Alcoa Foundation’s Conservation and sustainability Fellowship Program

Best Practices and Innovation of Biodiversity Conservation as Friendly Ways of Adapting to Climate Change in Forest, Coastal, and Agro Ecosystem in Indonesia

By Indah Budiani 2009 The Indonesian Biodiversity Foundation (Yayasan KEHATI) Jl. Bangka VIII/3B Pela Mampang, Jakarta Selatan 12720, INDONESIA. Email: [email protected]. Telp. +62-21-7183185. F: +62-21-7196131

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009

Acknowledgments I would like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to complete this thesis. Financial support for this research project that was provided by Alcoa Foundation Conservation and Sustainability Fellowship Program, Institute for International Education is acknowledged and greatly appreciated. I am very grateful to Jeff McNeely, Wendy Price, Joshua Bishop, and Gonzalo Oviedo from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and Diana Simon, Illiana Kurtzig and Caitlin Burton from Institute of International Education (IIE), for all support, guidance, and advices during the research. Thanks to all my supervisors and colleagues in The Indonesian Biodiversity Foundation (Yayasan KEHATI) for providing much support throughout the research, especially Damayanti Buchori whose giving me support and encouragement for the fellowship. Last, but not least I also want to thanks all the contributors; KEHATI’s grantees, partners, and all the people who has helped me in completing this research.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009

Table of Content 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................4 a. Research Background: Climate Change and the impact in Indonesia ............................................ 4 b. Expected result of the research .............................................................................................................. 5 c. Research Method........................................................................................................................................ 5 2. Best Practices of Biodiversity Conservation on Adapting to Climate Change .........................6 a.

Agro ecosystem .................................................................................................................................... 6 1. Biodiversity of Rice Paddy ................................................................................................................ 6 2. Biodiversity for organic fertilizer and pesticide ............................................................................ 7 3. Nitrogen fixator .................................................................................................................................. 8 4. Pioneer plants for Rehabilitation of Marginal Land .................................................................... 9 5. Crops Production in a Dry Land Ecosystem................................................................................. 11 b. Marine, Coastal and Small Islands ecosystem ................................................................................... 13 1. Mangrove for coastal protection .................................................................................................... 13 2. Coastal Plants and Multi Purpose Tree Species as barrier and for coastal rehabilitation . 15 c. Forest .......................................................................................................................................................... 16 1. Sago (Metroxylon sago) ................................................................................................................... 16 2. Trees Conservation ............................................................................................................................. 17 3. Medicinal Plants.................................................................................................................................. 19 4. Cultivication of Medicinal Plant on Marginal Land, for Socio-Economic Improvement......... 21 3. Innovation of Biodiversity Conservation on Adapting to Climate Change ........................... 22 a. Agro ecosystem........................................................................................................................................ 22 1. Rice Paddy Varieties in Saline Land .............................................................................................. 22 2. Rooftop garden and vertical planting ........................................................................................... 22 b. Marine, Coastal, and Small Islands ecosystem .................................................................................. 23 1. Green Belt ........................................................................................................................................... 23 2. Regional Marine Conservation Area .............................................................................................. 23 c. Forest ecosystem....................................................................................................................................... 23 City Forest as replication of lembo ..................................................................................................... 23 4.

Role of Cultural Values and Traditional Knowledge on Biodiversity Conservation on

Adapting to Climate Change ....................................................................................................25 Sasi System.................................................................................................................................................... 25 Biodiversity Conservation as part of Balinese culture .......................................................................... 26 Lembo ........................................................................................................................................................... 26 5.

Resume and Recomendation............................................................................................28

References ................................................................................................................................29

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 1. Introduction

1. Introduction a. Research Background: Climate Change and the impact in Indonesia Nowadays, people often talk about climate change. The phenomena where the temperature of the earth is increasing caused by the increasing ‘greenhouse’ gasses, have been creating a lot of damage and severe on earth. Some mechanisms have been developed as a way to adapting to climate change such as REDD, CDM, and others. The world now really focuses on climate change. Climate change could a major impact and particularly on the poorest people in Indonesia. Many climate-related hazards, including floods, droughts, storms, landslides and wild land fires occurred more often than before and will continue to be more frequent or more severe.1 1. Between 1844 and 1960, droughts happened on average every four years, but between 1961 and 2006, they occurred in every 3 years. 2. Floods are also appearing more frequently. In the period 2001-2004, about 530 floods were reported; occurring in almost all provinces (Figure 3). The scale of damage is also increasing. The El Niño event of 1997-1998 was the most severe for 50 years; indeed, 1998 was the hottest year in the twentieth century. 3. These more frequent El Niños are occurring at a time of global warming. Data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration indicate that ten of the strongest El-Niño events occurred after the 1970s – as global warming started to accelerate. Whether changes we are now experiencing are coming from El Niño or from the greenhouse effect or a combination of the two, it seems clear that Indonesia is already experiencing climate change – and that the consequences could be felt for many generations to come. Among the consequences we can expect are changes in seasons and rainfall, more extreme weather events, rises in sea levels, warmer oceans, and higher air temperatures.

The other half of Climate Change; Why Indonesia must adapt to protect its poorest people. UNDP, 2007.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 1. Introduction

b. Expected result of the research Even though the world has been focusing much to develop some mechanism such as (Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) as part of mitigation, the adaptation to climate change itself has to be highlighted and developed, especially those based on local community. It is important since the local community is the most vulnerable among other, and because they have their own knowledge that made them adaptable to climate change. The research will study and disseminate traditional knowledge and best practices related to climate change adaptation in forest, coastal and small islands, and agro ecosystems. The goal is to improve community preparedness and resilience to cope with the unpredictable impact of climate change. Biodiversity has the ability to reduce risks and vulnerabilities, as well as protect lives, livelihoods, wealth, and well-being from climactic disasters. The research will identify the best practices of local people in biodiversity use, conservation, and biodiversity restoration and management. In addition, it will also examine how scientific innovation can improve the ability of biodiversity services to adapt to climate change. c. Research Method The method used for the research is an empirical study based on qualitative research; surveys/field study, interview, and literatures study.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

2. Best Practices of Biodiversity Conservation on Adapting to Climate Change a. Agro ecosystem Agroecosystem produces many crops which become main food resources. Due to climate change, where drought and flood often occure unpredictably causing decreasing of agricultural land, those crops productions are inevitably affected. Therefore, crops that able to grow in such extreme conditions and several types of land, and also biodiversity that are still able to support crops production such as fertilizer or pesricide, will be the solution. 1. Biodiversity of Rice Paddy Rice is the main food resources for people in Indonesia. Almost of all the people in Indonesia eat rice twice or trice a day as they really depend on rice resource. Although they have eaten bread or noodle, without rice it will be just a snack and they will still look for rice to eat.

Paddy for inundated land There are places in Pangandaran, West Java,

where during wet

season, some parts of agriculture land are covered by water either caused by rainfall or water from mountain which at locally called ‘Megu”. In adapting to this phenomenon, the local people use variety of paddy which able to grow under a deep water. This variety has a long high stick thus the paddy will not get drowned. This could be an answer for the impacted agriculture land Megu

of climate changes which causing flood in a long period.

Paddy for dry land In Sumba, an island with a dry land ecosystem, there are some local paddy varieties that able to grow in such condition i.e Beras Kalalo and Beras Bulu. Besides for

Beras Bulu

primary food source, the rice can also used for cake (Kue Cucur). Tidal rice Approximately, there are 1 million hectares of tidal rice, mainly in Kalimantan, but the potential is close to 10 million hectares, where around 60% of this area is influenced

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

by tides. Inundation is caused when the incoming tide forms a barrier to rivers flowing into the sea, which then flood areas with fresh, but somewhat brackish water. Paraquat - a herbicide - is a key component of the developing tidal rice growing system because it is the only herbicide that can provide fast weed control, even when the land is flooded twice a day.

2. Biodiversity for organic fertilizer and pesticide Nowadays farmers find the best way to increase the yield by using organic fertilizer rather than chemical fertilizer. Based on the observation in some areas such as Pangandaran and Semau Island - as dry land - are; fertilizer from organic material is more benefiting the farmer. It is a low cost fertilizer and deliver higher result than chemical fertilizer. As mitigation to climate change, such biodiversity resources become very important since few reports describe how chemical-intensive farming has led to increased levels of greenhouse gas emissions, primarily as a result of the overuse of fertilizers and soil degradation. The report has shown that farm chemicals work against nature and create more problems than solutions. 2

Damar

Believing natural pesticide and fertilizer, people in Kulon Progo and Semau Island use these plants for pesticide and fertilizer: -

Jengkol (Pithecellobium jiringa)

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Asian palmyra palm / lontar (Borasus flaberlifer)

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Widuri (Calotropis gigantean R.Br), usually found in abandoned farmland.

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Damar merah (S. parvifolia Dyer)

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Begonia (Begoniaceae), as liquid fertilizer

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Air nira (sweet palm sap or juice)

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Lengkuas (Alpinia galanga)

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Kunyit (Curcuma domestica)

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Daun sirih (Piper Betle Linn)

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Pepper (Piper nigrum Linn)

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Garlic (Allium sativum)

Lengkuas

2 Bellarby, Foereid, Hastings and Smith. Cool farming: Climate impacts of agriculture and mitigation potential. January, 2008.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

Most of these plants are easily found in a dry land ecosystem and are proven have ability in stimulating crops yield. These plants could be utilized as part of adaptation to climate change

Daun sirih

efforts since people have been using them for stimulating crops production in a very dry land, a situation that may occure as impact of climate change. 3. Nitrogen fixator Freshly-dug peanuts (Arachis hypogea) Farmers in Semau Island – a dry land ecosystem - plant freshly-dug peanuts (Arachus hypogaea) as one of their best crops. Although they do not tend to fertilize the soil by planting peanuts, in fact it reduces fertilizer costs for farmers since it fixes atmospheric nitrogen which makes this species well known as the good crop for restoration of degraded land. Besides for fixaxing nitrogen, it produces high protein. The peanuts give valuable income for local people of the island where it is famous for it. The farmers also use particular part of it as serasah / mulsa (covering the land surface) for reducing land transpiration and keep the water longer since the land is very dry, while the unused part of peanut can be used as energy resource. This species might be usefull to fertilize a dry soil impacted by climate change and also reducing the transpiration. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) Alfalfa (medicago sativa) from family leguminoceae, is a cool season perennial legume living from 3 to 12 years, depending on variety and climate. It has a high resilient to drought. Like other legumes its root nodules contain bacteria, Sinorhizobium meliloti, with the ability to fix nitrogen, producing a high-protein feed regardless of available nitrogen in the soil. Its nitrogenfixing abilities (which increase soil nitrogen) and its use as an animal feed greatly improved agricultural efficiency. Alfalfa has the highest feeding value of all common hay crops, being used less frequently as pasture. When grown on soils where it is well-adapted, alfalfa is the highest yielding forage plant. It used in agriculture, has a wide range of adaptation and can be grown from very cold northern plains to high mountain valleys; from rich

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Freshly dug peanuts

Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

temperate agricultural regions to Mediterranean climates and searing hot deserts.[3] Perennial plants often have deep, extensive root systems which can hold soil to prevent erosion, capture dissolved nitrogen before it contaminate ground and surface water, outcompete weeds (reducing the need for pesticides), and help to mitigate global warming by carbon sequestration. As part of adaptation effort to climate change, people can use alfalfa for nutrition enrichment of soil before planting other crops when drought occures.

4. Pioneer plants for Rehabilitation of Marginal Land In adapting to climate change in unplanted land where soil is dry and degraded, people can plant pioneer plants to stimulate the soil production. One of the importances of pioneer plant - which tolerant with the toxic of A1- is the ability to absorp A1 in the soil and save it inside its body, thus the toxicious A2 in the soil can be reduced and give an opportunity for other plants to grow with less resistance to the toxic of A1. Sub species of pioneering plants are: - Creeping daisy / Tusuk Konde (Wedelia trilobata) - Blue Tongue / seduduk (Melastoma malabathriu)

Mexican sunflower

- Cagoon Grass / alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica) - Wildsugarcane / seriti (Saccharum spontaneum) - Mexican sunflower (Tithonia diversifolia) - Starchytapheta indica (pecut kuda) - Austroepotarium odoratum (putihan, patong, or lonte sore)

Wildsugarcane

These species could be usefull in adapting to climate change in utilizing underutilized land to produce crops. Cogon grass (Imperata cylindrical) and wildsugarcane (Saccharum spontaneum) 3 In land restoration, the knowledge and information about plants varieties which are

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Tumbuhan perintis pemulih lahan kritis; kiat petani membangun kesuburan tanah (Pioneer plant

for critical land rehabilitation; a farmer’s guidelines to stimulate soil fertility). Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Bengkulu-KEHATI.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

adaptive to the dry condition becomes important. Pioneer species could be the answer for poor quality soils with few nutrients and lack of water. They are typically very hearty plants with adaptations such as long roots, root nodes containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and leaves that employ transpiration. This can be useful for rehabililtate a dry and degraded land as impact of climate change. The pioneer plants such as alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica), wildsugarcane – well known as seriti at locally, seduduk, and tusuk konde (Wedelia tribaata) have a different adaptibility to drought. Cogon grass (Imperata) and seriti (Saccharum spontaneum) have the highest adaptibility and toleranty to the dry condition with their shorter roots compare with the other three varieties. Instead of increasing the soil fertility, they make the soil more barren. But wildsugarcane is good for conservation because of its strong root able to prevent erosion or water movement on soil surface. Creeping daisy (Wedelia trilobata), the water saver pioneer plant Creeping daisy –well known as Tusuk konde at locally - is the water saver plant, while alangalang (imperata) and wildsugarcane is the water greedy plant. It is a creeping evergreen perennial that roots at the leaf nodes. It grows well under trees and in full sun to part shade. Blue Tongue (Melastoma malabathrium) for acid soil It is well known as Seduduk at locally. For acid soil with A1, it has the best tolerant. The benefit is shown from the roots. The deeper the root and its branches, the better is its survival ability mechanism on the pressured environment.

Bushes and Imperata for land rehabilitation During 2003 – 2007 periods, more than 40 species were planted on different land cover in Siali-ali South Tapanuli. 4 Endemic and exoticpast-growing species were planted on imperata grassland, under canopy of past-growing plantation and enrichment planting on bushes and young secondary forest. The planting showed different result for each species influenced by the land cover types. 4

Aswandi and Rusli MS Harahap, Bushes and Imperata land: Rehabilitation of Critical Land. Sialiali, South

Tapanuli North Sumatra. Forest Research Institute of Aek Nauli in North Sumatra.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

The species are Acacia crassicarpa, A. Cunn. ex Benth and Eucalyptus urophylla ST. Blake, Shorea platyclados V.Sl, and S. ovalis Bl, Dryobalanops aromatica Geart, Shorea pinanga Scheff, Acacia crassicarpa , Anisoptera costata Roxb. and Shorea ovata Dyer , S. Ovata, A. costata. 5. Crops Production in a Dry Land Ecosystem Since global warming gives serious impact to the fertility of land such as dryness, some food resources are needed with its ability to grow in a dry land. These species below have ability to grow in a dry land ecosystem which some of them have been used as food resources even when famine hit up in the year of 1960. Maize / corn (Zae mays) It is a member of grass family Poaceae. People in Gorontalo plant corn as an alternative food resource. Corn is chosen as an entry point in agropolitan since it’s been few years ago people in Gorontalo plant it with increasing demand from time to time. Corn is one of best alternative food resources for a dry land ecosystem. People in Pulau Semau plant corn as one of their food resources. In fact, it was the main food resources of people on the island before rice was introduced as part of green revolution. Nowadays people still plant the corn in wet season, harvest and keep it on the ceiling, and eat it during dry season. Besides as food sources, crops can also be processed as fuel. Ubi Mae

Meanwhile in Lampung – a very southern part of Sumatra - one of variety of corns, jagung pipilan, a local name, is the reliable crop for people in the region, considering few supporting factors in planting it. People in Kecamatan Metro Kibang - the area lying along the river basin of Way Sekampung 5 - approximately plant the corn (jagung pipilan) in the dry season due to the suitable soil condition. Sweet potatoes; Ubi Hutan (Ipomoea fistulosa)

Interview with a farmer, Triman (45), in Desa Gendang Sari, Kecamatan Metro Kibang, Lampung Timur, Kamis. Panen Jagung Pipilan di Lampung Timur Melimpah. www.formatnews.com, Kamis, 16 July 2009. 5

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

When famine disaster occurred in this area in the year of 1960, the people went to the forest and ate sweet potatoes growing in a forest which they know as ‘gadung’. The reason why only few people cultivate this plant is because of the belief that the disaster will happen again if the people start to plant it. Moreover, the introduction of rice as wealth indicator of people started in 1960 change part of some culture where people then prefer to eat rice instead of their own local food resources where sweet potatoes is part of it. There is also another species of sweet potatoes, called ubi Mae. Like sweet potatoes growing in the forest, there is only small number of people cultivating this plant.

Gebang palm (Corypha utan) As part of ecosystem in Semau Island, Gebang palm – which at locally called Gewang - grows wildly in the island since it grows in the lowland of a very dried climate and savannah. Gebang palm is an alternative food resource for people in the island by extracting its starch. Chilli (Capsicum annum) As their agriculture product, people in Semau with dry land ecosystem also cultivate chilli and red union. Even though chilli is not a local Semau Island species, but it is able to growth in that dry condition, it even becomes more famous that those grow in its place of origin. Chilli

Papaya (Carica papya L.) and banana (Musa acuminate) Papaya and banana are fruits that still able to grow in Semau Island, a dry land ecosystem. Unfortunately people in the island do not take advantage of these fruits.

Kol / Chinese kol (Brasica oliracea) and kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica Forsk) In Kulon Progo - a very dry land in coastal area - the soil contain iron which makes the sand even warmer, but people still can plant certain crops such as Chinese Kol and kangkong for vegetables. chinese kol

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

Red Onion (Allium cepa L) In Semau, a dryland ecosystem, red onion is still able to grow. People use it as seasoning and herbal medicine. red onion

b. Marine, Coastal and Small Islands ecosystem Marine, coastal, and small islands are places which are very vulnerable to the impact of climate change since they are directly depend on the ocean changes caused by melted ice in Artic and Antartica. In certain areas, people has been doing some effort to stay survive in these places. Some efforts can be indicated as best practices in adapting to climate change..

1. Mangrove for coastal protection 6 Mangrove ecosystem is a transition between land and aquatic ecosystem, found in a tropical or sub tropical area along the protected coast and river delta as a coastal plants community dominated by few mangrove trees. These types of plants are able to grow in a tidal area according to its tolerancy to salinity, duration of inundation, substrate, and coastal morphology. Mangrove ecosystem is found along the river outfall or the area influenced by fluviomarine factor (river flow) and area dominated by marinofluvial factor (sea factor). The vegetation of mangrove ecosystem are few plants like api-api (Acivennia spp.) akar cakar ayam/pensil, bakau (Rhizopora spp) akar tongkat, cengal (Ceriops spp) akar papan, tancang (Bruguira spp) akar lutut, and pedada (Sonneratia spp).

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Pedoman pengelolaan Ekosistem Mangrove, direktorat bina pesisir dirjen Kelautan, Pesisir, dan Pulau-pulau Kecil, DKP.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

Function and benefits of mangrove: 1. Coastl protection and buffering zone for the ecosystem 2. Biodiversity conservation 3. Fisheries: catched and cultured fisheries Mangroves have tremendous social and ecologidal calue. Mangrove ecosystem provides income from the collection of mollusks, crustaceans, and fishes. Interaction of mangrove ecosystem to other coastal ecosystems Mangrove, coral reef, and sea grass are three important ecosystems in coastal area. The three of them are interacted with one another and create an ecosystem. The interaction can be physical, biological, or chemical. Physically, the three ecosystems are interacted in tide energy saving to the coast. Structure of mangrove community and the seagrass will reproduce if there is coral reef as a ’dike’ as tide barrier in the front. Meanwhile the ability of mangrove and seagrass as sediment trap and to maintain sediment stability give benefit to coral reef, since the sediment on coral surface will interupt photosyntesa process. Mangrove rehabilitation should involve local community. Based on the data, there are about 20.000 ha destructed mangrove forests in Nothern part of Java has successfully rehabilitated using Rhizopora spp and Avicennia spp with presentage of success about 60%-70% (Soemodihardjo and Soerianegara, 1989 in Bengen, 1999). In Tanjung Bungin - South Sumatera - mangrove zonation from the sea to the coast in a row are Avicennia alba, Rhizopora apiculata, Bruguiera parviflora, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Nypa fructicans, Xylocarpus granatum, Excoecaria agallocha, Pandanus ferentus, Bruguiea cylindrical. While in Brebes - Central Java- Rhyzhopora sp are used for mangrove rehabilitation. In Derawan, people use Avecenia sp since it suits ecologically with the sandy coast and direct to the water. The mangrove in this area is planted for conservation and improves its coverage as part of awareness program. In Aceh, KEHATI worked on mangrove as a coastal restoration program using Soneratia sp, Bruguiera sp dan Rhizopora sp. with a rapid adaptability and ability to grow in different saline conditions.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

Planting mangrove is indicated as best practices of local people in coastal area in protecting their land and income through conservation of coastal ecosystem including seagrass and coral reef as part of their income. While the seawater surface increases and gets warmer as impact of climate change, mangrove conservation gives survival possibility to people, especially fisherman and farmer to continue planting coastal crops and fishing.

2. Coastal Plants and Multi Purpose Tree Species as barrier and for coastal rehabilitation Coastal plants are also important in preventing coastal erosion. They are also the barrier or the life fences to protect coastal agriculture from wind coming from the sea. Some coastal plants are Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum), Cemara Laut (Causarina equisetifolia), Ketapang (Terminalia cattapa), Waru Laut (Hibiscus tillaceus), Putat Laut (Barringtonia asiatica), Bintaro (Cerbera manghas). The people in Kulon Progro, the place in Southern Coast of Jogjakarta, plant ‘gumuk’ as the barrier for the ocean wind that comes to the land. Gumuk consists of cemara udang (Casuarina equesetifolia), Coconut tree (Cocos nucifera), bidadara (a local name), pandan (Pandanus) , and widura (a local name). It helps to absorp the water when the sea water intrudes to the coast as the sea water rises as impact of climate change and reduce coastal erosion. The coastal area with Gumuk will dry faster than those without ‘Gumuk’. Multi Purpose Tree Species (MPTS) and other plants for coastal rehabilitation are - Gamal (Glirichida sepium), the leaves is used for compost and cattle fodder. The wood is used for firewood. - Kemiri (Aleurites mouluccana), the leaves is used for cosmetic, shampoo, and seasoning. - Asam jawa (Tamarindus indica), its fruit is used for bubble gum and seasoning, while the wood is used for building construction, furniture, and perkakas. - Kelapa (Cocos nucifera), its fruit is used for nata de coco and kopra, its leaf is used for handycraft and jewelry, and its wood is used for building construction and handycraft

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

- Pinang (Areca catechu), its fruit is used as seasoning and food, and the tree itself is used for fence - Pandan (Pandanus tectorius), its leaf is used for handicraft, and its flower is used for aromatical essense - Jarak pagar (Jatropha curcas), its fruit can be used as biofuel - Juwet (Zyzygium cumini), its fruit is used for food, and its wood is used for building construction - Kuda-kuda (Lannea spp.), - Mindi (Melia azadiractha), its leaf and skin wood is used as the cure for malaria, and its wood is used for building construction - Mahoni (Swietenia mahagoni). Its seed is used as the cure for malaria, and its wood is used for construction, furniture. Most of the people in the coastal area of Aceh, Simeulue, and Nias have been cultivating those plants.

c. Forest Forest plays important role in climate change. Although basically it is not really influenced by climate change, but best practices on how people can survive from a forest and what kind of resources are provided by forest that may be important in adaptation effort to climate change is worth to share. 1. Sago (Metroxylon sago) Metroxylon species can grow on a wide variety of soils. 7 They can persist on well drained, poor quality materials including sand, clay, or a lava. The palm will grow in soil that is periodically inundated by salt water as long as fresh water flow is more prevalent. All of the species seem to tolerate salinity for short period without apparent damage, with some populations

sago

growing in regular salt spray, periodic tidal flux and the edges of brackish mangrove swamps. Salinity should not exceed 10s/m (equivalent to 1/8 the salt concentration of sea water). (Flach 1997) As long as sufficient water is present, there does not seem to be an upper temperature limit for growth of sago. The plant does not tolerate drought unless there is ample groundwater.

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Specific profile for pacific island agroforestry. www.traditionaltree.org, accessed on March 2009.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

In Salawati Island, West Irian, an average wild sago palm trunk weighing 1000 kg (2200 lb) yields 150 kg (330 lb) of dry starch (Flach, 1997). Sarawah smallholders produce about 5,000 mt (55,000 t) of air-dried sago flour per year for export (Singapore Zoological Gardens Docents 2000). Often palms harvested for thatch have impended growth and the appearance of stress. As an indication of this stress, Haska (1995) notes that for M.Sagu in West Java, average starch production is only 55 kg/trunk from palms grown for leaves while it is 175 kg/trunk for the same variety grown for starch only. Since it is possible to grow in the soil that is periodically inundated by salt water, the people may cultivate sago for food resources if they able to serve water for sago to grow.

Interview with Nicolas Maniagasi – Farmer, Chief of Yayasan Sagu Swaka Alam Conservationist of Sago and Pandan in Papua Sago and Pandan are main food resources for people in Serui, Yapen Waropen and other part of Papua. They are used as ingredients for many kind of foods. Sago ecosystem creates mix heterorgen forest as a huge ecosystem is a heritage for mankind. Sago will create a forest rich with its biodiversity; produces carbohydrate, hosting sago worm, bats, pigs, fishes, and for water catchment. Nowadays people think Sago is not important and prefer to eat rice. Sago is a food alternative due to climate change. An expert said that if there is food shortage in 21 century, Sago can be a solution of the situation. Indonesia is rich of food sources, and the diversity for supporting food secutiry should be promoted, thus the food shortage in Papua might had been prevented. The decreasing number of Sago eater As an impact of promoting rice in few years ago as part of green revolution, now people prefer to eat rice than sago, where the existences of Sago is kept diminishing. Campaigning Sago Campaining Sago is important because urban people start to forget the importance of Sago. If we look at the road to airport in Jakarta, there are only few palm trees remain compare to few years before. If we can develop and use Sago sustainably, there are many benefits derived from it, such as for fuel.

2. Trees Conservation There are some types of tree used for land rehabilitation in Hutan Adat Desa Mandalamekar - a community based forest in Tasikmalaya – such as Picung (Pangium edule Reinw. ex Blume), Beringin (Ficus benjamina), and Bamboo; Bambu tali, bamboo temen (edible bamboo). The replantation of these trees revitalizes land production. For adaptation effort to climate change, these types of tree can be used to revitalize the function of forest ecosystem in influencing surrounding climate.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

Trees for Watershed Management 8 Certain trees that are integrated into agricultural system can increase the efficiency of water use, while plantations of fast growing trees can exacerbate water shortages. Water consumption of a tree can be minimized to decrease demand in dry season and minimize below-ground competition with other crops and the diversion of water from other uses by: -

preferentially planting decidous tree species (indigenous, as well as well matched exotic that produce particularly high quality product)

In integrated tree-crop systems, the main competition effects between trees and crops are belowground for water and nutrients, rather than above-ground for sunlight. Although trees compete for water, they are also able to increase water productivity. Trees that can mitigate dry season water shortages: - Cordia aAfricana – Indigenous to East Africa. Bimodal shedding. Produces high value timber for furniture construction. Time to harvest for timber: 10 years. Flowering good for honey production. - Paulownia fortunei – Indigeous to tropical China. Unimodal shedding. Produces high-value timber often used in veneers. Time to harvest for timber: 10 years. - Melia volkensii – Indigenous to East Africa. Bimodal shedding. Termitte resistant. Time to harvest for timber: 10 years. - Croton macrostachys – Indigenous to East Africa. Bimoda shedding. Good for honey production. During periods of leaf shedding, the tree uses less water, a physiological adaptation in tune with the long-term rainfall patterns where these species originate. Teak (Tectona grandis, sp) Teak – or at locally known as Jati - grows in decidous forest, which loses their leaves in dry season. The appropriate climate is the dry climate, but only in short time, with the rainfall between 1200-3000 mm in a year with high daylight intensity along the year. The optimum height is between 0 – 700 m dpl; although teakwood can grow until 1300 m dpl, and is mostly seen as homogen forest. This happens in a region with a very dry muson climate, where land burned easily happens and most of the tress will die. Not for Teak. Teak is part of pioneer species that resistant to fire because it has thick skin. Moreover, its fruit has thick skin and hard shell. To some limits, if it gets burned, the seeds will not break. The breaking of its shell even makes its sprout easier to come out in rain season. Fall of big leaves and its branch which cover the soil obsolete slowly, thus make it difficult for other plants to grow. The fall of leaves can also generate fire, which can be endured by Jati but not by other type of plants. That is how a small forest fire can cause homogeneity of a forest.

8

‘The right tree for a dry place. ICRAF, 2007.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices In Indonesia Teak is developed in Java (Rembang, Blora, Grobogan, Pati, Cepu), Muna Island, Bali, Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi, Sumbawa Island, and Lampung. Non economic function of Jati Forest in Java Considering its use of wide land to grow, it has important non economical function, such as: • Ecosystem buffer. The trees in teak forest will absorp and decomposite_menguraikan pollutants and over exposure sunlight. The forest will create photosynthesis process which absorp carbon diokside from air and release back the oxygen and uap air to the air. All the process maintains stability of climate inside and around the forest. Jati forest will also maintain fertility of the soil. • Biological function. Teak forest develops together with other variety of plants. In Teak forest, we can find bungur (Lagerstroemia speciosa), dlingsem (Homalium tomentosum), dluwak (Grewia paniculata), katamaka (Kleinhovia hospita), kemloko (Phyllanthus emblica), kepuh (Sterculia foetida), kesambi (Schleichera oleosa), laban (Vitex pubscens), ploso (Butea monosperma), serut (Streblus asper), trengguli (Cassia fistula), winong (Tetrameles nudflora), etc. Lamtoro (Leucenia leucocephalla) and akasia (Acacia villosa) are planted as tanaman sela to prevent soil erosion and improve soil fertility. In Gunung Kidul region, Yogyakarta, which was barren and heavily damaged before 1978, can be survived with planting method of jati mix forest. For almost 30 years, more than 60% damaged land change to productive lands. The local people prefer to plant Teak because they see its value and benefit, easy to plant, and its high sale value. They mix Teak in their land mahoni (Swietenia mahogany), akasia (Acacia villosa), and sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia). Now the area is a green area with colder temperature and high biodiversity. The change invites more fauna to come, especially birds, as the indicator of healthiness of an environment. • Social function. Many land of Teak forests in Java, either as productive or non productive forest, give service as education or research area, nature monitoring, recreation and tourism, and also culture development. Angsana (Pterocarpus indicus) It is cultured widely in tropical region. Wide distributions of trees are found in primary forest and other secondary forest in low land, especially along the tidal river basin and rocky coastal area. It is a pioneer type that grows better in an open area. It grows in any kind of soil type, from the fertile soil to rocky soil. Normally found until height of 600 m dpl, but can still alive to 1.300 m dpl. It is often used as ornamental tree along the road. Its population decreasing by over exploitation, where illegal logging lead to the habitat loss. In Vietnam, the population has vanished for 300 years. Ekstensive survey in Sri Lanka fail to find this type and in India, Indonesia, and Philipina, this species is shown threatened.

3. Medicinal Plants Climate change also gives impact to viruses and bacterias, either they will die or adapting to climate change. As part of the impact, demand on some medicines, including medicinal plants increases. Some of local people have been using medicinal plants as the cure.

Principle in using medicinal plants is the ‘balance’; the balance between climate and people. 9 The principle is believed as the basic ground for human body in interacting with 9

Adaptation to Climate Change of Local People in Medicinal Plants Utilization. Sukarsono, 2009.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

nature. In the world of medincinal plants there is a balance between “YIN dan YANG”. Illness means there is inbalancy between YIN dan YANG. In hot seasom (YANG), the used compound is from the YIN plants. Characteristics of these plants are bitter taste, sour, salty, and cold i.e. sambiloto (Andrograpis paniculata), meniran (Phyllanthusurinaria Linn.), kunyit ((Curcuma domestica) etc. The easiest visible sign is that the hot season will be followed by seasonal fruit plants which is YIN (cold) i.e : watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum & Nakai), melon (Cucumis melo L.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), blewah (Cucumis melo L. convar. Cantalupensis), etc. Meanwhile medicinal plants that are YIN are Daun wungu (Graptophyllum pictum), buni (Antidesma bunius), zigzag (Pedilanthus titymaloides), awar-awar (Ficus septica), nangka (Artocarpus sp), bakung (Crinum asiaticum), Jarak pagar (Jatropha curcas), belimbing wuluh, patah tulang (Euphorbia hirta), Lantanan (Lantana camara), Soka (Ixora javanica), etc. In cold season (YIN), the used compound is from the YANG plants. This type of plants has hot taste, warm, and sweet i.e. ginger (Zingiber officinale), jintan hitam (Nigella sativa Linn.), kapulaga (Amomum cardamomum), kencur

(Kaempferia galanga L.), lempuyang

(Zingiber zerumbet), etc. There are also ‘hot fruits i.e kelengkeng, rambutan, mangga, dll (normally harvested in December – February). Some medicinal plants with hot characteristic are Rambusa (Passiflora foetida), blustru (Lutfa aegyptica), ginje (Thevetia peruviana), ubi jalar (Ipomoea batatas), dll. Since1999, in Malang 10, revitalization of traditional medicinal plant has been developed. As well as it is in Guluk-guluk, Kabupaten Sumenep, Madura. The initative comes to an idea rehabilitating degraded land in Kabupaten Malang, through ecosystem management concept to give opportunity for community participation, giving incentive from the use of non extractive natural resources, considering ecosystem services within.

Kabupaten Malang is located in East Java Province. Most of the area is a dryland (1.242,81 km2) and forest (1.119,59 km2). Until now about 12.000 hektar of forests in Kabupaten Malang have been converted to agriculture. Unplanted hills created erosion and landslides. The water catchment area which was the biggest water resources has been much degraded. Wana Wisata Husada/Wisata Wanahusada, Malang (Healing Forest for Tourism), Batu Barat, Kabupaten Malang, East Java, 2006. 10

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 2. Best Practices

Gunung Panderman lies in western region of Kota Batu. It becomes freshwater catchment area for people in western region of Batu and some hotels in some regions in Malang. Bukit Seruk is one of hills in Gunung Panderman that is recommended for a place of medicinal plants (1.965 dpl). People call it as ‘Gunung Obat’ (Medicinal Mountain). Durable Medicinal Plant to Climate and Seasonal Change Plants that are not easily influenced by the changing climate are plants having neutral characteristic. These plants are able to used either in cold or hot climate such as: -

Pegagan (Centella asiatica); for neural deseases, grows all the year.

-

Pule (tree), for cleaning blooddetoxifikasi, and dizziness.

-

Kayu manis (Cinnamomum verum); for rheumatic and aromateraphy.

-

Pohon Secang (Caesalpia sappan L.), for breathing illness, including TBC.

-

Sligi (Phylanthus foxifolius) for rheumatic

-

Asam Trengguli (Casia javanica); for constipascy and ambeien.

-

Bungur (Lagerstroemia), contains Pletizole as subtitue of insulin to cure diabetes

-

Bamboo; for flecks, etc.

-

Kembang sepatu (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) for asthma.

4. Cultivication of Medicinal Plant on Marginal Land, for Socio-Economic Improvement The people in Lereng Merapi plant some medicinal plants in marginal land, where other plants can not survive because it is on a slope and covered with other high plants like bamboo which causes minimum sun light. The medicinal plants are ginger (Zingiber officinale), kunyit ((Curcuma domestica), kunyit

kunyit

mangga, kencur (Kaempferia galanga L.), etc. While as food sources, they conserve ganyong (Canna discolor L. syn. C. edulis) and talas (Colocasia esculenta L). Eventhough the temperature has been changing moderately in this area, these plants are still able to grow.

ginger

marginal land

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 3. Innovation

3. Innovation of Biodiversity Conservation on Adapting to Climate Change a. Agro ecosystem Based on best practices, people tried to make innovaton to find suitable food resources in a changed land. These are some rice paddy, trees, and crops that are part of innovation on biodiversity conservation to adapt in climate change. 1. Rice Paddy Varieties in Saline Land Paddy Variety for Saline Land (Pangandaran, Brebes) Through their knowledge, farmers have been trying to find new varieties which able to grow in a saline land. In some coastal areas in Brebes, Central Java, as impact of climate change and human disturbance, the seawater intrude to agriculture land and damage the rice field. As part of adaptation, the farmers plant some rice paddy varieties with endurance to the saline land. They name it as INTRANS variety, planted by local people with particular technique as rehabilitation effort of the agriculture land.

2. Rooftop garden and vertical planting Due to the limited land for gardening or even farming, now people start to use rooftop for planting, because basically any roof surface can be greened. The problem of decreasing land for agriculture as impact of climate change seemingly has found a good small solution. The rooftop garden and vertical planting can support production of urban food, improve air quality and reduce CO2 emissions. 3. Agriculture technique in dry ecosystem In Semau, a small island in East Nusa Tenggara, people start to plant chilli using water drops system to prevent the plant from dryness.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 3. Innovation

b. Marine, Coastal, and Small Islands ecosystem 1. Green Belts and bufferzones Based on best practices in coastal protection through mangrove conservation and life fences, now people at globally initiating few programs for establishment of green belts - includes mangroves, other coastal forest, live fences and trees in home gardens – for sustainable livelihoods and as protective belts in coastal villages. Mangrove greenbelts can provide significant coastal protection from erosion and should be established along erosion-prone coastlines and riverbanks and in areas which experience significant damage from typhoons, tidal surges, cyclones, and geomorphic erosion (Macintosh and Ashton 2004).

2. Regional Marine Conservation Area (Kawasan Konservasi Laut Daerah) As part of integrated coastal area management, government together with NGOs and local community has been developing the concept of regional marine conservation area, where turtle and coral reef conservation are part of the objectives. Although the policy is hardly included as innovation in adapting to climate change, however the conservation practices in these areas will maintain the sustainable use of marine resources in supporting life including in changing climate. c. Forest ecosystem City Forest as replication of lembo In Indonesia, city forest ecosystem has been stated in Government Regulation as part of artificial ecosystem. Some roles of city forest are to modify micro climate, reduce speed of wind, increase long wave radiaton, save the drops of rainwater, as air cooler through evapotransporation, and increase air humidity. Other function of city forest are to prevent grains of dust, polutant gas, as a city ventilator, sun light controller, city lungs, noice prevention, waste controller, erosion controller, stress reducer, genetic conservation, seawater intrusion, and for beautiness of the city. Suitable trees for city forest are Bintaro (Cerbera manghas), Jengkoll (Pithecellobium jiringa), Gaharu (Aquilaria malaccensis), Aren (Arenga pinnata), Asam (Tamarindus indica), Damar (Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Rich), Duku (Lansium domesticum

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 3. Innovation

Corr), Durian (Durio zibethinus), Kapuk (Ceiba pentandra), Melinjo (Gnetum gnemon L.), Matoa (Pometia pinnata), Nangka (Artocarpus heterophyluss), Petai (Parkia speciosa), Pinus, Sukun (Artocarpus atillis), Candle nut or Kemiri (Aleurites moluccana), etc.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 4. Cultural Values and Traditonal Knowledge

4. Role of Cultural Values and Traditional Knowledge on Biodiversity Conservation on Adapting to Climate Change Traditional knowledge play important role in adapting to climate change. It generally refers to the matured long-standing traditions and practices of certain regional, indigenous, or local communities which become their wisdom for survival.

This is particularly true of traditional

environmental knowledge, which refers to a "particular form of place-based knowledge of the diversity and interactions among plant and animal species, landforms, watercourses, and other qualities of the biophysical environment in a given place".

11

While Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) acknowledges its importance in article 8(j): Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices. The knowledge comes from observation on how the nature works on earth. The farmers, people in forest, or fishermen generally have that kind of knowledge. When global warming occurs and nature does not work as it used to, then it is time for us to look back and find out what nature have showed us to adapt on the changing climate. Sasi System Sasi is a harvesting rule arranged by traditional institution and important for fisheries resources management. The rule, supervised by the institution, embodies the main principle of law of certain societies like one in Pulau Kei, Maluku. Basically it is a prohibition in harvesting natural resources from sea, river, and forest, to protect the quality and population of certain resources. Sasi system maintains the sustainability of natural resources. In adapting to climate change where natural resources may be decreasing, this system will help in reducing the loss possibility of the natural resources.

11

Peña, Devon G.,Mexican Americans and the Environment, The University of Arizona Press, 2005. p 198.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 4. Cultural Values and Traditonal Knowledge

Biodiversity Conservation as part of Balinese culture He is called as “Sang Penyelamat Pisang Bali” (the savior of Bali’s Banana) who also has conserved Bali culture. Result of his research is biopesticide for banana desease thus the local people able to continuously practice its local tradition, creating ‘banten’. Fruits are very important to Balinese people because it is an offered component to God in Hindu religion. The offered component with different kind of fruits mixed with meat, flowers, and tuber roots is called banten. There are four types of fruits as the dominant fruits for Hindu ceremonies which are local banana, imported apple, imported mandarin, and local mandarin. 12 Banana, the most dominant fruits for banten, is at the second position as the highest production number in Bali. Since they need these fruits as part of their religion, some people have been trying to conserve it. 13 Not only fruits, animals also important as part of their sacrifice to the God. Aware to need of plants and animals, Balinese people preserve them for the sake of the religious ritual and ceremonies. They show their gratitude to nature in their indigenous way, again through offering and ceremony that of course also create the need for environmental conservation by Balinese people. As example of environmental conservation, a biopesticide has been found as cure of illness of banana tree. Through environmental conservation by Balinese people, the impact of climate change can be easily overcomed since they are used to respond quickly to the changing environment in overcoming the phenomena to keep up the availability of banten. Lembo Lembo is a traditional land use system in East Kalimantan (Sardjono, MA, 1988). It is a traditional lifestyle of a tribe in Kalimantan; the Tunjung and Benuaq Dayak, which has developed since generations. Lembo is not only a miniature scale forest in the rural agro ecosystems, but also has integrated multiple functions in the rural and social life, as part of farming land or settlements. Lembo can be identified as tree covered areas on farmland and/or around the houses of their owners with high species diversity which needs a good knowledge of species combination. 14

Nyoman Parining, I Ketut Widya Bhaskara, Buah-buahan yang digunakan secara dominant dalam Banten di Kelurahan Pemecutan, Kecamatan Denpasar Barat, Kota Denpasar. Agriculture Faculty of Universitas Udayana. 2000. 12

13

Interview with Prof. Dr. Ir. Dewa Ngurah Suprapta, M.Sc. Lecturer at Udayana University, Bali. 2004.

14

M.A. Sardjono, Agroforestry. Universitas Mulawarman & GTZ, East Kalimantan. Forestry seminar, 1988.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 4. Cultural Values and Traditonal Knowledge

Lembo plays an important role in their culture. 15 Some of its products meet their own needs (susbsistence) or can be traded and play an important role in maintaining the local ecological equilibrium. Lembo also has a wide range of functions, from its products, their use, and their economic and socioculture roles. Based on ecological and socioeconomic criteria, the lembo system is undoubtedly suitable (Sardjono MA, 1996). The advantage of the lembo system is it has less dependent on external inputs and capital (and not at all dependent on markets), poses fewer and lower risks, and has been a part of the villagers tradition. Related to adaptation to climate change, lembo plays important role to maintain the surrounding climate, while it also delivers varieties of foods to the local community.

M.A Sardjono, Dipterocarp Forest Ecoystems: Towards Sustainable Development. Editors: Andreas Schulte, Dieter Schöne. Singapore, New Jersey, London, Hong KongWorld Scientific, 1996. 15

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 5. Resume and Conclussion

5. Resume and Recomendation As the world has been created and nature is part of it, every single creature must have their own role. Due to climate change, biodiversity has ability to support the livelihood as well as the traditional knowledge and culture to conserve biodiversity. In agro ecosystem - which plays the most important role for human livelihood - some plants have endurance to grow in such extreme condition such as a dry land, saline land, or even a flooded land. In forest ecosystem, some medicinal plants are able to grow in marginal land. Sago – which is also edible - even can create its own forest ecosystem consisting of particular biodiversity. The forest will maintain its surrounding climate thus the impact of climate change can be reduced. In addition, in coastal ecosystem and small islands - with the increasing of seawater level and a dry and hot land surface during the day - the biodiversity can help to reduce the seawater intrusion and increase the possibility of certain crops to grow in a changing climate. Some traditional knowledge and cultures particularly help people in valuing the nature and biodiversity. Some are still exist and even promoted in modern society, but many of them are vanished and forgotten. The research is completed to increase awareness of people on how important biodiversity is in every aspect of our life as well as in adapting to climate change. It also fulfills our needs on water, energy, health, and agriculture (WEHA) as they are the focus on sustainable development. As conclusion, starting with our hand to conserve biodiversity, like those that have been done by people or local community, may be the easiest and the friendly way in adapting to climate change compare to the use of modern technology and a high cost adaptation method. Therefore, community based biodiversity conservation efforts should be appreciated and promoted.

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Final report KEHATI-Alcoa-IUCN, 11 November 2009 References

References Ariesta, Elly, et.al. Umbi-umbian yang berjasa yang terlupakan. Jogjakarta; Simpul Pangan Jogja and KEHATI, 2004. Bellarby, Foereid, Hastings and Smith. Cool farming: Climate impacts of agriculture and mitigation potential. January, 2008. Hairiah K., et al. Agroforestry on Acid Soils in the Humid Tropics: Managing tree soil crop interactions. Indonesia; CIFOR, 2000. Handayani, Iin P, and Priyono Prawito. Tumbuhan Perintis Pemulih Lahan Kritis; Kiat Petani Membangun Kesuburan Tanah. Jakarta; KEHATI – Agricultural Faculty of Bengkulu University, 2006. McLeod, Elizabeth and Rodney V.Salm. Managing Mangroves for Resilience to Climate Change. Gland; IUCN, 2006. Macchi, Mirjam, Gonzalo Oviedo, Sarah Gotheil, et.al. Indigenous and Traditional Peoples and Climate Change: Vulnerability and Adaptation. Gland; IUCN, 2008. McNeely, Jeffrey A and Paul Spencer Sochaczewski. Soul of the Tiger; Searching for Nature’s Answers in Souteast Asia. New York: Doubleday, c1988. P. Resurreccion, Bernadette, Edsel E. Sajor with Elizabeth Fajber. Climate Adaptation in Asia: Knowledge Gaps and Research Issues in South East Asia. June, 2008. Parining, Nyoman, and I Ketut Widya Bhaskara. Buah-buahan yang digunakan secara dominan dalam Banten di Kelurahan Pemecutan, Kecamatan Denpasar Barat, Kota Denpasar. Bali; Agriculture Faculty of Universitas Udayana, 2000. Peña, Devon G.,Mexican Americans and the Environment. The University of Arizona Press, 2005. Pedoman Pengelolaan Ekosistem Mangrove. Jakarta; Marine and Fisheries Departement, 2008. Purwanto, Y, and Ary P Keim, et.al. Studi Identifikasi dan Karakteristik Bahan Pangan Lokal di P. Yapen. Bogor; Perhimpunan Masyarakat Etnobiologi Indonesia, LIPI, KEHATI, 2007. Rietbergen, Simon, Tom Hammond, Chucri Sayegh, et. al. Island voices – island choices; developing strategies for living with rapid ecosystem change is small islands. Gland; IUCN, 2008. Samsoedin, Ismayadi, and Endro Subiandono. Pembangunan dan Pengelolaan Hutan Kota. Padang; Paper submitted in Researches Expose, 2006. Sardjono, M.A.. Lembo: Sistem Pemanfaatan Lahan Tradisional di Kalimantan Timur. 1990. Sardjono, M.A. Die Lembo-Kultur in Ost- Kalimantan: ein Modell für die Entwicklung Agroforstlicher Landnutzung in den Feuchttropen. Dissertation, Universität Hamburg, 1990.

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Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2003). .Interlinkages between Biological Diversity and Climate Change. Advice on the integration of biodiversity considerations into the implementation of the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol. Montreal, SCBD, 154p. (CBD Technical Series no.10). Sukarsono. Adaptation to Climate Change of Local People in Medicinal Plants Utilization. Malang, 2009. UNDP Indonesia. The Other Half of Climate Change: Why Indonesia must adapt to protect its poorest people. UNDP Indonesia; 2007. Wibisono, Iwan Tri Cahyo, Eko Budi Priyanto, and I Nyoman N Suryadiputra. Panduan Praktis Rehabilitasi Pantai; Sebuah Pengalaman Merehabilitasi Kawasan Pesisir. Bogor; Wetland International Indonesia Program, UNEP, 2006.

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