................................ 5.2.3. Outcomes of PRAs and National Workshops ..................................................

20 21 22 26

5.3. Effects on fisheries-related habitats ............................................................................. 5.3.1. Coral reefs ........................................................................................................ 5.3.2. Mangroves and sea-grasses ............................................................................. 5.3.3. Coastal water quality ....................................................................................... 5.3.4. Other coastal habitats.......................................................................................

27 27 29 29 30

5.4. Changes in fishing effort .............................................................................................. 5.4.1. Losses of fisherfolk, fishing gear, boats and infrastructure ............................. 5.4.2. Repair, replacement and expansion of the fishing fleet ................................... 5.4.3. Emergency fishing or fishing avoidance? ....................................................... 5.4.4. Overall effect on the fishing effort ..................................................................

31 31 34 34 35

6.

Conclusions ..........................................................................................................................

35

7.

Recommendations ...............................................................................................................

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8.

References ............................................................................................................................

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB APFIC

Asian Development Bank Asia Pacific Fishery Commission

BAPPENAS BOBP-IGO BRR

National Development Planning Agency (Indonesia) Bay of Bengal Programme — intergovernmental organization Rehabilitation and Reconstruction NAD-Nias Executing Agency

CCC CHARM CMFRI CMLRE

Coral Cay Conservation Community Hazard and Risk Management Program Cochin Marine Fisheries Research Institute (India) Centre for Marine Living Resources and Ecology, Annamalai University, Kochi (India) Consortium to Restore Shattered Livelihoods in Tsunami-Devastated Nations (includes APFIC, BOBP-IGO, FAO, NACA, SEAFDEC and the WorldFish Center) Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean

CONSRN CORDIO DKP DMCR DOD

Dinas Kelautan Dan Perikanan (Provincial Fisheries Departments, Indonesia) Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (Thailand) Department of Ocean Development (Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate, Chennai, India)

FAO FRP

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Fibreglass re-informed plastic

GCRM GDP GNP

Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network Gross Domestic Product Gross National Product

ICSF IDP IGO IMR IUCN IWMI

International Collective in Support of Fishworkers Internally Displaced Persons Intergovernmental Organization Institute of Marine Research (Norway) The World Conservation Union International Water Management Institute (Sri Lanka)

JBIC

Japan Bank for International Cooperation

LIPI LIT

Indonesian Institute of Science (Indonesia) Line intercept transects

MENR MMAF MOAC MONRE MSY

Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Sri Lanka) Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (Indonesia) Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (Thailand) Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Thailand) Maximum sustainable yield (tonnes/year)

NACA NAD NARA NARESA NGO

Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam Province (Indonesia) National Aquatic Resource Research and Development Agency (Sri Lanka) Natural Resources Energy and Science Authority (Sri Lanka) Non-Governmental Organization

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NIO-RC NORAMB NRSA

National Institute of Oceanography (Kochi, India) Royal Norwegian Embassy (in Colombo) National Remote Sensing Agency (Hyderabad, India)

OCHA

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (United Nations)

PRA

Participatory Rural Appraisal

RCO ROI RRG RRL

Research Centre for Oceanography (LIPI, Indonesia) Republic of Indonesia Ramsar Reference Group Regional Research Laboratory, Trivandrum (India)

SEAFDEC SLSAC SST

Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre Sri Lanka Sub Aqua Club (Sri Lanka) Sea surface temperatures

USAID USGS

United States Agency for International Development United States Geological Survey

WB WCS-IP

World Bank Wildlife Conservation Society Indonesian Programme

Kabupaten Kawasan Wisata Panglima Laut

District Government (Indonesia) Government Marine Tourism Reserve (Indonesia) “The leader in the fisherman community”, has existed in the coastal areas of Aceh since the fourth century. A customary law that regulates fisheries and marine activities; it is presided over by an elected leader from the fishing community.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Asian 2004 tsunami was probably the worst natural disaster in human memory because of the numbers of people affected, its extent and complexity. Much has been written about its impact on human life, communities and livelihoods as the countries affected and the international community grapple with the enormous task of rebuilding. In this context, the fisheries sector has featured prominently as one of the sectors most affected by the disaster; most effort has focused on the human toll and losses in fishing capacity. This study was funded by contributions from the Laotian people, diplomatic corps, international organizations, entrepreneurs, traders, residential expatriates, local provincial authorities and donors from different sectors of Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), as part of their tsunami assistance to the region. It focuses on the issue of whether fisheries resources were affected by the tsunami. The answer to this question is fundamental to efforts to recover fisheries livelihoods in the region. Over 100 studies were assessed, including a range of anecdotal reports, rapid assessments and quantitative surveys and carried out participatory rural appraisals with fisherfolk in Indonesia and Sri Lanka, the two most impacted countries. Where available fisheries data was also examined. Assessment of impacts was made on fished resources as well as on the ecosystems that support them and how humans have responded in terms of fishing effort. The available evidence shows that overall, impacts of the tsunami on fisheries are more related to ongoing and new tsunami-related “human” factors, rather than the physical or biological effects of the disaster on resources and ecosystems. That is, existing overexploitation trends had already brought many of the fisheries under severe stress before the tsunami. Evidence from participatory rural appraisals of fishing communities suggests that when the tsunami struck, some of these resources may have been driven down further. Greater impacts on livelihoods are now becoming apparent, with oversupply of boats and gear in some locations, increasing fuel prices and lower fish prices, added to pre-existing issues concerning illegal fishing methods and fishing by foreign vessels. Some localized biological impacts were reported in Indonesia and Sri Lanka and in other tsunami-affected countries. Where fished resources and supporting ecosystems were in poor condition, almost all researchers concluded that the effects were part of pre-tsunami trends. This included direct damage to resources, plus decreased resilience to the tsunami resulting from chronic degradation and misuse of resources. Rehabilitation of fisheries therefore needs to focus not on the effects of the tsunami, but on addressing pre-existing trends in resource use and environmental damage, including building resilience against future shocks. The main recommendations of this study are that: 1.

Attempts at recovering fisheries resources should focus on management and issues that were present before the tsunami, including resource depletion and ecosystem degradation.

2.

Attempts to restore resources and ecosystems should go a step further and ensure that building resilience against future disasters is included in all strategies.

3.

In their present condition, fisheries in Aceh and Sri Lanka are not generally prepared to promote economic recovery. Governments should consider alternatives to fisheries for rebuilding livelihoods and their economies.

4.

Recovery of fisheries will also need to address the new “human factors” that have arisen since the tsunami. These include problems of increased capacity, rising fuel prices, declining fish prices, problems with transportation, changes in fishing grounds, financing, illegal fishing and conflicts with other rehabilitation programmes.

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5.

There is an urgent need to address the pre-existing problems of weak institutions and enforcement in fisheries that have been exacerbated by the new problems arising post-tsunami. This will require increased capacity among institutions, including new skills to address conflicts among fisherfolk and industry, ensuring equitable and effective assistance to communities and innovative diversification of livelihoods.

6.

Replacement of boats and gear in affected communities needs better scrutiny and management. Problems of oversupply, inappropriate beneficiaries, replacing traditional boats with larger, motorized vessels and poor vessel quality urgently need addressing.

7.

The relationship between decreased or increased fishing effort after the tsunami and resulting changes in catch and catch/boat present an opportunity for further investigations on numbers of vessels for optimal yields.

8.

The direct impacts on fisheries resources reported by fisherfolk (for example anchovies/lobster in Sri Lanka) merit further study.

9.

Mechanisms for rebuilding fisheries livelihoods should remain flexible and able to adapt to lessons learned through regular monitoring of outcomes. This should include improved fisheries data management mechanisms and improved capacity in analysis.

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1.

INTRODUCTION

The 26 December 2004 Asian earthquake and tsunami is considered by many to be the worst natural disaster to occur in living memory. The sheer scale and complexity of damage to the countries of the Indian Ocean is without precedent. Estimates of the number of people killed or still missing range between 250 000 to almost 300 000, with more than 1 million people displaced and damage to infrastructure running into billions of dollars. It is estimated that a further 250 000 people in the region could be driven below the poverty line through loss of livelihoods in fisheries, tourism, trade, agriculture and artisanal or cottage industries (UNEP 2005), see also (ADB et al. 2005; FAO and MOAC 2005). Concerns were quickly raised on the potential for damage to natural resources and ecosystems. Scientists, governments and non-government organizations (IGOs and NGOs) were concerned about the impact of the tsunami on ecosystem goods and services because of their crucial role in providing food and livelihoods for millions of people (UNEP and WCMC 2006; Wilkinson et al. 2006). These concerns focused mostly on damage to fisheries resources, aquaculture, forests (including mangroves) and coral reefs. Indonesia and Sri Lanka had the greatest number of people affected by the disaster (Narayan et al. 2005; Pomeroy et al. 2005). Aceh Province was near the earthquake epicentre, with Simeulue Island within just a few kilometres and Sabang about 270 kilometres away. Although Sri Lanka was more than 2 100 kilometres distant it lay in direct line-of-sight with the epicentre and the energy of the tsunami was sufficient to cause major damage. In Indonesia, damage was sustained as a result of the causative and subsequent earthquakes, and the tsunami itself. During the tsunami, waves accumulated water on land up to 30 m in depth. Between 170 000 and 220 000 people were killed, with the greatest damage recorded in the areas of Meulaboh, Banda Aceh, Aceh Besar and Aceh Jaya (Wilkinson et al. 2006). The total losses associated with fisheries including harbours, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) assets, aquaculture, boats, gear and production were estimated at approximately 4 752 billion rupiah,2 of which 80 percent was attributed to losses in fishing production (BAPPENAS and International Donor Agency 2005). In Sri Lanka over 31 000 people were killed, approximately 15 000 were injured (UNEP 2005) and 99 000 houses were destroyed (ADB et al. 2005). The districts most affected were those on the eastern and southern sides, although impacts extended around most of the coast with waves encircling the country. The estimated losses to fisheries were around US$297 million, including losses to assets and outputs (ADB et al. 2005). In its Regional Strategic Framework for the rehabilitation of fisheries and aquaculture in tsunami-affected countries in Asia, the Consortium to Restore Shattered Livelihoods in Tsunami-Devastated Nations (CONSRN 2005d) focuses on “getting rehabilitation and development right” to avoid past mistakes and make a substantial improvement over the pre-tsunami situation in each country. The 2005 Rome Declaration on Fisheries and the Tsunami expressed concern over the risk of negative impacts from rehabilitation efforts if not appropriately designed and duly coordinated (FAO 2005). One of the greatest of these anticipated risks concerns the over-restoration of fishing capacity. The meeting also recognized that environmental degradation of critical habitats caused by the tsunami in affected coastal areas, such as coral reefs and mangroves, may continue to affect the productivity of inshore fishing grounds and the potential for aquaculture rehabilitation for some time. The Blue Plan for rehabilitation and reconstruction in Aceh and Nias (ROI 2005) calls for the restoration and enhancement of fishing activities, largely in a bid to reactivate the local economy. At the same time, 2

US$1 = 9 090 Rupiah (October 2007).

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the plan calls for the restoration of “environmental supporting capacity” including the rehabilitation of coral reefs, mangroves and coastal vegetation (to form a protective green belt) and monitoring of environmental risks. At the sector level, the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) acknowledged that “there needs to be a strong attempt not to recreate poverty and unsustainable activities” in fisheries (MMAF 2005). In Sri Lanka, the strategy produced by the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (MFAR) recognizes an “opportunity for effecting necessary urgent improvements to create conditions for sustainable management and development of Sri Lanka’s fisheries” and to improve the living conditions of fisherfolk (MFAR 2005). The fisheries rehabilitation activities in Indonesia and Sri Lanka are focused on the restoration of fisheries capacity, which targets boats and to a lesser extent infrastructure and gear. Currently, there is a weak linkage between national and sectoral tsunami recovery policies, with national policies being slow to specifically acknowledge that resources may have been overexploited before the tsunami, or that they may have been damaged by it. This study reviews the available information for Indonesia and Sri Lanka, and other tsunami-affected countries, to determine whether and to what extent fished resources were affected by the tsunami. The extent to which ecosystems that support fisheries (such as coral reefs, mangroves, lagoons and coastal waters) may have been damaged and examine changes in fishing capacity is also reviewed. All of these factors may be concurrently and interactively influencing the status of fisheries resources in affected areas and thereby the basis of recovery of livelihoods and economies. Answering these questions is central to the formation of recovery policies because it identifies whether there are likely to be new drivers affecting resources under post-tsunami conditions.

2.

APPROACH

Four different types of information were reviewed for this report. They were obtained from in-country sources, national and intergovernmental agencies operating in tsunami-affected areas and through interviews and meetings carried out as part of this work. The types of information are associated with varying levels of uncertainty, but were together taken to triangulate an overall assessment of whether fisheries resources have been significantly affected by the tsunami. It is important to note that although this study is focused primarily on the effects of the tsunami on fisheries resources in Indonesia and Sri Lanka, the authors felt obliged to review reports from other impacted countries to cover all relevant aspects. These were used to fill information gaps. The four sources of information were:

3.

1.

Rapid assessments undertaken soon after the disaster and over the past year, usually based on qualitative assessments;

2.

Research cruises and surveys undertaken to collect quantitative data;

3.

National data and statistics; and

4.

Fisherfolk/community perceptions of changes in fished resources collected through participatory rural appraisals/interviews with fisherfolk, groups and key informants in Aceh and Sri Lanka.

STATUS OF FISHERIES RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEMS

It is generally accepted that coastal fisheries resources in the tsunami-affected countries were severely depleted even before the tsunami struck in 2004 (CONSRN 2005c; Sugiyama et al. 2004; WorldFish 2005). Although data are patchy, it has been estimated that resources may have been fished down to somewhere between 5 and 30 percent of their unexploited levels (Silvestre et al. 2003). The main reasons identified for these conditions have included direct effects from serious overcapacity and overfishing (WorldFish 2005) as well as indirect effects arising from losses or damage to the ecosystems that support fisheries (UNEP 2005). Human activities have led to removal of mangroves, siltation and pollution and

4

the degradation of coastal habitats, making them less productive (Silvestre et al. 2003; UNEP 2005). These losses were already contributing to poverty in the region through the reduced contribution of coastal fisheries to employment, export revenue, food security and social stability (World Bank 2004). The pre-tsunami fully or overexploited status of the region represents a dilemma for policy- and decisionmakers. The fisheries sector was expected in many countries to contribute to an increase of GNP through an increase in total catches (Mous et al. 2005; NARA 2004).

3.1. Aceh, Indonesia 3.1.1. Fished resources in Aceh Fisheries in Aceh Province have been mostly small-scale and traditional (Janssen 2005), though there were more motorized boats than in other parts of the country (Purnomohadi 2003). Levels of exploitation were higher on the east coast (the Malacca Strait) than on the western part of Sumatra. Fishing was focused on inshore demersal, and small to medium pelagic species. The fishing fleet consisted mostly of wooden boats 4 to 24 metres long that used trammel nets for shrimps, gillnets for fish and bottom set longlines for larger species. There were also small purse seiners (20 to 25 metres long) for small pelagic species. Most boats were “single-day” and operated in coastal waters, with only the purse seiners making extended trips of up to two weeks. Few locally registered vessels were active in deep sea fishing, and trawling was officially banned in 1980 (Dwiponggo et al. 1986; Janssen 2005). The main gear in use focused on nets, including trawl nets, seines, purse seines, gillnets, lift nets, cast nets and muro-ami (Tampubolon 2006).3 Hook and line methods, hand collecting and spearing were also commonly used. Based on fish density analysis, the potential yield of the Strait of Malacca for large pelagic fish is about 25 560 tonnes/year, and for small pelagic species about 124 840 tonnes/year (Purnomohadi 2003). Bailey et al. (1987) concluded that in most parts of western Indonesia (including Aceh), demersal stocks were already strongly exploited, while there may have been at that time room for expansion for pelagic species. Matthews et al. (1995 in Matthews and Ghofar 2006) analysing data on pelagic fisheries (1977–1992) off the west coast of Sumatra, suggested the MSY might have been reached and large increases in landings were unlikely (see also Merta et al. 1995). Dwiponggo et al. (1986) considered that trawled demersal species were being optimally exploited between 1977 and 1979. Martosubroto et al. (1996) re-examined demersal fisheries of the 1970s and recalculated a sustainable yield for Aceh using provincial data and field reports. This gave a sustainable yield of 8 000 tonnes/year, from which they concluded that the stocks were already beginning to be overfished. Over the past ten years, around 90 percent of the landed catch has comprised finfish, about 8.4 percent crustaceans and 0.6 percent molluscs, with the remainder constituting “others” such as sea cucumbers and seaweeds. In 2003 these capture fisheries totalled around 134 000 tonnes, with a value of 863 billion rupiah (US$86 million) and accounted for 3 percent of the provincial GDP (CONSRN 2005a; Janssen 2005). The fisheries sector employed around 89 300 people, or 16 percent of the total coastal population of 558 641 in the disaster-affected areas of Aceh Province and Nias Island (CONSRN 2005a). 3.1.2. Fisheries ecosystems in Aceh Aceh Province is bounded to the east by part of the Malacca Strait and to the west by the Indian Ocean (Purnomohadi 2003). Sumatra is 1 650 kilometres long and up to 350 kilometres wide; it has a mountain chain and associated volcanoes and is bordered to the east by a broad depositional lowland with extensive swamp areas. Off the west coast the Mentawai Islands constitute a “non-volcanic arc”, consisting of uplifted and tilted areas with cliffed outer shores facing the predominant southwesterly swell transmitted across the Indonesian Ocean. The inner shores are typically lower and more indented, with embayments, 3

Hauling a net across the ocean floor to trap fish.

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and are fringed by mangroves. There are emerged coral reefs and beach ridges, especially on the outer shores and the possibility of continued tilting is supported by the disappearance of islets off the coast of Simeulue Isand even within the past century. The relatively high island of Nias (summit 886 metres) is encircled by emerged reef terraces. Coral reefs are rare along the central part of the southwest coast of Sumatra because of the large sediment yield from rivers draining the high hinterland, but to the south there are reef-fringed rocky promontories (Bird and Ongkosongo 1980). The west coast is influenced by the presence of a pronounced thermocline between 100 to 125 metres, above which is a relatively homogenous mixed layer with temperatures of 28 to 29ºC — almost completely depleted in nutrients. In the Strait of Malacca, slightly higher surface temperatures of 28 to 30ºC occur during the south monsoon and lower temperatures of 26 to 27ºC during the north monsoon season. The southern shores of Sumatra receive a southwesterly ocean swell and relatively strong southeasterly wave action in the winter (Bird and Ongkosongo 1980). 3.1.3. Fisheries trends leading up to the tsunami Landings of Aceh fisheries generally increased from 1976 for total finfish, crustaceans and molluscs, peaking at 111 000 tonnes in 1998 and then falling to 92 000 tonnes in 2002. This pattern was followed by a sharp increase to 134 000 tonnes in 2003. Finfish dominated landings, peaking at 126 000 tonnes in 2003 and falling to 103 000 tonnes in 2004 for reasons not yet understood. Crustacean landings peaked at 18 500 tonnes in 1995 and then fell to around 5 000 tonnes in 2001 to 2002, rising to 10 000 tonnes in 2004. Four long-lived demersal fish (Indian halibut, red snappers, groupers and barramundi) showed a sharp fall in landings in 2003 to 2004, before the tsunami, and have probably been overfished for several decades (Martosubroto et al. 1996; Mathews and Ghofar 2006). These authors also considered goatfish and shrimps likely to be overfished and called for more comprehensive studies of other species. Although Matthews and Ghofar (2006) consider the Aceh Fisheries Statistics to be of generally good quality, no assessment of reliability has been undertaken and there are scant biological data to aid in assessing the status of stocks. The examination of the Aceh provincial fisheries statistics revealed several patterns that would tend to support a trend of increasing fishing pressure prior to the tsunami. The first pattern concerns total catch production in kabupatens. While some show steady or slowly increasing production between 1995 and 2005, several show clear declines at some time after 1988 (Figure 1). The two kabupatens that show the greatest declines are also those that had the greatest yearly production, namely Aceh Selatan and Aceh Utara. The second pattern shows significant declines in prawn catches, particularly after 1998, and in longer-lived demersal fish as identified by Martosubroto (et al. 1996) (Figure 2). Barramundi may have been in decline as early as 1997. Finally, there was an apparent overall trend in replacement of small, mostly individually-owned, dugout and plank-built boats with small and larger inboard powered boats from 1994 to 2002, beginning to increase again after that period (Figure 3). Overall the number of fishing boats declined over that period but catch efficiency increased (as catch/boat/year) (Figure 4). It is difficult to assess whether or by how much overall effort changed as standard conversion factors (between boat types) are unreliable, but estimated that that the overall number of boats declined by about 25 percent, while catch per boat increased by 75 to 100 percent. Over the same period total catch fluctuated, but did not show any consistent trend upwards or downwards, though there were different responses in different kabupatens and/or target species. This suggests that changes in catch per unit of effort occurred over the past decade, mirroring the number of boats deployed.

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Figure 1: Catch production from 1994 to 2004 for kabupatens on the west and east coasts of Aceh Province Data are from the Aceh Province Fisheries Statistics Yearbooks (1995–2005, see DKP 2005); there are missing data for some kabupatens, so trends cannot be discerned. Some kabupatens on both coasts showed steady or slowly increasing production over the period. They include Aceh Besar, Aceh Barat, Sabang and Pidie. For Aceh Selatan, Banda Aceh, Aceh Timur and Aceh Utara there are clear declines in catches. East coast

30 000

30 000

25 000

25 000

Aceh Barat Aceh Jaya Banda Aceh Simeulue

Aceh Baratdaya Aceh Selatan Nagan Raya

Aceh Besar Aceh Singkil Sabang

Aceh Tamiang Bireuen Pidie

Aceh Timur Langsa

2004

2003

2002

2001

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1994

2004

2003

2002

2001

0

2000

0 1998

5 000

1997

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1996

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1995

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1998

15 000

1997

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20 000

1996

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1995

Catch tonnes

35 000

1994

Catch tonnes

West coast 35 000

Aceh Utara Lhokseumawe

Figure 2: Catch production from 1994 to 2004 for crustaceans and selected demersal fish landed in Aceh Province Data are from the Aceh Province Fisheries Statistics Yearbooks (1995–2005, see DKP 2005). Prawns showed a decline after a peak in 1995, while crabs and lobsters were either steady or increasing slowly. The picture for some demersal fish is more complex. All of the four groups shown below declined in 2004, but before that production of Indian halibut was increasing. Crustaceans

Demersal fish 5 000

6 000

4 500 4 000

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Catch tonnes

Catch tonnes

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0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Banana prawns Metapenaeus shrimps Swim crabs

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Giant tiger prawns Mud crabs Panulirid lobsters

Barramundi/perch Groupers

7

Red snappers Indian halibut

Figure 3: Numbers of fishing boats in use per year between 1994 and 2004 in Aceh fisheries Data are from the Aceh Province Fisheries Statistics Yearbooks (1995–2005, see DKP 2005). The overall decrease in the total number of boats was due to changeover. There was a general increase in the numbers of boats with inboard engines and a general decline in the numbers of dugout, outboard and plank-built boats from 1994 to 2002. Between 2002 and 2004 some of these boats started to increase again. So did the total number of boats. Boats with inboard engines

All other boats 5 000

4 500

4 500

4 000

4 000

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3 000

Number

Number

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2 500 2 000 1 500

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1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Inboard 20–50 Inboard 5–10

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Inboard 10–20 Inboard 12 metres) are planned for replacement, which may signal a significant potential for increase in the fishing fleet. 5.4.3. Emergency fishing or fishing avoidance? There is little evidence, anecdotal or otherwise, of emergency fishing after the tsunami in either Aceh or Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka it appears that the price of fish plummeted immediately after the tsunami, despite the decreased supply. According to Mr Leslie Joseph (Fisheries Consultant), people avoided eating marine products for fear that they may have been feeding on corpses. There are no figures on the number of fisherfolk that would have simply suspended fishing activities while they attended to recovery of their families, homes and communities. In terms of fisheries ecosystems, environmental considerations were neglected in Sri Lanka regarding decisions on the location of resettlement camps, new construction and the sourcing of building timber, where there had been losses of forests, including mangroves (UNEP and MENR 2005). There may also be some evidence of recent increases in illegal fishing in Sri Lanka at Rumassala Marine Sanctuary. Fish abundances were found to be similar to surrounding unprotected areas, but recent blast fishing craters were seen (IUCN et al. 2005).

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In Kanyakumari, India, Salagrama (2006) reported that the tsunami had engendered a “fear psychosis” among fisherfolk about fishing in the sea, reducing their willingness to go fishing and restricting them to perceived “safer” nearshore waters (see also Miller 2005). One of the fears being faced by fisherfolk related to the well-being of their families while they were away. 5.4.4. Overall effect on the fishing effort Government data suggest that at least 50 percent less fishing effort was expended in Aceh waters after the tsunami, compared with pre-tsunami levels. The greatest losses in fishing boats were of the larger, more powerful craft; this might mean that effort was even lower and that some recovery of normally heavily fished stocks might be expected. A range of factors has, however, been identified that suggests there is still a risk to the sustainability and livelihoods of fisherfolk in the region. The reasons quoted by CONSRN (2005c) and WorldFish (2005) include: 1.

The catching power of new boats and fishing gear is likely to be higher than those they replaced;

2.

Without sufficient options, new people may take up fishing as a livelihood facilitated by the availability of new boats and gear or resume destructive fishing practices;

3.

Widespread damage to coastal habitats such as mangroves (and deforestation to support rebuilding efforts) may affect the sustainability of key fisheries resources.

There is now evidence that the number of boats has indeed exceeded pre-tsunami levels in some areas of Aceh and Sri Lanka (see Sections 3 and 5.3 of this study). The additional lessons learned as a result of data collected from landings and fisherfolk at the same time are:

6.

4.

In areas where effort was reduced in the form of boats and trips (e.g. Lampulo, Banda Aceh) total catches recovered and efficiency improved, exceeding pre-tsunami levels;

5.

New fishing techniques are being introduced in affected areas, such as the antenna trawl reported in PRAs in Aceh; and

6.

Where boats and/or gear were oversupplied, catches continued to decline and/or were lower than pre-tsunami levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Environmental change occurs at two extremes: (1) slow and incremental (e.g. fishing pressure, pollution) and (2) catastrophic (e.g. tsunamis and other natural disasters). It would appear that humans are very good at responding to catastrophic change but are more accepting of incremental change. This would explain how according to Adger et al. (2005) resilience can be eroded gradually and go unrecognized or be thought unimportant. The lessons learned of increased impacts from the tsunami in chronically impacted and degraded ecosystems should be taken as an alert for future management. The evidence from the sources reviewed shows strongly that although there are localized cases of clear impact caused directly by the tsunami, most of the fished resources and their supporting ecosystems were not severely impacted by the tsunami but had already been in decline. Such pre-existing trends were acknowledged in the two national workshops run as part of this project in Indonesia and Sri Lanka (MMAF 2006; NARA 2006) though for Indonesia, there was a consensus among participants that there may still be some resources not yet fully exploited in Aceh. Overall, the current condition of resources is the result of these same trends and/or interactive effects resulting from reduced environmental resilience. In this study Maldeniya and Jayamanne (2006), Tampubolon et al. (2006) and others undertaken elsewhere (e.g. India, Salagrama 2006) fisherfolk agreed that declines in fish catches after the tsunami were generally a continuation of existing trends. This observation is generally supported by the scientific

35

studies reviewed. It should be noted, however, that the fisherfolk of the Coromandel Coast were quite clear that the tsunami did influence fisheries resources, as their catches had never been as bad as they were in 2005, particularly during peak fishing seasons. In Aceh and Sri Lanka it was found that fisherfolk generally blamed the loss of boats and gear for this decline, though in some cases they seemed to suggest that abundance of some species had declined after the tsunami. An examination of historical catch data in Sri Lanka showed that declines occurred in all coastal fisheries and often extended back decades. Catch data and the fisherfolk in both countries indicate that catch rates continued to decline after the tsunami. In fact the main post-tsunami issues for the fishing communities raised in both countries were related not to declining catches but to “human factors” such as the rising fuel and falling fish prices. It is also possible that the long-term effects of the tsunami could include some positive changes in resources, though information is generally lacking at this stage. Salagrama (2006) suggested that the “vigorous churning” of the waters in the Bay of Bengal from the tsunami contributed to an upwelling from the nutrient-rich benthic strata to the upper layers, and enhanced primary productivity which might be reflected further down the food chain as an increase in fish production over the coming years. In this study, there was evidence from the PRAs that prawn numbers increased in a damaged mangrove in Aceh Jaya in Indonesia and increased temporarily in Galle and Hambantota in Sri Lanka. Hilsa numbers were also increased in Hambantota. The important lessons learned on fisheries, fished resources and their ecosystems are: O

Fisheries resources and ecosystems have generally not been significantly impacted by the tsunami, though there are some local cases of effects. The fisheries resources of Indonesia and Sri Lanka can be expected to recover naturally from the impacts of the tsunami, provided that the fishing effort is kept within sustainable limits and other stresses on ecosystems and resources are managed.

O

Fisheries resources were already severely depleted and declining prior to the tsunami due to unsustainable practices and environmental degradation. Further, overfishing is recognized as a problem by communities. Programmes for rebuilding fisheries livelihoods need to address the pre-tsunami situation (MFAR 2005; MMAF 2006; NARA 2006; Stobutzki and Hall 2005).

O

In Indonesia and Sri Lanka fisheries resources in tsunami-affected areas have been under stress since well before the tsunami and may not be in a condition to promote local economic and livelihood recovery. In fact the pre-tsunami “stagnation” of fisheries perceived by the Government of Indonesia, an issue to be addressed in its master plan for recovery ROI (2005), may be a sign that the health of resources needs to be investigated.

O

Most changes in catches since the tsunami appear to be due to human factors, including increases in boats, fisherfolk and gear; increases in fuel price leading to shorter fishing trips and concentration of effort; problems with transportation; financing issues; lower fish prices; changes in grounds, sometimes related to sanctuaries and debris; illegal fishing methods; and fishing by foreign vessels.

O

The problems now arising in fisheries after the tsunami have highlighted issues of weak institutions and enforcement, raising issues of the need for better human capacity, facilities, funding and information needed for effective fisheries management.

O

The effects of the tsunami have precipitated new divisions in industry and conflicts between the management agencies and industry. This has raised issues of “who comes first?” (local vs foreign fisherfolk) and conflicts among local fisherfolk, some of which are related to the post-tsunami reconstruction efforts.

O

The tsunami has highlighted the need to rehabilitate fisherfolk livelihoods though diversification into new areas and improving safety and facilities. This could include improving post-harvest processing and cold storage/ice facilities, promotion of aquaculture and land-based livelihoods, safety at sea and transport to markets.

36

7.

O

It is apparent that as a result of the well-meaning efforts of donors, fishing capacity has been increased at some locations in Aceh and Sri Lanka, taking numbers of boats and efficiency of gear well above pre-tsunami levels. This situation can be expected to further exacerbate sustainability problems for fisheries resources and already appears to be happening in Lampulo, Banda Aceh.

O

The impacts of the tsunami on effort appear to have had flow-on effects on catches. Where effort was reduced, total catches recovered and efficiency improved, exceeding pre-tsunami levels. Where boats and/or gear were oversupplied catches continued to decline and/or declined further to lower than pre-tsunami levels.

O

In CONSRN’s (2005d) Regional Strategic Framework for rehabilitation of fisheries and aquaculture strategic element 3 is concerned with restoring the natural environment. The focus of this element needs to shift to alleviating pre-existing human impacts and pressures on marine ecosystems rather than the direct effects of the tsunami. Habitat restoration should focus on approaches that harness the natural recovery power of ecosystems and resources, with artificial restoration (such as transplantation) used only in critical areas.

O

Recovery of fished resources and ecosystems needs to focus on restoring resilience as well as outputs of interest to humans.

O

Because both the resources themselves and their supporting ecosystems are under stress, an adaptive management approach is needed for planning and implementing recovery. As pointed out by IUCN (2005f) complexity and uncertainty make it impossible to accurately predict outcomes.

O

The fisheries data being collected in Aceh Province and Sri Lanka are invaluable for determining how resources and fisherfolk are faring post-tsunami compared with earlier times. They are, however, often poorly organized, missing values and their lessons are not easily learned.

RECOMMENDATIONS 1.

Recovery of fisheries resources should focus on management and addressing the key issues that were present before the tsunami. These include long-term problems of resource depletion and ecosystem degradation.

2.

Attempts to restore resources and ecosystems should go a step further and ensure that building resilience against future disasters is included in all strategies.

3.

In their present condition, fisheries in Aceh and Sri Lanka are not generally in a condition to promote economic recovery. Governments should consider alternative and adjunct activities to fisheries for rebuilding livelihoods and their economies (post-harvest processing, facilities and transport to markets, other sea- or land-based activities).

4.

Recovery of fisheries will also need to address the new “human factors” that have arisen since the tsunami. These include problems of increased capacity, increasing fuel prices, declining fish prices, problems with transportation, changes in fishing grounds, financing, illegal fishing and conflicts with other rehabilitation programmes.

5.

There is an urgent need to address pre-existing problems of weak institutions and enforcement in fisheries that have been exacerbated by the new problems now arising after the tsunami. This will require increasing capacity for effective research and management of fisheries, including training, facilities, funding and better data collection and utilization mechanisms. It will also require new skills in dealing with conflicts among fisherfolk and industry, equitable and effective assistance to communities and innovative diversification of livelihoods.

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8.

6.

Replacement of boats and gear in affected communities needs better scrutiny and management. Problems of oversupply, inappropriate beneficiaries, replacing traditional boats with larger, motorized vessels and poor vessel quality urgently need addressing.

7.

The relationship between decreased or increased fishing effort after the tsunami and resulting changes in catch and catch/boat present an opportunity for further investigations on the number of vessels for optimal yields.

8.

The direct impacts on fisheries resources reported by fisherfolk (for example anchovies/lobster in Sri Lanka) merit further study.

9.

Mechanisms for rebuilding fisheries livelihoods should remain flexible and able to adapt to lessons learned through regular monitoring of outcomes. This should include improved data management mechanisms and improved capacity in analysis.

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