AIR POLLUTION Health and Environmental Impacts
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© 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4398-0962-4 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Air pollution : health and environmental impacts / editors, Bhola R. Gurjar, Luisa T. Molina, and C.S.P. Ojha. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4398-0962-4 (hard back : alk. paper) 1. Air--Pollution--Health aspects. 2. Air--Pollution--Environmental aspects. I. Gurjar, B. R. II. Molina, Luisa T. III. Ojha, C. Shekhar P. IV. Title. RA576.A49 2010 363.739’2--dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
2009053436
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To “Those Committed to Improving Air Quality across the World”
Contents
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Foreword....................................................................................................................xi Preface.................................................................................................................... xiii Acknowledgments..................................................................................................... xv Editors.....................................................................................................................xvii Contributors.............................................................................................................xix Chapter 1.
Air Pollution: Health and Environmental Concerns.............................1 Bhola R. Gurjar, Luisa T. Molina, and Chandra S.P. Ojha
Section I Air Pollution Monitoring and Modeling Chapter 2.
Air Pollution Monitoring and Source Characterization...................... 19 Anita Lakhani, Rajasekhar Balasubramanian, and Bhola R. Gurjar
Chapter 3.
Air Pollution Modeling: Theory and Application............................... 45 Chandra S.P. Ojha, Marcelo Mena, Sarath Guttikunda, Bhola R. Gurjar, and Wenfang Lei
Section II Air Pollution and Health Effects Chapter 4.
Indoor Air Pollution and Health Effects........................................... 109 Radha Goyal and Mukesh Khare
Chapter 5.
Effects of Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Fuel Use on Women’s Health in India............................................... 135 Twisha Lahiri and Manas Ranjan Ray
Chapter 6.
Health Effects of Urban Air Pollution in India................................. 165 Manas Ranjan Ray and Twisha Lahiri
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Chapter 7. .
Contents
Air Pollutants Exposure and Health Effects during the MILAGRO–MCMA2006 Campaign................................................ 203
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Horacio Tovalin, Olf Herbarth, Martha P. Sierra-Vargas, Bo Strandberg, Salvador Blanco, Libia Vega, Constantinos Sioutas, Juan J. Hicks, Rubén Marroquín, Gustavo Acosta, Marco Guarneros, Vicente Hernández, Elizabeth Estrada-Muñiz, Ivonne M. Olivares, Dora A. Pérez, Yessica Torres-Ramos, Frank Ulrich, Robyn Hudson, Ernesto Reyes, Tracy Rodríguez, Guillermo Elizondo, and Eliseo Cantellano Chapter 8.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Sources, Distribution, and Health Implications............................................... 229 Nirat Rajput and Anita Lakhani
Chapter 9. .
Cellular Mechanisms behind Particulate Matter Air Pollution–Related Health Effects...................................................... 249 Ernesto Alfaro-Moreno, Claudia García-Cuellar, Andrea De-Vizcaya-Ruiz, Leonora Rojas-Bracho, and Alvaro R. Osornio-Vargas
Section III Health Risk Assessment and Management Chapter 10. Emission of Airborne Particulate Matter in Indoor Environments: Exposure and Risk Assessment................................ 277 Rajasekhar Balasubramanian, See Siao Wei, and Sathrugnan Karthikeyan Chapter 11. Estimation of Health Impacts due to PM10 in . Major Indian Cities............................................................................ 297 Prabhakar Nema and Sanjeev K. Goyal Chapter 12. Health Risk Assessment and Management for Air Toxics in Indian Environment.................................................... 311 Manju Mohan and Bhola R. Gurjar
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Section IV Air Quality Management: Techniques and Policy Aspects Chapter 13. The Economics of Air Pollution: Theories, Valuation Methods, and Policy Aspects............................................ 327 Dilek Demirbas
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Chapter 14. Elements of Air Quality Management: Atmospheric Science Tools for Developing Effective Policy................................. 363 Jeffrey R. Brook, Michael D. Moran, William Pennell, and Lorraine Craig
Section V Environmental Impacts of Air Pollution Chapter 15. Assessing Ground-Level Ozone (O3) Impacts to Crops in Parts of Asia and Southern Africa: The Regional Air Pollution in Developing Countries (RAPIDC) Crops Project.................................................................. 421 Lisa D. Emberson, Patrick Büker, Magnuz Engardt, Anna M. van Tienhoven, Madhoolika Agrawal, Mark Zunckel, Kevin Hicks, Håkan Pleijel, Nguyen T. K. Oanh, Lal P. Amgain, Towhid Islam, Syed R.A. Shamsi, G. Anoma D. Perera, Gert H.J. Krüger, and Pieter R. Smit Chapter 16. Impacts of Air Pollution on the Ecosystem and Human Health: A Sustainability Perspective............................................................. 447 Ioan Manuel Ciumasu and Naela Costica Chapter 17. Regional and Global Environmental Issues of Air Pollution............ 493 Luisa T. Molina and Bhola R. Gurjar Index....................................................................................................................... 519
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Foreword Human activities in an increasingly globalized, industrialized, and interconnected world are influencing both air quality and climate change at urban and regional and even continental and global scales. Rapid population growth and increased energy demand are the primary forces causing large quantities of harmful pollutants and greenhouse gases to be emitted into the atmosphere, resulting in serious human health and environmental consequences. Substantial progress has been made over the past few decades to prevent and control air pollution in many parts of the world through a combination of technology improvements and policy measures. Many countries have clean air laws that set emission and ambient air quality standards to protect public health and the environment. These laws have often been successful in both developed and developing countries. However, increasing human activities are offsetting some of the gains and millions of people are being exposed to harmful levels of air pollutants. Air pollution is especially a problem in many cities of the developing world that are producing goods for the global economy. Also, with rising affluence in these cities, there has been high growth in private car ownership, resulting in increased congestion and pollution. In principle, the problem can be solved by using clean technologies. In practice, however, there are large socioeconomic and political barriers. This book is focused on the complex problem of controlling air pollution and mitigating its adverse effects on human health and the environment. It is written by leading experts in the field and addresses many aspects of air pollution, including monitoring and source characterization of air pollution, the theory and application of air quality modeling, health effects and risk assessment, air quality management, and relevant policy issues. The book ends with a regional and global perspective on air pollution. The primary driving force for the design and implementation of emission-control strategies aimed at improving air quality has been the protection of human health within a local or regional area. However, with the growth of multicity “megalopolis” regions in many parts of the world, long-range transport of air pollutants has become a major concern. The regional and global dispersion of pollutants generated locally has been well established in the case of acid deposition and stratospheric ozone depletion. Recently, the long-range transport of tropospheric ozone has increased throughout the northern hemisphere, air pollution and wildfire emissions originating from northern mid-latitudes have given rise to Arctic haze, and atmospheric brown clouds of tiny aerosol particles from anthropogenic emissions have been observed in many regions of the world. The accumulation and dispersion of pollutants, such as tropospheric ozone and airborne particulate matter, not only affect human health and the ecosystem on a local and regional scale, but also influence air quality and the Earth’s climate on a global scale. It is clear that air pollution and climate change are intricately interconnected in terms of sources and effects and should be addressed under one common framework. xi
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The means to make rapid progress to improve air quality and mitigate climate change exist, but strong political leadership with effective multistakeholder participation will be essential to achieve this goal. Regional and international cooperation, with suitable mechanisms for facilitating technology transfer, financial resources, and the strengthening of human and institutional capacities, will be necessary to accelerate implementation of emissions reduction strategies around the world. Air Pollution: Health and Environmental Impacts provides an invaluable and timely contribution to the urgent environmental challenges facing our society today. As illustrated in the book, we need integrated, interdisciplinary approaches to address the effects of human-induced activities. Mario J. Molina San Diego, California
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Preface As a consequence of ever-growing anthropogenic activities and interventions, we humans greatly influence different components of the environment (e.g., air, water, and land resources) and get influenced in return. For example, household, workplace, outdoor, and transportation environments pose risks to human health in several different ways (e.g., people involuntarily breathing in poor ambient air). Throughout the world, therefore, reducing adverse effects attributed to environmental exposures is an important public welfare objective aimed at accruing significant societal benefits. Air pollution is recognized as one of the leading contributors to the global environmental burden of disease. There is extensive scientific evidence of adverse health effects even in countries with relatively low concentrations of air pollution. Air pollution damages terrestrial and aquatic resources, including those of direct economic importance. It is also interwoven with the causes and consequences of global-scale climate change and many other local-scale environmental pressures that confront society, such as poor ambient air quality. In a nutshell, air pollution has strong impacts on both public health and the environment and thus deserves a holistic perspective and integrated policy programs to address the concerned issues. With this perspective, we have produced the present book that has bottom-line information as well as expert knowledge for large audiences, including students, teachers, scientists, policy formulators, executives, engineers, and technocrats dealing with the subject of air pollution and its effects. To meet this objective, we planned and designed the book in such a way that it covers not only the fundamentals of the air pollution problem but also includes field studies and cases from different parts of the world. Thus, the basic premises of the air pollution problem and region-specific uniqueness find a place together in this single book. To help readers appreciate and comprehend the complex problem of air pollution and its adverse effects on human health and the environment in totality, the book’s chapters cover almost all aspects of air pollution, for example, monitoring and source characterization of air pollution, modeling, health effects, environmental impacts, risk assessment, air quality management, and relevant policy issues. For an easy grasp of the subject, the book has been divided into five major sections, namely, Air Pollution Monitoring and Modeling; Air Pollution and Health Effects, Health Risk Assessment and Management; Air Quality Management: Techniques and Policy Aspects; and Environmental Impacts of Air Pollution. We have structured the book so that it can act as a primer for students and also as a reference source for researchers and academics working in the field of air pollution. We have made careful efforts to keep the book free from typos and other errors; yet there is a possibility that some gaps may be identified by attentive readers. We welcome feedback so as to incorporate constructive suggestions and comments in future editions of the book. Bhola R. Gurjar, Luisa T. Molina, and Chandra S.P. Ojha xiii
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Acknowledgments First and foremost, we thank our institutions for providing us conducive working environment to prepare and edit this book. We are thankful to all the contributors who invested their valuable time and intellectual efforts to writing chapters. A number of reviewers helped us greatly improve the manuscript through their comments and suggestions related to individual chapters. We thank all of them, including John C.Y. Chan, Mukesh Khare, Patricia Tord, Juan Felipe Franco Ramírez, Manjola Banja, Sharad Lele, Ravindra Khaiwal, Suman Mor, Charles Kolb, Robert Slott, Linsey Marr, Gerardo Mejia, Benjamin de Foy, and George Hidy. We thank those friends and colleagues, especially Samudra Vijay, who were a constant source of motivation. We thank several researchers, particularly Ajay Singh Nagpure, who willingly helped us format different chapters and put the manuscript in order. Last but not least, we express our deep gratitude to the publishing team (particularly Joseph Clements and Jennifer Ahringer) of CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group), whose full cooperation and patience kept our spirits high enough to meet the various challenges during the preparation and editing of the book. Bhola R. Gurjar, Luisa T. Molina, and Chandra S.P. Ojha
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Editors Bhola R. Gurjar is on the faculty of the Civil Engineering Department of India’s premier technological institution, the Indian Institute of Technology—IIT Roorkee (URL: http://www.iitr.ac.in/~CE/bholafce). He is also Core Faculty in IIT Roorkee’s Centre for Transportation Systems and Centre of Excellence in Disaster Mitigation & Management, and is heading the Max Planck Partner Group for Megacities & Global Change. He holds a PhD in environmental risk analysis from IIT Delhi, and has extensive industrial, teaching, training, and research experience. His present research interests include megacities, air pollution; environmental impact and risk assessment; atmospheric emissions and climate change; and the integrated crossdisciplinary study of science and policy issues of the environment, health, energy, economy, entrepreneurship, technology, infrastructure, and resources—particularly from global change, sustainable development, and risk governance perspectives. Dr. Gurjar is coauthor/coeditor of six books, and has a number of research papers to his credit. He has received several awards and fellowships, including the prestigious Advanced Postdoctoral Research Fellowship of the Max Planck Society (Germany) to support his research tenure (2002–2005) at the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry (MPIC) in Mainz, Germany. On the basis of his outstanding research work at MPIC—Mainz, the Scientific Steering Committee of the global change SysTem for Analysis, Research and Training (START), Washington, DC, USA, honored him with the 2004 START Young Scientist Award. He is also corecipient of The Nawab Zain Yar Jung Bahadur Memorial Medal (best research paper award) from the Environmental Engineering Division of The Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata, for the year 1995–1996. Luisa T. Molina is currently the president of the Molina Center for Strategic Studies in Energy and the Environment (MCE2) in La Jolla, California and principal research scientist at the Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After completing her PhD in chemistry from the University of California at Berkeley, she held teaching and research positions at the Santa Cruz and Irvine campuses of the University of California and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory of the California Institute of Technology. She joined MIT in 1990, where she conducted research in atmospheric chemistry and also served as the executive director of the integrated program on urban, regional, and global air pollution. Dr. Molina’s research interests include molecular spectroscopy, chemical kinetics, and atmospheric chemistry. She has been involved in particular with the chemistry of stratospheric ozone depletion and urban air pollution. She demonstrated experimentally a new reaction sequence that explains how chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) caused the Antarctic ozone hole. Recently, she initiated a multidisciplinary project involving an integrated assessment of air pollution in megacities, aimed at improving the environmental decision-making process through education and the xvii
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Editors
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better use of scientific, technical, and socioeconomic understanding. In the spring of 2003, she led a team of researchers from Mexico, the United States, and Europe to investigate air quality in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA). In March 2006, she coordinated the MILAGRO campaign in Mexico City, the first international scientific project to study megacity air pollution and its regional and global impacts. She is author/coauthor of over 100 archival publications, editor/lead author of the book entitled Air Quality in Mexico Megacity: An Integrated Assessment, and serves as guest editor for several special issues on field studies in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. Dr. Molina has organized and served on many panels and committees addressing global change issues. She has received several awards for her work, including the Volvo Prize in environment in 2004. Chandra S.P. Ojha is a professor in the Civil Engineering Department of India’s premier technological institution—IIT Roorkee. He holds a PhD in civil engineering from Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, UK, where he was a Commonwealth Research Scholar (October 1990 to September 1993). He was also a visiting scholar at Louisiana State University, USA (April–July 2000); an Alexander Von Humboldt fellow at Water Technology Center, Karlsruhe, Germany (December 2001 to July 2002); a guest AvH fellow at the Institute for Hydromechanics, University of Karlsruhe, Germany (January 2002 to July 2002); a visiting professor of civil engineering at AIT Bangkok (August 2004 to November 2004); and a Distinguished visiting fellow of Royal Academy of Engineering at Heriot-Watt University, UK (December 2008 to January 2009). He specializes in the modeling of environmental and water resources systems. He has published about 100 research papers in peer-reviewed journals and supervised/ co-supervised more than 25 PhD theses. He has also coordinated/co-coordinated several international research projects. For example, he was the Indian Project Coordinator for the EU-India River Bank Filtration Network in 2005–2006 and the Principal Indian Investigator for the McGill India Strategic Research Initiative Project in 2007–2008. In addition to the highly prestigious Alexander Von Humboldt fellowship in 2001–2002 and the distinguished visiting fellowship of Royal Academy of Engi neering in 2008–2009, Dr. Ojha received the Young Engineer Award from the Central Board of Irrigation and Power in India in 1996, the Young Teachers Career Award of All India Council of Technical Education in 1997, and the Star Performer for academic excellence by IIT Roorkee in 2006. His research paper awards include the Professor R.C. Singh Gold Medal in 1989, the Nawab Zain Dar Jung Bahadur Memorial Prize in 1992, and the S.S. Sanyal Medal in 2005 from the Institution of Engineers, India; the Shri S.V. Patwardhan Memorial Prize of the Indian Water Works Association and Jal Vigyan Puraskar of Indian Society of Hydraulics in 2007; and the ASCE research paper awards in 2001, 2009, and 2010.
Contributors
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Gustavo Acosta Hospital Juárez de México-SSA Mexico City, México Madhoolika Agrawal Department of Botany Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, India Ernesto Alfaro-Moreno Investigación Básica Instituto Nacional de Cancerología Mexico City, Mexico and Lung Toxicology Unit Pneumology Section Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Leuven, Belgium Lal P. Amgain Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science Tribhuvan University Rampur, Nepal
Jeffrey R. Brook Air Quality Research Division Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate Environment Canada Toronto, Ontario, Canada Patrick Büker Stockholm Environment Institute University of York York, United Kingdom Eliseo Cantellano División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación FES Zaragoza-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City, México Ioan Manuel Ciumasu Centre of Expertise for Sustainable Exploitation of Ecosystems (CESEE) Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Iasi, Romania
Rajasekhar Balasubramanian Division of Environmental Science and Engineering National University of Singapore Singapore
Naela Costica European Centre for Training the Trainers in Ecological Education (CEFFEE) Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Iasi, Romania
Salvador Blanco Centro Nacional de Investigación y Capacitación Ambiental-Instituto Nacional de Ecología Mexico City, México
Lorraine Craig Network for Environmental Risk Assessment and Management University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada xix
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Dilek Demirbas Newcastle Business School Northumbria University Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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Andrea De-Vizcaya-Ruiz Departamento de Toxicología CINVESTAV-Instituto Politéchnico Nacional Mexico City, México Guillermo Elizondo Sección Externa de Toxicología CINVESTAV-Instituto Politéchnico Nacional Mexico City, México Lisa D. Emberson Stockholm Environment Institute University of York York, United Kingdom Magnuz Engardt Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute Norrköping, Sweden Elizabeth Estrada-Muñiz Sección Externa de Toxicología CINVESTAV-Instituto Politéchnico Nacional Mexico City, México
Contributors
Sanjeev K. Goyal National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, CSIR Nagpur, India Marco Guarneros Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City, México Bhola R. Gurjar Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India Sarath Guttikunda Division of Atmospheric Sciences Desert Research Institute Reno, Nevada Olf Herbarth Department of Human Exposure Research and Epidemiology UFZ Leipzig Leipzig, Germany
Claudia García-Cuellar Investigación Básica Instituto Nacional de Cancerología Mexico City, Mexico
Vicente Hernández División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación FES Zaragoza-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City, México
Radha Goyal Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology New Delhi, India
Kevin Hicks Stockholm Environment Institute University of York York, United Kingdom
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Contributors
Juan J. Hicks Departamento de Investigación en Bioquímica y Medicina Ambiental Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Mexico City, México
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Robyn Hudson Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City, México Towhid Islam Department of Environmental Science Bangladesh Agricultural University Mymensingh, Bangladesh Sathrugnan Karthikeyan Division of Environmental Science and Engineering National University of Singapore Singapore Mukesh Khare Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology New Delhi, India Gert H.J. Krüger School of Environmental Science North-West University Potchefstroom, South Africa Twisha Lahiri Department of Neuroendocrinology Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute Kolkata, India Anita Lakhani Department of Chemistry Dayalbagh Educational Institute Dayalbagh, India
Wenfang Lei Molina Center for Energy and the Environment La Jolla, California Rubén Marroquín División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación FES Zaragoza-UNAM Mexico City, México Marcelo Mena Department of Environmental Engineering Universidad Andres Bello Santiago, Chile and Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts Manju Mohan Centre for Atmospheric Sciences Indian Institute of Technology New Delhi, India Luisa T. Molina Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts and Molina Center for Energy and the Environment La Jolla, California Michael D. Moran Air Quality Research Division Atmospheric Science and Technology Directorate Environment Canada Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Prabhakar Nema National Environmental Engineering Research Institute(NEERI) Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, CSIR Nagpur, India Nguyen T.K. Oanh Environmental Engineering and Management School of Environment, Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani, Thailand Chandra S.P. Ojha Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India Ivonne M. Olivares Departamento de Investigación en Bioquímica y Medicina Ambiental Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Mexico City, México Alvaro R. Osornio-Vargas Investigación Básica Instituto Nacional de Cancerología Mexico City, Mexico William Pennell NARSTO Pasco, Washington
Contributors
Håkan Pleijel Applied Environmental Science Göteborg University Göteborg, Sweden Nirat Rajput Department of Chemistry Dayalbagh Educational Institute Dayalbagh, India Manas Ranjan Ray Department of Experimental Hematology Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute Kolkata, India Ernesto Reyes División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación FES Zaragoza-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City, México Tracy Rodríguez División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación FES Zaragoza-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City, México Leonora Rojas-Bracho Instituto Nacional de Ecología Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales Mexico City, Mexico
G. Anoma D. Perera Department of Botany University of Peradeniya Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Syed R. A. Shamsi Department of Botany University of the Punjab, Q.A. Campus Lahore, Pakistan
Dora A. Pérez División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación FES Zaragoza-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City, México
Martha P. Sierra-Vargas Departamento de Investigación en Bioquímica y Medicina Ambiental INER-SSA Mexico City, México
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Contributors
Constantinos Sioutas Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Southern California Los Angeles, California
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Pieter R. Smit School of Environmental Science North-West University Potchefstroom, South Africa Bo Strandberg Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine Sahlgrenska Academy at Göteborg University Göteborg, Sweden Yessica Torres-Ramos Departamento de Investigación en Bioquímica y Medicina Ambiental Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Mexico City, Mexico Horacio Tovalin División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación FES Zaragoza-Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City, Mexico
Frank Ulrich Department of Human Exposure Research and Epidemiology UFZ Leipzig Leipzig, Germany Anna M. van Tienhoven Department of Geography Environmental Management and Energy Studies University of Johannesburg Johannesburg, South Africa Libia Vega Sección Externa de Toxicología CINVESTAV-Instituto Politéchnico Nacional Mexico City, México See Siao Wei Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering National University of Singapore Singapore Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Mexico City, México Mark Zunckel uMoya-NILU (Pty) Ltd. Durban North, South Africa
