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Air Pollution Impacts on Crops and Forests A Global Assessment
AIR POLLUTION REVIEWS
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Series Editor: Robert L. Maynard (Department of Health, Skipton House, London, U.K.) Vol. 1:
The Urban Atmosphere and Its Effects Peter Brimblecombe & Robert L. Maynard
Vol. 2:
The Effects of Air Pollution on the Built Environment (Peter Brimblecombe)
Forthcoming: Vol. 3:
Air Pollution and Health (Jon Ayres, Robert L. Maynard & Roy Richards)
Vol. 5:
Indoor Air Pollution (Robert L. Maynard, Mike Ashmore & Peter Brimblecombe)
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Air Pollution Reviews - Vol. 4
ICP
Air Pollution Impacts on Crops and Forests A Global Assessment
Editors
Lisa Emberson Stockholm Environment Institute-York, University of York, UK
Mike Ashmore University of Bradford, UK
Frank Murray Murdoch University, Australia
Imperial College Press
Published by Imperial College Press 57 Shelton Street Covent Garden London WC2H 9HE Distributed by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
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USA office: Suite 202, 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Air pollution impacts on crops and forests / [edited by] Mike Ashmore, Lisa Emberson, Frank Murray. p. cm. — (Air pollution reviews ; vol. 4) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-86094-292-X 1. Crops—Effect of air pollution on. 2. Trees—Effect of air pollution on. 3. Crops—Wounds and injuries. 4. Trees-Wounds and injuries. 5. Crop losses. 6. Trees-Losses. 7. Air quality management. I. Ashmore, M. R. (Mike R.) II. Emberson, Lisa. III. Murray, Frank. IV. Series. SB745 .A388 2003 632'.l-dc21
2002038711
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Copyright © 2003 by Imperial College Press All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher.
Printed in Singapore by World Scientific Printers (S) Pte Ltd
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CONTENTS
Contributors
ix
Preface
xi
Air Pollution Impacts on Crops and Forests Chapter 1 Air Pollution Impacts on Crops and Forests: An Introduction L. Emberson
3
Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Industrialised Countries Chapter 2 Air Pollution Impacts in North America K. Percy
35
Chapter 3 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Europe M. Ashmore
59
Chapter 4 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Japan T. Izuta
89
Chapter 5 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Australia 103 F. Murray
vi Contents
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Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Developing Countries Chapter 6 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in China K Zheng & H. Shimizu
123
Chapter 7 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Taiwan B.H. Sheu &f C.P. Liu
145
Chapter 8 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in India M. Agrawal
165
Chapter 9 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Pakistan 189 A. Wahid Chapter 10 Air Pollution and Vegetation in Egypt: A Review 215 N.M. Abdel-Latif Chapter 11 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in South Africa A.M. van Tienhoven & M.C. Scholes Chapter 12 Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Mexico M.L. de Bauer
237
263
Chapter 13 Disturbances to the Atlantic Rainforest in Southeast Brazil M. Domingos, A. Klumpp & G. Klumpp
287
Chapter 14 Assessing the Extent of Air Pollution Impacts in Developing Countries Region L. Emberson, J. Kuyknstierna & M. Ashmore
309
Contents vii
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Chapter 15 Social and Economic Policy Implications of Air Pollution Impacts on Vegetation in Developing Countries F. Marshall & Z. Wildig
337
Subject Index
357
Plant Species Index
367
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CONTRIBUTORS
Nassar Abdel-Latif Air Pollution R e s e a r c h Department National Research Centre El-Bohos St., Dokki 12311 Cairo, Egypt
Marisa Domingos Institute of Botany Secao d e Ecologia Instituto de Botanica Caixa Postal 4005 01061 970 Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
Madhoolika Agrawal D e p a r t m e n t of Botany Banaras H i n d u University Varanasi 221005, India
Lisa Emberson Stockholm E n v i r o n m e n t Institute at York (SEI-Y) Biology D e p a r t m e n t Box 373 University of York York YO10 5YW, UK
Mike Ashmore D e p a r t m e n t of Environmental Science University of Bradford West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK
Takeshi Izuta D e p a r t m e n t of Environmental a n d Natural Resource Science Faculty of Agriculture Tokyo University of Agriculture a n d Technology Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8509, J a p a n
Maria Lourdes de Bauer Instituto de Recursos Naturales, CP Colegio de Postgraduados Comision d e Estudios Ambientales 56230 Montecillo, Mexico IX
x Contributors
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J o h a n Kuylenstierna Stockholm E n v i r o n m e n t Institute at York (SEI-Y) Biology D e p a r t m e n t Box 373 University of York York YO10 5YW, UK
Chin-pin Liu Division of Watershed Management Taiwan Forestry Research Institute Taipei, Taiwan
Fiona Marshall D e p a r t m e n t of Environmental Science a n d Technology Faculty of Life Sciences Imperial College L o n d o n Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire, UK
Frank Murray School of Environmental Science Division of Science a n d Engineering M u r d o c h University Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia
Kevin Percy Natural Resources Canada Canadian Forest Service — Atlantic Forestry Centre P O Box 4000, Fredericton, NB Canada E3B 5P7
Bor-Hung Sheu D e p a r t m e n t of Forestry National C h u n g Hsing University Taichung, Taiwan
Mieke van Tienhoven CSIR — Division of Water, E n v i r o n m e n t a n d Forestry Technology P O Box 17001 Congella, D u r b a n 4013, South Africa
Abdul Wahid Environmental Pollution Research Laboratory G o v e r n m e n t College University (GCU) Lahore, Pakistan
Youbin Z h e n g Controlled E n v i r o n m e n t Systems Research Facility (CESRF) Environmental Biology Department University of Guelph Bovey Building, RM1212 Guelph, O n t a r i o N I G 2W1 Canada
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PREFACE
Air pollution is a problem which now affects every part of our planet. While the effects of air pollution on human health are the most important concern, the impacts on crop production, forest vitality and biodiversity may also have considerable implications for human welfare. The most serious and most visible air pollution problems across the planet are found in and around major cities and industrial areas. However, secondary pollutants such as ozone tend to reach their highest concentrations at some distance from the urban and industrial centres that are the source of their precursor pollutants. Hence, secondary pollutants may cause significant environmental impacts over large expanses of rural regions. The major local air pollution problems arising from domestic coal combustion, industry and power generation which historically affected Europe and North America are now largely a thing of the past. However, the pollution problems associated with the dramatic increase in vehicle numbers and emissions over the last 50 years still remain a significant issue which require further action. Over the same period, emissions from industry, energy production and vehicles have increased in many regions of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Furthermore, the climate in these regions is often more favourable than that in Europe and North America for the formation of ozone. Field observations and experiments that are described in this book demonstrate visible leaf injury, declines in forest health, and loss of crop yield as a result XI
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xii
Preface
of air pollution problems, in countries such as China, Mexico, Egypt and India. The effects on crop production and forest vitality due to this shift in the global patterns of air pollutant emissions and concentrations remain poorly understood. In many countries, the amount of research is extremely limited and awareness of the impacts caused by air pollution is very low. Air pollutants are known to cause significant effects on crop and forest yields in the absence of any recognisable injury symptoms. Hence, it is quite probable that significant yield losses are occurring in many regions of the world without the problem having been recognised. Such impacts may have very serious consequences, both for the national economy and for the livelihoods of individual farmers, in many countries where industrial and urban development are associated with a rapidly increasing population. However, policies to reduce emissions are often technically demanding and costly, and need to be balanced against a range of other economic and social priorities. This means that information is urgently needed in order to fully assess the possible benefits of reduced pollutant emissions in terms of impacts on crops, forests and the wider natural environment, as well as human health. We hope that this book will contribute both to an increased awareness of the problem and to the development of tools to better assess the impacts of air pollution on crops and forests in all parts of the world. Our aim in this book is to provide the first truly global assessment of the scale of the direct impacts of air pollution on crops and forests. We felt that such an assessment had to be based on the perspectives on the ground from individual countries. Therefore, the core of this book comprises assessments of the problem by experts from 12 different countries on every continent. These contributions describe the evidence of air pollution effects on crop yields and forest vitality in the context of current air pollution emissions and concentrations, and in the context of policies for the management of air quality and natural resources. We are most grateful for the contributions of all these experts in providing a range of different perspectives and views on air pollution problems. We also wanted to place these studies in a broader global framework. Therefore, the book provides an overview of how
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Preface xiii
emission patterns have changed over the last 30 years, a n d attempts to p r e s e n t a global assessment of the scale of b o t h c u r r e n t a n d future i m p a c t s of o z o n e a n d s u l p h u r d i o x i d e . T h i s assessment clearly indicates t h e growing significance of o z o n e as a global constraint o n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n over the n e x t two decades based o n c u r r e n t projections a n d policies. Finally, we aim to place this issue in a wider socio-economic context. This is achieved by evaluating m e t h o d s to translate from biological to socio-economic impacts by quantifying the benefits of air pollution a b a t e m e n t , including non-marketable environmental goods a n d services.
Lisa Emberson Mike Ashmore Frank Murray
Acknowledgements The work contained in this book was coordinated by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI). The work has been developed as part of an activity investigating the impacts of air pollution on crops and forests which forms part of the Programme on Regional Air Pollution In Developing Countries (RAPIDC), funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). We are also indebted to Steve Cinderby, Erik Willis and Lisetta Tripodi for their help with map production graphics and proofreading.
