AFGHANISTAN – behind the headlines

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MOESGÅRD MUSEUM

AFGHANISTAN – behind the headlines

Introduction

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The History of Afghanistan

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Crafts and trades

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Religion and culture

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Under Taliban Rule

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Refugees

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INTRODUCTION

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- About the exhibition - Facts about Afghanistan - Credits

About the exhibition The September 11 terror attacks on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon and the subsequent US-led bombings in Afghanistan have focused worldwide attention on this country. The stories about the Taliban and Osama bin Laden, civil war, people on the run and the oppression of women have created an image of a medieval country ruled by merciless warlords, but Afghanistan is much more than that. Another Afghanistan Centrally situated on the Silk Road, Afghanistan has always been a meeting place for widely different traditions and cultures, and the turbulent past has left its traces in the mosaic of ethnic groups. In the twentieth century, traditional ways of life have been confronted by rapid urban development. The population has always had to adapt to the turns of history sweeping the country and affecting religion, morals, economy and freedom. When the canons roar, the splendour and diversity of this country is easily forgotten. The afghan collections at Moesgaard Moesgaard Museum has in its stores more than 3000 objects collected by Danish researchers during expeditions and fieldwork in Afghanistan over the 50 years from 1948 to 1998. As a contrast to the dramatic events of the autumn of 2001, we have selected some of these objects to produce an exhibition that should give a broader and more diversified portrait of what Afghanistan is – and has been – behind the headlines.

Facts about Afghanistan Area: approx. 652, 000 km2 Population: approx. 26 M. (uncertain estimate from July 2001, latest census 1979: 15.55 M.) Capital: Kabul (estimated 1.4 M. inhabitants in 1988) Population Ethnic groups according to The Statesman’s Yearbook 2002: · Pashtun 38% · Tajik 25% · Hazara 19% · Uzbek 6% · Turkmen 6% · others (Aimaq, Turkmen, Baluch, Nuristani etc.) 12% Languages: The official languages are Pashto og Dari (Persian). Turkmen and Uzbeks speak Turkic languages. A further 30 other languages and separate dialects are spoken.

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Religion: Sunni-Muslims 84%, Shia-Muslims 15%, others 1% Average life expectancy: 47.3 years Infant mortality (per 1000): 140.6 Illiteracy: 68.5% Climate Temperatures vary widely from summer to winter. In the lowlands summer temperatures reach 45° C, while winter temperatures in the highlands may drop to -50° C. In Kabul, at an altitude of 1800 m., temperatures range between nearly 40° C in the summer and -25° C in the winter. The climate is predominantly continental, with winter precipitation. The easternmost parts of the country are within reach of the Indian summer monsoon. Precipitation in the highlands falls mostly as snow, and the melting snow is very important to the extensive irrigation systems. There are pine- and cedar forests in the eastern Afghan highlands, while the rest of the country is arid, with steppe vegetation and remnants of scattered forest. Widespread timber smuggling threatens several of the remaining forest areas. Economy Currency: Afghani. 5000 Afghani (AFA) = 1 USD (2000) Main occupations: agriculture and animal husbandry Main exports: fruit and nuts, carpets, wool, cotton, Persian lamb (karakul) and opium (the policy on opium is changing in 2002) BNP per capita: estimated at less than 765 USD (2000) The Afghan economy has been strained by many years of war. Moreover, the country has suffered severe draught for several years, with serious consequences for a population where 85 % depends on farming. Favoured by war, the illegal economy has gained vital importance, especially the cultivation of opium poppy and the trade in contraband. The Afghan opium production is estimated to 4600 tonnes in 1999, making Afghanistan the world’s largest opium producer. It is difficult to find reliable statistical data from Afghanistan. Therefore, the information listed above should be taken with caution.

Credits Moesgård Museum wishes to thank the following institutions and persons for support and assistance Århus Kommune, Århus Amt, Det Humanistiske Fakultet ved Aarhus Universitet, Dansk Flygtningehjælp, DACAAR i Peshawar, Den Danske Afghanistan Komite, Nationalmuseet, Tøjhusmuseet, Det Danske Videoværksted i Haderslev, Kim Taylor, Ole Mortensen, Gorm Pedersen, Hans Chr. Jacobsen, Hans Henrik Probst, Nicolai Howalt, Zamina Waziri, Vagn Pedersen, Hawa Waziri, Huma Waziri, Sabavoum Waziri, Suraya Zemar, Toorpikas Nahimi og Arifa Nahimi.

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THE HISTORY OF AFGHANISTAN - Early history - The tribal state - Tradition and modernisation - Pashtunistan - Islam and Communism - The Soviet War - The Civil War

Early history

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Afghanistan’s position at the crossroads of the great Asian culture areas and the trade routes between Europe and Asia has bestowed a unique and diverse cultural heritage on this country. Persian, Greek or Hellenic, Buddhist and Islamic influences mark the area. Archaeological excavations have been crucial in piecing together the early history of the region, and have uncovered impressive art treasures among their finds. Grecian influence In the sixth century BC present-day Afghanistan was part of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire with his victory over its last king, Darius III, in the year 331 BC. Alexander’s enormous realm extended as far eastwards as the Indus valley, but it crumbled rapidly after his death in 323 BC. Alexander’s own rule was too short to leave any lasting impression on the Afghan cultural heritage. However, his realm was replaced by a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms, where cultures mixing local and Greek elements emerged. This was the case in Bactria, originally an important military stronghold for Alexander’s expedition. Bactria retained an independent dynasty of Greek-Bactrian kings until its incorporation into the Buddhist Kushan Empire in the second century BC. The extent of Alexander’s Empire shown on a present-day map.

The Kushan Empire In the second century BC, most of present-day Afghanistan became part of the Kushan Empire, which left its Buddhist heritage reflected in archaeological finds. The rulers of the Kushan Empire exploited their central position on the Silk Road between China and Europe to gain colossal wealth and power. In the 1930s and ’40s, French archaeologists excavated the ruins of Kapisa, the capital of the Kushan rulers. They found impressive art treasures: Chinese silk, glass from Alexandria, Roman bronze statues and ivory carvings from India. The Kushan Empire by the Second Century AD, shown on a present-day map.

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Islamic dynasties - an era of Arabic glory Around 650 AD the Arabs arrived in the area, bringing with them the new Islamic religion, which preached equality and justice. Islam gained a foothold in the entire region in a very short time, and the Arab Caliphate held sway over the region in the following centuries. From the late 10th century, Afghanistan came under the rule of a series of great Islamic dynasties: the Ghaznavids, the Ghorids and the Timurids. During the reign of the Ghaznavids (977-1186), the present city of Ghazni was a centre of high culture and one of the most beautiful capitals in the Islamic world. In 1219 Afghanistan was invaded and devastated by the Mongolian conqueror Chinggis (Ghengis) Khan and in 1404 by Tamerlane, whose Turkic descendants, the Timurids, created a vast empire. Herat, at the centre of this empire, became the capital from 1409, and throughout the 15th century this city was the dominant cultural centre of Central Asia, where science, arts and architecture flourished. During this period arts like miniature painting and book production reached new levels of perfection. The realms of the Ghaznavids, the Ghorids and the Timurids shown on a modern map. Minaret in Ghazni, the capital of the Ghaznavid realm. The Masjid-i-Jami mosque in Herat. The vaulted entrance and the colourful mosaics are characteristic of Timurid architechture.

Safavids and Mughals Babur, a descendant of Chinggis Khan and Tamerlane, established the Indian Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire and the Persian Safavid Empire were rivals for control over the Afghan region between 1500 and 1747. When these empires fell apart, the resulting power vacuum allowed the establishment of Afghanistan as an independent state.

The tribal state

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Until the mid-seventeen hundreds, what is now modern Afghanistan was divided between the Persian Safavid Dynasty and the Indian Mughal Empire. The area was inhabited by various tribes, the largest of whom were the Pashtun. I 1747 the Pashtun tribes around the city of Kandahar chose the commander Ahmad Shah as their king. Ahmad Shah very quickly established a large kingdom under the name of Afghanistan – the land of the Afghans. “Afghan” is a term neighbouring peoples use for the Pashtun. From the very beginning, the political theme that came to dominate the history of Afghanistan was the relationship between the state and the tribes, factions, and ethnic groups of the country. The Durranni Kingdom Having dominated the region for several centuries, the Persian Safavid Dynasty collapsed in the early 18th century, at a time when the Mughal Empire was weakened. Afghan king Ahmad Shah skilfully exploited the political vacuum to extend his rule in the region, creating the Durrani Kingdom. The extent of the Safavid and the Mughal Empires in the early 18th century. The extent of modern Afghanistan is marked in red. The extent of Ahmad Shah’s Durrani Kingdom in the mid-eighteenth century. The extent of modern Afghanistan is marked in red.

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Kabul as capital In an attempt to consolidate the grip on the kingdom, the capital was moved from Kandahar to a more central location, Kabul. Nonetheless, the realm was shrinking because of internal rivalries and incursions from abroad. Afghanistan had become a fragile state, and in the 19th century it became a pawn in the great game between Russia and Great Britain for power and influence in Asia. A buffer state The first British invasion of Afghanistan took place in 1838-42. During this first AngloAfghan war, the British ravaged Kabul’s fabulous covered bazaar. The destruction of the bazaar was avenged when the Afghans massacred the entire British force during its retreat. In 1878-80 the British again invaded Afghanistan to safeguard British India against the Russians, and not until 1896 did the British and Russians agree on where to fix the borders of Afghanistan. This ratified Afghanistan’s status as a buffer state. Satirical cartoon from a British newspaper 1878. The Afghan Amir is caught between the Russian bear and the British lion. The text “save me from my friends” hints at the British explanation for the invasion of Afghanistan that it was an act of friendship towards the Amir.

The iron amir With the peace treaty, the British chose to support the Afghan Amir Abdur Rahman, who subjected all the tribes and peoples in Afghanistan to his rule. The king created a strong standing army and expanded the central and local administrative apparatus, thus enabling the state to collect taxes. The central power was strengthened vis-a-vis tribal self-government. To emphasise his religious legitimacy, the Amir appointed himself “Amir al Mu’minin” – leader of the faithful. Islam became the unifying ideology against internal and external enemies. The “Iron Amir” Abdur Rahman, the king who united Afghanistan and was nicknamed the “Iron Amir” because of his harshness

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Tradition and modernisation

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After the death of Amir Abdur Rahman in 1901, his successors continued the efforts to modernise Afghanistan and strengthen central state power. In the 1920s, the effects of modern development began to show, and the first motor vehicles appeared to rival the camel caravans on the main trade routes. However, modernisation did cause problems. In several areas, traditional political and religious leaders revolted against the imposition of taxes and educational and dress reforms. Modern reforms At his death in 1901, Abdur Rahman left a country in peace and relatively secluded from the world. Inspired by developments in Turkey, his successors tried to reform the country in a modern direction. However, schools for girls, marriage reforms, and the introduction of a constitution that in 1923 moved towards the separation of state and religion aroused the disapproval of religious and tribal leaders. After a tour of Europe in 1928, King Amanullah encouraged women in towns to go unveiled, but the Pashtuns rebelled and Amanullah had to flee. Popular print of King Amanullah (1919-29). Amanullah, with his Western outlook, was highly respected because he insisted on the equality of ethnic groups and abolished slavery. Popular prints were used as wall decorations in homes and shops in the 1960s.

The son of the water carrier During the rebellion of 1929, a regional Tajik leader succeeded in taking Kabul and being crowned as King Habibullah II. For the first time in Afghan history, a king was overthrown by popular revolt, and for the first time it was not a Pashtun who held the throne. The new king, condescendingly called “the son of the water carrier”, was illiterate and soon turned out to be an incompetent leader. Nine months after his accession to the throne he was overthrown and Nadir Shah – a Pashtun – was crowned. Pashtunisation Through the 1930s the pashtunisation of Afghanistan intensified. To strengthen state control over the non-Pashtun areas in the north, Pashtun nomads were granted land in northern and western Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman had used a similar settlement policy in the late 1800s. An academy was established for the Pashto language, and in the constitution of 1931 Pashto and Persian were made national languages.

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Pashtunistan

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After World War II, road construction and other improvements of the infrastructure were carried out with support from both East and West. When India was divided in 1947, Afghanistan demanded that Pashtuns in the new state of Pakistan should be allowed a referendum to decide their national affiliation. This demand led to antagonism between Afghanistan and Pakistan for the next thirty years. The demand for Pashtunistan From around 1950, paved roads were constructed, airports and apartment blocks were built, and irrigation projects established. At the same time the idea of a shared Afghan identity spread among the educated elite. In Kabul’s state boarding schools for secondary education, romantic ideas of nation and people were being closely associated with Pashto culture. The boarding schools recruited their pupils from both Afghan and Pakistani Pashtun, and when Pakistan was established in 1947, Afghanistan demanded a referendum for the Pashtun in Pakistan. They should be allowed to establish their own country, Pashtunistan, or join the Afghan state. The border between Pakistan and Afghanistan cuts right across the Pashtun tribal area (shown in red). The border (Durand line) marks the limit of British expansion to the west in the late 1800s. The antagonism between Pakistan and Afghanistan has repeatedly led Pakistan to close their shared border.

Embargoes on trade As a reaction to the Afghan Pashtunistan policy, Pakistan repeatedly closed its borders to Afghanistan. Trade embargoes and US military aid to Pakistan affected the Afghan economy and forced the Afghans to increase their trade with the Soviet Union. When the Pakistan border was closed from 1961 to 1963, King Zahir Shah wanted to ease the strained relationship with Pakistan. Therefore, the king dismissed his cousin, Prime Minister Daoud, who was very aggressive in formulating political demands to Pakistan. King Zahir Shah (left) discusses affairs of state with his prime minister, cousin, and son-in-law, Prince Daoud. The photo is from the late 1950s, before Daoud was dismissed in 1963. In 1973 Daoud seized power and proclaimed himself president while the king was on holiday in Rome.

Coup against the king In 1964, the king introduced a new constitution permitting free political debate and curtailing the royal family monopoly on important offices of state. At the same time, Afghanistan was given a new administrative structure. The government tried to reduce the influence of ethnic and local groups through a new division of provinces cutting across these concentrations. However, leftist officers were still dissatisfied with the slow pace of change. In 1973 they assisted Daoud in dethroning King Zahir Shah. Daoud abolished the Afghan monarchy and proclaimed himself president of The Republic of Afghanistan.

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Islam and Communism

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From 1963 to 1978, unemployment increased among the well-educated young. Despite continued modernisation, there was an insufficient increase in the number of new jobs. Therefore, the young turned to more radical parties at a time characterised by cold war and ideological debate. The Islamists took offence at the emancipated relationships between the sexes, while the Communists were dissatisfied with the “feudalism” of the countryside. I 1978 President Daoud was overthrown by the Communists in a military coup. External influences Through the 60s and 70s Afghanistan increasingly came under the sway of external influences. In towns and cities people listened to pop music and watched romantic Indian movies. An increasing number of women studied at the university and dressed in Western clothes. Students at the universities and the military academy read Marxist literature in Persian translation, while the Soviet, Chinese and American embassies all distributed propaganda literature. The massive presence of foreign teachers and advisers in higher education, ministries and development projects strengthened external influence on the political climate in Afghanistan. Traditionally, the head of the family decides how its women should appear in public. In the 70s it was increasingly common for young educated women to wear Western clothes and no veil or scarf.

The Islamists At the Theological Faculty in Kabul, the changing relationships between men and women and the declining interest in religion were seen as an offence against Islam. The Islamists wanted Afghanistan to copy neither East nor West, but to find its own place in the modern world in a way faithful to the cultural and scientific traditions of Islam. When Prince Daoud had seized power in 1973 with the help of leftist officers, the majority of the Islamist leaders had fled to Pakistan. Satirical cartoon from the long defunct Kabul Times, April 27, 1970. The cartoon is an ironic comment on developments among the women of Afghanistan.

The Communists seize power After his accession to the presidency, Daoud tried to curtail the influence of tribal and religious leaders. This, however, did not seem to help his popularity with the Communists, who were disappointed with the slowness of land reforms. In the so-called April Revolution in 1978 Daoud was killed and the Communists seized power.

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The Soviet War

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After the assumption of power in April 1978, the Afghan Communists tried to reform agriculture and to curtail the influence of religious leaders. The ill-prepared reforms and the brutality of the Communists caused several instances of popular rebellion. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979 to uphold the Communist government, resistance developed into a 10-year war with unspeakable suffering as a consequence. Brutality and hopeless agrarian reforms For centuries Afghan agriculture and husbandry has been organised by complicated traditional rules regulating relationships between contract farmers, day labourers, and land and estate owners. Immediately after taking power in 1978, the Communists introduced a number of reforms, which were implemented in a haphazard and disorganised manner. They upset the complicated social structures in the countryside, and furthermore, the Communists were extremely brutal toward the common people, whom they considered inferior and ignorant, so that local groups soon began to rebel against the government. The soft belly of the Soviet Union In December 1979 the Communist government was under pressure from internal strife and rural unrest. The Soviet Union was concerned about the prospects of an Islamic regime along the borders of the Muslim republics of Soviet Central Asia. Soviet troops were sent to Afghanistan as “brotherly assistance” to save the Communist regime in Kabul. With this, Moscow hoped that the Soviet Union could protect its soft belly against yet another Islamic government in a neighbouring country. Holy Warriors – Mujahedin In a short time, the Soviet forces and the Afghan army gained control over the larger Afghan towns, but the scattered revolts gradually developed into widespread resistance. In the early 80s the resistance was organised around 75 Islamic political parties in Iran and Pakistan. The Sunni Muslim resistance had its backing in Pakistan, while the Shia Muslims mainly organised their resistance from Iran. In both Pakistan and Iran, the authorities systematically supported specific Islamic parties, so the resistance was eventually dominated by seven Sunni Muslim and three Shia Muslim parties. The Islamic parties saw the resistance as a holy war – Jihad. The resistance fighters were, therefore, holy warriors – Mujahedin. With the inscription “God is great” the shield protects the Mujahedin against Soviet fighter helicopters. The hand holding the shield comes out of a map of Afghanistan bearing the inscription “Holy War”. “Rise and do your patriotic duty as did your father before you!” The poster portrays resistance against the Soviet Union as a continuation of the fight against the British.

Cruel civil war The resistance fighting developed into a cruel civil war, and a growing number of Afghans joined the Islamic parties and their resistance groups. The Communist-led Afghan government army and the Soviet forces dominated the towns, while the resistance groups controlled villages and mountains. The resistance received US and Saudi Arabian support via Pakistan, and by the late

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80s they caused the Soviet Union such massive human and economic losses that the great power withdrew its forces in 1989. The war cost around 1 million Afghan lives, 3-5 million Afghans fled to neighbouring countries, and 14,000 Soviet soldiers lost their lives. Beside direct human losses, the war resulted in millions of land mines left behind, extensive destruction of subterranean irrigation systems and an impossible political situation.

The Civil War

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The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 left a power vacuum in Afghanistan, and the various resistance groups began – assisted by neighbouring countries – to fight one another in an endless civil war. Foreign interests and internal antagonism During the struggle, the leaders of the resistance groups had become dependent on – and susceptible to influence by – neighbouring countries and their agendas. Pakistan favoured a peaceful, friendly Afghanistan dominated by ethnic Pashtun with good relations to Pakistan, while Iran wanted the Persian speaking population and the Shiite Hazara to have more influence. When it was apparent that the Communist regime would fall, the Soviet Union supported parts of the government army in joining the resistance groups, the aim being to protect Central Asian states against Islamic fundamentalism. The conflicting interests of neighbouring countries, personal animosity between leaders, and ethnic and religious antagonism between resistance groups sustained a tense political climate. Civil war and lawlessness In 1992, the resistance groups conquered Kabul. Shortly after the assumption of power, however, internal fighting broke out. The remains of the Communist army joined the Islamic parties in shifting alliances and coalitions, warring in a disintegrating Kabul, while local commandants laid the rest of Afghanistan waste with taxation, crime and lawlessness. Street scene from Kabul 1975 Street scene from Kabul 2001

Taliban seizes power In 1994 the ultra-religious Taliban movement appeared in southern Afghanistan. Taliban pacified the local commandants and created peace and security in the conquered areas. When in 1996 the Taliban closed in on Kabul, the former enemies among the resistance groups joined forces to form a united front against the Taliban. This was the beginning of the war between the so-called Northern Alliance and Taliban.

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Two main characters in the civil war

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More than anyone else, the Tajik leader Ahmad Shah Massoud, »the Lion of Panshir«, personifies resistance against the Communists. He was a splendid guerrilla leader and successfully maintained control of his home area, Panshir, during the ten years of Communist rule. Massoud represented the party »Jamiat-i-islami«, the Islamic association, and he was Minister of Defence in Burhanuddin Rabbani’s government, when the Mujahedin held Kabul in 1992. From 1992 to 1996 Massoud fought in the civil war between different Mujahedin groups. From 1996 to his death on September 9 2001, two days before the terror attack on the USA, Massoud was the leading commander in the Northern Alliance. He was killed in a bomb assault supposedly planned by Osama bin Laden, probably with the intention of weakening the Northern Alliance before possible American attacks. Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, leader of the Pashto Islamic party, »Hezb-i-islami«, was one of the most important Mujahedin leaders. His significance was not least due to his close connections with the Pakistan intelligence service, ISI, who supplied him with economic and military assistance from the USA and Saudi Arabia. From 1992 to 1996 Hekmatyar earned notoriety for his ruthless and merciless rocket attacks on the capital. After the emergence of the Taliban movement in 1994, Hekmatyar lost support from Pakistan, and he is presently (autumn 2001) without noteworthy influence.

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CRAFTS AND TRADES - Crafts and trades - The bazaar - Agriculture - Nomads

Crafts and trades

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Afghanistan has always been a centre of trade between people of different cultural backgrounds. For millennia camel caravans have carried their heavy burdens through the barren steppes and wild mountains with their pack of silks, spices, gems and animal products. The bazaars of Afghanistan were important junctions on the caravan routes where different ethnic groups met to trade. Today, different crafts and trades are still associated with specific ethnic groups. Ethnic groups and traditional trades The predominant occupation in Afghanistan is agriculture, and we find farmers among Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen and many other Afghan peoples. Specialised industries and roles in society are more specifically associated with particular ethnic groups. Many Tajiks are craftsmen or traders in towns, and Tajiks were formerly prominent in public administration. Sikhs and Hindus were important in the textile trade and in the financing of trade. Hazaras in towns are known to make a living as day labourers. Turkmen are regarded as the best carpet weavers. Pashtun and Turkmen are associated with pastoral nomadism. The bazaar as a meeting point The association of ethnic group with occupation is a simplification. Nonetheless, it does reflect important aspects of the cultural diversity of Afghanistan. This diversity is most apparent in the town bazaars - still commercial centres for contact and inspiration. Two young Hazaras hope to be hired to carry goods at the Ghazni bazaar.

The bazaar The bazaar is the trade and crafts quarter of town, separated from the more closed and private residential areas. The bazaar is divided into different areas for different crafts. In larger towns there are streets for shoemakers, coppersmiths, silversmiths, leather workers etc. In other bazaar areas there are streets for food sellers. Here you will find fruit sellers, bakers, butchers, fishmongers, and there are separate streets with necessities such as flour, salt and cloth. The traders and merchants are organised in guilds, each with its own leader. The guilds refer their origins to religious founders, “pirs.” 13

Modernisation and specialisation The modernisation initiated by the Afghan state resulted in specialised workshops and factories for cotton textile production, mining of coal, salt and lapis lazuli, and (from 1967) gas production. Many factories were established in the 1930s and flourished in the 1950s and 1960s. Crafts disappear With increasing access to factory-made goods, a number of crafts threaten to disappear. Factory-made nylon rope has made rope makers redundant, and the large caravanserais have been changed into workshops for auto mechanics. Nowadays, you will find electricians, radio mechanics, cassette tape sellers and shops with plastic in the bazaar, but the bazaar is still divided into areas for each type of goods. The Blacksmith Coppersmith from Ghazni with tin-plated goods.

Agriculture

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85-90% of the Afghan population live from farming, even though only 12-15 % of the country can be cultivated. The most important crops are wheat, barley, rice, legumes and maize. Furthermore, grapes and fruit-trees are grown. Mulberries are popular, and the leaves of mulberry trees are used as fodder for larvae in silk production. In northern Afghanistan there used to be an industrial production of cotton and sugar. Since the early 1980s, opium poppies have become an important source of income for many farmers. Each type of crop is grown where local soil and climate conditions match its particular needs Irrigation The majority of Afghan farmland needs artificial irrigation. Some fields can be cultivated without irrigation where snow and rain bring sufficient water. Irrigation takes place either by leading canals from rivers and streams to the fields or by drawing ground water through subterranean canals, “karezes”. When ground water is found on a slope, a long row of shafts is dug and connected by a subterranean canal. The canal comes out in the village, where the water is led to the fields. Water rights are arranged communally by the village farmers, who agree on the number of hours each farmer is allowed to draw water from the canal. In spring, the subterranean canals need repairs after possible collapses during the winter. The work is done by a travelling specialist and a team of day labourers from the village.

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Traditional techniques Most of the farmland is divided into smallholdings. Farmers use traditional cultivation techniques based on millennium-old experience. In the 1960s tractors and modern equipment came into use – especially in northern Afghanistan, along the Helmand River in the south, and around Jalalabad in the east. Still, the majority of Afghan farmers must manage with manual- and animal power. Crafts in agriculture Farmers depend on specialised craftsmen for house building and repair of tools. In larger towns there are still blacksmiths and carpenters, while weavers, turners and potters have disappeared. They were made redundant by cheaper and stronger factorymade products from Pakistan and Iran. Itinerant craftsmen, day-labourers and nomads will often help in the harvest. Traditional pottery along with many other crafts has lost ground to imported factory-made products of metal and plastic.

Nomads

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· Travelling with your home · Exchange with sedentary people · Nomads and the modern state The vast uncultivated steppes and mountain areas of Afghanistan serve as pasture for herds of sheep and goats. Most of these animals belong to the various nomad groups. Nomads migrate with their herds between highland summer pastures and lowland winter pastures. Depending on their specific needs, nomads use either camels, donkeys or oxen to carry the necessities they bring along. From the 1960s, motor vehicles have increasingly been used as the means of transportation. Travelling with your home As itinerant people, nomads depend on that their belongings – and their home – can be transported. Afghan nomads live in the West Asian »black tent« made of goat hair or in round tents such as the Mongolian felt yurt. Animal products are used for many purposes. Milk from small livestock and from cows is used for butter, condensed buttermilk and cheese. Meat is only for festive occasions. Skin is used for bags and rope, while wool is spun, woven or felted and used for blankets, carpets, clothes and transport sacks. Black goat hair tent »kigdei«. Summer camp for pastoral pashtun nomads near Kabul.

Exchange with sedentary people The nomads are in continuous contact with sedentary people. They exchange or sell animals and animal products in towns or villages in return for agricultural products, cloth, iron- and copperware. 15

Itinerant craftsmen and traders visit the nomad camps, and nomads get occasional employment in harvest work or in vineyards. When nomads take these types of work, they are paid with a share in the harvest. There is a mosaic of service and exchange links between nomads, villagers, craftsmen and trading townspeople – an ancient pattern of interaction. Nomads and the modern state With the modernisation of Afghanistan, and the resulting bureaucratisation, the number of “free” nomads decreased. Many nomads tried other career opportunities in transport and trade. Others began to buy land. Becoming a land owner is seen as the ultimate success by many nomads. During the wars of the last decades, the number of nomads has increased again, because mobility means security. Round felt tent »kherga« with painted mats. Firozkohi Aimaq semi-nomads in summer camp in the Hari Rud valley, Chagcharan.

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RELIGION AND CULTURE - Islam in Afghanistan - Tribal tradition - Popular lore - Music - Tales

Islam in Afghanistan · · · ·

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Sunni and Shia Islam Sufism Islamists Islam in daily life

Like other religions, Islam expresses fundamental views of reality that create order in life for the faithful. Religion is associated with positive emotions, explains life and places the believers in a meaningful community of faith. Islam came to Afghanistan between 650 and 900 AD and has had a decisive influence on the history of the country. Sunni- and Shia Islam Sunnis have always dominated in the Afghan area, but since the 1500s, Shiites have been a substantial minority. Sunni refers to the sunna of the prophet – traditional accounts of his example – that marks the Sunni way of following Islam. Shia means party and refers to the son-in-law of the prophet – Ali’s party, “shi’at Ali”. The two branches differ in their understanding of such aspects as religious authority. The Sunni Muslims emphasise decisions by the religious community, while the Shiite have a hierarchical structure with leadership by descendants of the prophet. Through most of Afghanistan’s history, Sunnis and Shiites have lived relatively separately. However, the Taliban – who are Sunni – have repeatedly attacked the Shiite Hazara since 1994. They legitimise the attacks as holy war, just as Amir Abdur Rahman did in his day. Sufism Sufism is an Islamic tradition focused on the relationship between God and each human being. Aided by various techniques, involving prayer, singing, ecstatic dance, meditation or isolation, the believer wishes to relate directly to God. In Afghanistan Sufism is represented by three main traditions and many local variants, each of which is headed by a “pir” (pious man). The followers recognise their “pir” as a man with holy power, “baraka”, in which others can share. This power is held to live on after the death of the “pir”, and is connected with his grave. Followers seek holy graves to gain a share in the holy power. Leaders of different Sufi schools have been important actors in modern Afghan history – not least in war and conflict.

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Islamists Islamism denotes a religious ideology where Islam and the Koran represent the total social system. Islamism gained a foothold in Afghanistan in the 1960s, but not until the Communist takeover in 1978 did the Islamist ideology win acceptance in the wider population. The resistance was legitimised as a fight against the decadence of city life. Thus, Islamism is more than ever associated with norms of social interaction, and the decrees of the Taliban put into extreme practice this view of Islam as a collection of rules for interaction. Islam in daily life Even though Islam is not a unified institution in Afghanistan, the Afghans are content to follow its religious practice as a matter of course. Islam marks daily life with its rhythm of prayers, annual festivals, and life-cycle events – birth, circumcision of boys, weddings and funerals. Furthermore, Islam demands that the faithful strive to follow its five pillars: the creed, the five daily prayers, fast, alms and a pilgrimage to Mecca. During prayer, one may not touch the bare ground. If a carpet or a shawl is not available, a vehicle will do.

Tribal tradition

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· Freedom and equality · Sighs from the heart Tribal traditions in Afghanistan give directions for the management of life. Different ethnic groups largely share the same traditions. An important theme is the issue of honour, and tradition prescribes the honourable way of dealing with specific situations While religious precepts refer to God’s will, the prescriptions of tradition are closely connected with shared ethnic and local understanding. Traditions concern courage, will, love, the relationships between friends and between enemies – and the relationship with the land. Tradition is not written, but retained and confirmed in everyday conversations, narratives and poetry. Freedom and equality “Pashtunwali” is the Pashtun designation for honourable behaviour. The concept of honour is linked with the ability of a man to protect his mother, wife, sisters and daughters, his ability to defend his land and property and the ability of his family to provide hospitality. The crucial point in tribal tradition is the notion that all men of the same age are equal. The prominent men of a village make decisions. They discuss internal conflicts and local political issues, and discussions continue until the community reaches unanimous decisions.

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The notion of equality is reflected in conflicts between men of similar age level, who compete for prestige. Thus, the Pashto word for cousin, “tarbur”, also means enemy or rival Even if tribal tradition prescribes blood vengeance for defamation, most conflicts are settled peacefully. Sighs from the heart The Pashtun love to tell and listen to tales, proverbs and poems. Tales are mostly about family relations, great battles and unfulfilled love. The proverbs deal with features of the human character such as foolhardiness or vanity, and thus express the constancy of human nature. Poetry, often composed by women, describes the ideals of manhood and the virtues – honour, courage and righteousness – that a young girl seeks in her lover. Poetry also deals with the distance between dreams and reality and, therefore, they often appear as controlled bursts of emotion, sighs from the heart. I hope to meet you on a narrow path – if you are shy, I will take your hand. The World is an empty bazaar – life is sorrow and worry. How can you be but brave and courageous – you, who were fed by your Pashtun mother’s breast. He will triumph by the sword whose love is waiting at home There are two joys in this world, my loved one’s lips and my old blunderbuss. The guns are cracking, but I am struck by your longing eyes.

Popular lore

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· Holy graves · Spirits and evil eyes Islam and tribal tradition is important for self-esteem and for relationships with other people. Popular lore is the part of tradition that explains how to protect yourself against supernatural forces. Popular lore is closely connected with mysticist Islamic tradition – Sufism. To protect oneself, one can seek holy men, “pirs”, and holy graves, and carry amulets with quotations from the Koran. Holy graves According to most interpretations of Islam, each person has a direct relationship with God through prayer. Nonetheless, it is customary and quite common to visit holy graves and ask deceased holy men to intercede in cases of disease, barrenness and marital problems. The holy men gain their status from a pious life, recognised achievements or from falling in holy war. At the holy grave you seek healing for disease and bodily flaws.

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Spirits and evil eyes When illness and misfortune strikes, it is common to seek explanations connected to concrete experiences. If one’s way of life has challenged fate, one may fall victim to illness and misfortune caused by spirits. Pregnant women, newborn infants and young people in puberty are the most vulnerable to spiritual influences. “Evil eyes” are held to be a real force. When people with evil eyes praise children, livestock or property, it can be dangerous. Evil eyes can be an inherent personal property and a result of passing envy. Amulets with verses from the Koran are used to protect against spirits and evil eyes. It is believed that coloured ribbons, bells and pearls of turquoise have the ability to distract spirits and evil eyes. Therefore, you often see Koran verses hanging from the rear mirror of a car, domestic animals with coloured ribbons around their necks, and children wearing amulets. Coloured ribbons distract the evil eyes believed to cause illness.

Music

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· Styles · Singers and musicians · Listen to the music from the exhibition Music has always had a special status in Afghanistan. Even though musicians traditionally had low social status and local religious leaders banned music and dance as immoral, music has always been important in daily life and on festive occasions. Styles The different musical styles relate to different regions and are known as, for instance, “Herati”, “Kandahari”, “Kabuli”, and “Logari”. Generally, the oldest traditions are found in the north and west among groups connected to Iran and Central Asia. In the southern and eastern parts of the country music is very much inspired by classical Indian music and Indian film music. Important forms of folk music are “landai”, “ghazal”, and “charbait”, used as accompaniments to poems. The poems are mostly about separations of lovers and about unattainable love. Despite the fact that religious leaders have recurrently dissociated themselves from music, the pupils of the religious schools in eastern Afghanistan have their special “talebi” style, combining song and dance. Singers and musicians Singing in public is especially a feature of holidays. At weddings, you can encounter men dressed as women, who sing and dance, while women would sing at events such as childbirth festivities. Likewise, two types of professional musicians are widespread in Afghanistan. One is the barber, who is often the local musician, “dalaq”. The other is the religious street singer, “mada”, who mostly performs in the bazaar, preferably outside the teahouse, where he will sing to the accompaniment of the long necked lute, the “dambura”. 20

Listen to the music from the exhibition Listen to the sound of the instruments on display or the tones of a local orchestra. Interactive music display from the exhibition can be also be found on the web address http://moesgaard.hum.au.dk/af040401.html Below you will the accompanying text in English. Mullâï 1) Students and pupils sing a so-called mullâï, a typical song for village priests (mulla = priest). The song is of the ghazal type. 2) Recording from the village of Diwa, Lower Alishing, Laghman, Eastern Afghanistan, 1954/55. Talibî 1) Students sing a talibî, a special song for religious students to accompany dance. You can appreciate the relaxed atmosphere prevailing in the company of young men singing together. Tambûr 1) Tambûr is a long-necked lute which, along with the dambura (a smaller two-stringed lute) is a widespread music instrument in Afghanistan. The tune played is an Eastern Afghan mashrigî. Robâb 1) The national instrument, robâb, is played. Recording from Kabul Radio, 1955. Sarang and tabla 1) The picture shows a sarang, a bow instrument with a tone strongly reminiscent of Indian music. The sarang has many strings, some of which are never actually played, but resonate when the instrument is played. This creates the peculiar sound. The technique is familiar from the Indian zither and the Turkish saz. Recording from Kabul Radio, 1955. 2) The tabla is always played in pairs. Here you hear them as accompaniments to the sarang. Dotar and chang 1 + 2) Kazakhs in Herat (western Afghanistan) playing the long-necked lute with two strings, the dôtar, and the chang (Jew’s harp). The Kazakhs are originally refugees from Bokhara. Picture: Dôtar player. 3) Dhol-o-surnai The widely used surnai is a pipe not unlike a clarinet. The surnai is accompanied by a big drum, dhol, on this recording. Photo: A local orchestra from Herat 21

Orchestra 1 + 2 + 3) Orchestra Two local orchestras from the Herat area in western Afghanistan. They use a number of different instruments accompanied by song. Some of the instruments are on display. The recordings are from Chisht-i-Sharif, western Afghanistan, 1954.

Tales · · · · · · ·

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The alternative Never know when it might come in useful Whose truth? The value of thruth The smuggler The fool Judgement

Mullah Nasrudin is a popular figure in popular tales in Afghanistan. He is widely known from Europe to China and several countries claim to be his home. The Nasrudin stories are humourous, and with surprising points that often turns conventional thinking upside down. In the exhibition tales are read aloud in Danish – use the headphones. The Alternative I am a hospitable man,’ said Nasrudin to a group of cronies at the teahouse. ‘Very well, then – take us all home to supper,’ said the greediest. Nasrudin collected the whole crowd and started towards his house with them. When he was almost there, he said: ‘I’ll go ahead and warn my wife: you just wait here.’ His wife cuffed him when he told her the news. ‘There is no food in the house – turn them away.’ ‘I can’t do that, my reputation for hospitality is at stake.’ ‘Very well, you go upstairs and I’ll tell them that you are out.’ After nearly an hour the guests became restless and crowded round the door, shouting, ‘Let us in, Nasrudin.’ The Mulla’s wife went out to them. ‘Nasrudin is out.’ ‘But we saw him go into the house, and we have been watching the door all the time.’ She was silent. The Mulla, watching from an upstairs window, was unable to contain himself. Leaning out he shouted: ‘I could have gone out by the back door, couldn’t I?’ Never know when it might come in useful Nasrudin sometimes took people for trips in his boat One day a fussy pedagogue hired him to ferry him across a very wide river. As soon as they were afloat the scholar asked whether it was going to be rough. ‘Don’t ask me nothing about it,’ said Nasrudin. ‘Have you never studied grammar?’ ‘No,’ said the Mulla.

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‘In that case, half your life has been wasted.’ The Mulla said nothing. Soon a terrible storm blew up. The Mulla’s crazy cockleshell was filling with water. He leaned over towards his companion. ‘Have you ever learnt to swim?’ ‘No,’ said the pedant. ‘In that case, schoolmaster, ALL your life is lost, for we are sinking. Whose Truth? Laws as such do not make people better,’ said Nasrudin to ‘’the King; ‘they must practise certain things, in order to ‘ become attuned to inner truth. This form of truth resembles apparent truth only slightly.’ The King decided that he could, and would, make people observe the truth. He could make them practise truthfulness. His city was entered by a bridge. On this he built a gallows. The following day, when the gates were opened at dawn, the Captain of the Guard was stationed with a squad of troops to examine all who entered. An announcement was made: ‘Everyone will be questioned. If he tells the truth, he will be allowed to enter. If he lies, he will be hanged.’ Nasrudin stepped forward. ‘Where are you going?’ ‘I am on my way’, said Nasrudin slowly, ‘to be hanged.’ ‘We don’t believe you!’ ‘Very well, if I have told a lie, hang me!’ ‘But if we hang you for lying, we will have made what you said come true!’ ‘That’s right: now you know what truth is – YOUR truth!’ The Value of Truth ‘If you want truth’, Nasrudin told a group of Seekers who had come to hear his teachings, ‘you will have to pay for it.’ ‘But why should you have to pay for something like truth?’ asked one of the company. ‘Have you noticed’, said Nasrudin, ‘that it is the scarcity of a thing which determines its value?’ The Smuggler Time and again Nasrudin passed from Persia to Greece on donkey-back. Each time he had two panniers of straw, and trudged back without them. Every time the guard searched him for contraband. They never found any. ‘What are you carrying, Nasrudin?’ ‘I am a smuggler.’ Years later, more and more prosperous in appearance, Nasrudin moved to Egypt. One of the customs men met him there. ‘Tell me, Mulla, now that you are out of the jurisdiction of Greece and Persia, living here in such luxury—what was it that you were smuggling when we could never catch you?’ ‘Donkeys.’

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The Fool A philosopher, having made an appointment to dispute with Nasrudin, called and found him away from home. Infuriated, he picked up a piece of chalk and wrote ‘Stupid Oaf’ on Nasrudin’s gate. As soon as he got home and saw this, the Mulla rushed to the philosopher’s house. ‘I had forgotten’, he said, ‘that you were to call. And I apologize for not having been at home. Of course, I remembered the appointment as soon as I saw that you had left your name on my door.’ Judgment When the Mulla was a judge in his village, a dishevelled figure ran into his court-room, demanding justice. ‘I have been ambushed and robbed,’ he cried, ‘just outside this village. Someone from here must have done it. I demand that you find the culprit. He took my robe, sword, even my boots.’ ‘Let me see,’ said the Mulla, ‘did he not take your undershirt, which I see you are still wearing?’ ‘No he did not.’ ‘In that case, he was not from this village. Things are done thoroughly here. I cannot investigate your case.’

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UNDER TALIBAN RULE - Cultural heritage destroyed - The Buddha statues in Bamiyan - School and leisure - Seven years with the Taliban - Taliban decrees - The fall of the Taliban

Cultural heritage destroyed

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· Kabul Museum · The edicts of the Taliban · The looting Vandalism against temples, religious statues and works of art for ideological or doctrinal reasons is not restricted to the Muslim world, but has a long history in Europe as well as in Asia. The Muslim ban on depiction of all living beings has been used through history to justify the destruction of cultural treasures – in Afghanistan, as elsewhere. Since the early 1990s war and looting have been equally serious threats to the cultural treasures of the country Kabul museum Kabul Museum, the first national museum in Afghanistan, was opened in 1919 with collections of manuscripts, miniatures, arms, and works of art that had belonged to the royal family. In 1931 the museum moved to its present domicile in Darulaman, seven kilometres from the city centre. From 1922 onwards the collections were extended with finds from archaeological excavations in Afghanistan, and before the civil war it had one of the finest and most comprehensive collections of items from more than 50,000 years of west, south, and central Asian culture history. The looting The looting of the museum began when the Mujahedin seized power in 1992, and it gained momentum after May 1993, when a grenade hit the museum, devastating the upper galleries, and damaging windows and doors. In the following months rival Mujahedin factions systematically looted the museum - often with detailed instructions from Pakistani and Afghan antique dealers. It is estimated that in four years, the majority of the museum collections disappeared. Many of the stolen objects ended up with wealthy private collectors in Europe, Pakistan, and Kuwait. The edicts of the Taliban When the Taliban conquered Kabul in 1996 looting was restrained. The regime declared that the country’s cultural treasures should be protected against destruction, but that this protection should not apply to the pre-Islamic cultural heritage. In February 2001 the government went a step further and ordered a systematic destruction of all statues of non-Islamic gods. The most controversial and well-known example is the Buddha statues in Bamiyan, which were destroyed in March 2001 despite international protests.

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The Buddha statues in Bamiyan

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In 327 B.C. the armies of Alexander the Great invaded northwestern India and what is now Afghanistan. After Alexander’s expeditions, Hellenistic kingdoms emerged and Buddhism gained ground, paving the way for a Greco-Buddhist mixed culture in the Gandhara area where Bamiyan was an important trading city. The gigantic Bamiyan Buddhas from the 3rd -5th centuries AD are the best-known examples of Gandhara art. The two statues, with a height of 53 and 38 metres, respectively, were carved from rock walls and covered with a mixture of straw and mud for the modelling of their faces. Afterwards one was painted red and the other blue, and they were decorated with gold. Their niches were covered in fresco paintings. In the 7th century AD, Chinese pilgrims reported what an impressive sight the Buddhas were to the pilgrims and traders who passed through the Bamiyan valley on their Silk Road journeys. And in the 1960s and ‘70s, the valley with the Buddhas was a popular attraction for the thousands of Western tourists who visited Afghanistan. The largest of the Buddhas is discernible in the niche. Until March 2001, it was the world’s largest portrayal of Buddha. The rock walls around the statues were a complex of corridors, dwellings and holy places used by the Buddhist monks of the land of Gandhara.

The Buddhas have been exposed to a bit of everything. They have been ravaged several times – for instance in 1747 when, during a military campaign, the Persian King Nadir Shah Afshar ordered their faces sawn off. The local population has practiced target shooting at the statues as a New Year’s entertainment, and in the middle of the 1990s Mujahedin factions used the area around the largest Buddha as an ammunition depot. The face and part of the body of the largest Buddha, whose face was destroyed in 1747. Note the folds in the dress, a typical case of Hellenistic inspiration in Gandhara art.

In February and March 2001, the Taliban destroyed the two large Buddha statues and thousands of small Buddhist figurines, stating that the Buddhist heritage was idolatry. Initially, the Taliban had declared that the country’s entire cultural heritage should be protected – a statement that could be construed as an attempt to buy political goodwill in the West. Nonetheless, the UN tightened sanctions on the Taliban. At the same time, the US refused to recognise the Taliban government unless it consented to hand over Osama bin Laden (suspected of the terror attacks on the American embassies in Tanzania and Kenya). Therefore the destructions in Bamiyan were probably a political manifestation.

School and leisure · · · · ·

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Play Leisure Modernisation and the schools The effects of war on schools Country schools

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Play From around the age of four, boys and girls begin to take part in the work of grownups. Boys help in the fields and tend domestic animals, while girls look after younger siblings and help with cleaning and cooking. When there is time for play, boys and girls play separately. Girls play tag and hide, while boys play softball, fly kites, shoot with slingshots and challenge one another in trials of strength. Many youngsters in the countryside play volleyball on a marked field with net and a leather-ball – precisely as we know the game in Europe.In addition, time is passed with cards, board games like Checkers and perhaps a game of chess. From 1996 to 2001 the Taliban banned almost all games, because they were seen as unIslamic activity. However, the ban had little effect in rural areas. Leisure Many of the games of childhood are reflected in the leisure pursuits of grown men. Hunting quails and ducks with a shotgun can be seen as a continuation of childhood hunting of small birds with a sling, slingshot or traps. Birds are not only seen as food, they are also caged as pets. Other leisure interests in Afghanistan are flowers and music, and leisure time is also spent on family visits and outings. In some regions good friends get together on cold winter evenings to sing religious songs. Modernisation and the schools When King Amanullah began to set up a modern state school system in the 1920s, there were only a few (Koran) schools in Afghanistan. King Amanullah established new secondary schools and girl’s schools in Kabul and other larger towns. Education of girls caused a rebellion of tribal and religious leaders, who toppled the king in 1929. Despite the revolt, the development of the school system continued from the 1930s onwards. In 1945, there were 93,000 pupils in the Afghan schools, and in 1978 the number had reached 1 million. Nearly all villages had access to a school at that time. The gender distribution in schools varied considerably. In 1977-78, 38% of the students in Kabul’s schools were girls, while in the Pashtun tribal areas only 2% were girls. The effect of war on schools The war between communists and Islamists in 1979 initiated the destruction of the Afghan school system. Local populations and the Islamists viewed school education as Communist propaganda and burned more than 2000 schools all over Afghanistan. Among the schools that were spared, many stood empty because the populations had fled. With the Taliban government from 1996 to 2001 the remaining teaching activities were further hampered because women teachers were not allowed to teach. Country schools Regardless of all upheavals in Afghanistan, it has always been a tradition that village mullahs taught children in the mosque. Here, both girls and boys received religious instruction and elementary literary skills.

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Seven years with the Taliban · · · ·

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God’s invincible warriors The Pakistan connection Islamic parties in Pakistan Women in house arrest

“Taliban”, the movement of religious students, appears on the political and military scene in Afghanistan in 1994. Within two years the movement gains control over all of southern Afghanistan and, in the autumn of 1996, the Taliban take the capital, Kabul. The movement gives as grounds for its success its orthodoxy, sense of justice, courage, and piety. Analysts, however, agree that the military triumphs are primarily due to Pakistani and Saudi-Arabian support. In the five years with Taliban control over Kabul and most of Afghanistan, the movement becomes infamous for brutal suppression of women, barbaric punishment, absurd bans on music, kite flying and songbirds, for the destruction of Afghanistan’s cultural heritage and massacres of prisoners of war and civilians – but it was also known for creating peace and security in the areas under control. God’s invincible warriors The origin of the Taliban is not well understood. The movement itself refers to selective, if not mythical, presentations of the historical facts concerning the conquest of Kandahar in 1994. According to the myths, Mullah Omar assembled a following of religious students to liberate the war-fatigued population from corrupt resistance leaders. As one of its first achievements, a lightly armed group of Taliban freed a girl, kidnapped and abused by a local commander. After that, increasing numbers of volunteers rallied around the movement, which quickly seized power in Kandahar. The stories about orthodox, incorruptible and pious religious students give this Pashtun movement its religious legitimacy among the southern Afghan Pashtun, who see the movement as “God’s invincible warriors”. 28 year-old Taliban guard near Khost. Like most of the Taliban, he grew up in a Koran school, a “madrassa”.

The Pakistan connection Observers explain the initial Taliban victory with reference to massive support from various institutions in Pakistan and economic aid from Saudi-Arabia. The Pakistan intelligence service supplied the Taliban with military advice, arms, and large numbers of pickup trucks financed by Arabian states. The use of pickup trucks gave the Taliban unique mobility on the miserable Afghan roads. It allowed them to launch rapid surprise attacks, when local commanders could not be bribed or threatened into capitulation. ISI supported the Taliban, hoping that the movement would create a peaceful Afghanistan, capable of acting as a reliable ally in Pakistan’s conflict with Hindu India. A peaceful, safe Afghanistan could also stabilise Pakistan’s economy by increasing opportunities for trade with Central Asia.

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Islamic parties in Pakistan The Taliban acquired men via the Islamic parties in Pakistan, who consider the Taliban as a just alternative to corruption and inefficiency. The parties run Koran schools, “madrassas”, where the Taliban recruited the majority of its soldiers. In the Koran schools, Afghan boys from the refugee camps were taught a fundamentalist understanding of Islam and elementary skills in the use of arms. It is presumed that the powerful regional smuggler mafia supports the Taliban financially, not least to ensure its own freedom of movement and protection from local gangs of robbers on Afghan roads . Two Taliban at the outskirts of the town of Peshawar in Pakistan. Many of the Taliban soldiers are recruited from Koran schools near the Afghan refugee camps in Pakistan. After taking Kabul in 1996, the Taliban becomes a visible force in the refugee camps, where they harass girls’ schools and women not wearing the burqa.

Women in house arrest Before the Taliban seized Kabul in 1996, it declared its intention to be only to ensure peace and safety until a legitimate government could be installed. The promises not to take political leadership were put to shame. The political ambitions of the Taliban were clearly expressed when Mullah Omar claimed religious authority as “Amir al Mumi’nin” – the leader of the faithful. As soon as the Taliban had taken the capital, they began to close the remaining girls’ schools and to issue decrees curbing women’s freedom to move in public. The Taliban decrees made daily life increasingly difficult for the many educated and westernised women, especially in Herat and Kabul, and the situation also became hopeless for many war widows. Many women were held in a form of house arrest with no way of making a living for themselves and their children – and with limited opportunities for social contact with other people. The Taliban used a special religious police called “The Department for the Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice” to enforce its many prohibitions against kite flying, songbirds, cockfights, clattering women’s shoes, short beards and “Titanic hair”. The common city population found the prohibitions absurd and ridiculous, and met the prohibitions with fear and silent contempt.

Taliban decrees

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A sample of Taliban decrees relating to women and other cultural issues, after the capture of Kabul, 1996 quoted from Ahmed Rashid: Taliban. The Story of the Afghan Warlords. Pan Books 2001: Appendix l (This translation from Dari was handed to Western agencies to implement; the grammar and spellings are reproduced here as they appeared in the original.) l. Decree announced by the General Presidency of Amr Bil Maruf and Nai Az Munkar (Religions Police.) Kabul, November 1996. Women you should not step outside your residence. If you go outside the house you should not be like women who used to go with fashionable clothes wearing much cosmetics and appearing in front of every men before the coming of Islam. Islam as a rescuing religion has determined specific dignity for women, Islam has val-

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uable instructions for women. Women should not create such opportunity to attract the attention of useless people who will not look at them with a good eye. Women have the responsibility as a teacher or co-ordinator for her family. Husband, brother, father have the responsibility for providing the family with the necessary life requirements (food, clothes etc). In case women are required to go outside the residence for the purposes of education, social needs or social services they should cover themselves in accordance with Islamic Sharia regulation. If women are going outside with fashionable, ornamental, tight and charming clothes to show themselves, they will be cursed by the Islamic Sharia and should never expect to go to heaven. All family elders and every Muslim have responsibility in this respect. We request all family elders to keep tight Control over their families and avoid these social problems. Otherwise these women will be threatened, investigated and severely punished as well as the family elders by the forces of the Religions Police (Munkrat). The Religious Police (Munkrat) have the responsibility and duty to struggle against these social problems and will continue their effort until evil is finished. 2. Rules of work for the State Hospitals and private clinics based on Islamic Sharia principles. Ministry of Health, on behalf of Amir ul Momineen Mullah Mohammed Omar. Kabul, November 1996. 1. Female patients should go to female physicians. In case a male physician is needed, the female patient should be accompanied by her close relative. 2. During examination, the female patients and male physicians both should be dressed with Islamic hijab (veil). 3. Male physicians should not touch or see the other parts of female patients except for the affected part. 4. Waiting room for female patients should be safely covered. 5. The person who regulates turn for female patients should be a female. 6. During the night duty, in what rooms which female patients are hospital-ized, the male doctor without the call of the patient is not allowed to enter the room. 7. Sitting and speaking between male and female doctors are not allowed, if there be need for discussion, it should be done with hijab. 8. Female doctors should wear simple clothes, they are not allowed to wear stylish clothes or use cosmetics or make-up. 9. Female doctors and nurses are not allowed to enter the rooms where male patients are hospitalised. 10. Hospital staff should pray in mosques on time. 11. The Religious Police are allowed to go for control at any time and nobody can prevent them. Anybody who violates the order will be punished as per Islamic regulations. 3. General Presidency of Amr Bil Maruf. Kabul, December 1996. 1. To prevent sedition and female uncovers (Be Hejabi). No drivers are allowed to pick up women who are using Iranian burqa. In case of violation the driver will be imprisoned. If such kind of female are observed in the street their house will be found and their husband punished. If the women use stimulating and attractive cloth and there is no accompany of close male relative with them, the drivers should not pick them up. 2. To prevent music. To be broadcasted by the public information resources. In shops, hotels, vehicles and rickshaws cassettes and music are prohibited. This matter should be monitored within five days. If any music cassette found in a shop, the shopkeeper should

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be imprisoned and the shop locked. If five people guarantee the shop should be opened the criminal released later. If cassette found in the vehicle, the vehicle and the driver will be imprisoned. If five people guarantee the vehicle will be released and the criminal released later. 3. To prevent beard shaving and its cutting. After one and a half months if anyone observed who has shaved and/or cut his beard, they should be arrested and imprisoned until their beard gets bushy. 4. To prevent keeping pigeons and playing with birds. Within ten days this habit/ hobby should stop. After ten days this should be monitored and the pigeons and any other playing birds should be killed. 5. To prevent kite-flying. The kite shops in the city should be abolished. 6. To prevent idolatory. In vehicles, shops, hotels, room and any other place pictures/ portraits should be abolished. The monitors should tear up all pictures in the above places. 7. To prevent gambling. In collaboration with the security police the main centres should be found and the gamblers imprisoned for one month. 8. To eradicate the use or addiction. Addicts should be imprisoned and investigation made to find the supplier and the shop. The shop should be locked and the owner and user should be imprisoned and punished. 9. To prevent the British and American hairstyle. People with long hair should be arrested and taken to the Religious Police department to shave their hair. The criminal has to pay the barber. 10. To prevent interest on loans, charge on changing small denomination notes and charge on money orders. All money exchangers should be informed that the above three types of exchanging the money should be prohibited. In case of violation criminals will be imprisoned for a long time. 11. To prevent washing cloth by young ladies along the water streams in the city. Violator ladies should ‘be picked up with respectful Islamic manner, taken to their houses and their husbands severely punished. 12. To prevent music and dances in wedding parties. In the case of violation the head of the family will be arrested and punished. 13. To prevent the playing of music drum. The prohibition of this should be announced. If anybody does this then the religious elders can decide about it. 14. To prevent sewing ladies cloth and taking female body measures by tailor. If women or fashion magazines are seen in the shop the tailor should be imprisoned. 15. To prevent sorcery. All the related books should be burnt and the magician should be imprisoned until his repentance. 16. To prevent not praying and order gathering pray at the bazaar. Prayer should be done on their due times in all districts. Transportation should be strictly prohibited and all people are obliged to go to the mosque. If young people are seen in the shops they will be immediately imprisoned.

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The fall of the Taliban

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· The war between the Taliban and the Northern Alliance · The Taliban and the USA · After September 11 2001 Until the international alliance against terrorism initiated its air attacks on Taliban positions in Afghanistan on October 7 2001, the Taliban had the upper hand in the continuous war against the remaining resistance groups, who had united in the so-called Northern Alliance. The air raids led by the Americans weakened the Taliban, who lost control over the town of Mazar-i-Sharif on November 1. After that major segments of the Taliban military apparatus fell apart, and on November 13 the Northern alliance could move into Kabul after the withdrawal of the Taliban from the city. A few Taliban units held their positions in Kunduz in the north and in Kandahar in the south. Analysts were, however, certain that the role of the Taliban in Aghanistan had ended. The war between the Taliban and the Northern Alliance In the years between the conquest of Kabul in 1996 and its fall in 2001, the war between the Northern Alliance and the Taliban weaved back and forth along various front lines in northern and central Afghanistan. In 1997, 2000 Taliban were lured into an ambush and massacred by a commander who pretended that he would hand over the town of Mazar-i-Sharif to the Taliban. The following year, the Taliban killed between 2000 and 5000 civilians after recapturing the town. It had gradually become common knowledge that Muslim volunteers from Pakistan and other countries were part of the Taliban units. Many of the ‘Afghan Arabs’ were trained by the alleged terrorist Osama bin Laden, who developed a warm friendship with Mullah Omar. The Taliban and the USA Until 1996-97, mutual understanding marked the relationship between the Taliban and the USA. The American government supported an American oil company in its plans to build an oil and gas pipeline from Turkmenistan via Afghanistan to Pakistan. After 1996, the American government – under pressure from feminist groups in the USA – began to criticise the Taliban for offences against human rights. In 1998, following the terrorist attacks on the American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, the USA tried in vain to make the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden. Subsequently, the US launched cruise missiles against presumed Osama bin Laden training camps in East Afghanistan. After September 11 2001 After the terrorist attack on the USA on September 11 2001, the US intensified its pressure on the Taliban, who still refused to hand over bin Laden. On October 7, the international alliance against terrorism initiated aerial bombardments of the presumed hideouts of the Taiban and Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan. The bombardments weakened the Taliban, and on November 9 the Northern Alliance seized Mazar-i-Sharif. On November 13 the Northern Alliance moved into Kabul after the Taliban had fled. The fighting continued around Kandahar in the south and Kunduz in the north, but the reality was that the Taliban had ended its role in Afghan history. Taliban soldier posing for the photographer at a roadblock in Khost. According to his own statement, he has fought at the front 20-30 times.

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REFUGEES - The refugee situation - Danish aid efforts

The refugee situation

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· Streams of refugees · The refugee camp as village · Emergency shelter camps Since the early 1980s, more than 3.5 million Afghans have fled their country – away from war, hunger and lack of opportunities for education and work. About 1 million Afghans live as refugees in camps in Afghanistan. An estimated 2.6 million Afghans remain in the neighbouring countries of Iran and Pakistan (Autumn 2001). Large numbers of refugees with higher education have gained access to North America, Europe, and Australia. Streams of refugees The streams of refugees very clearly reflect political events in Afghanistan. In the 1980s rural populations fled because of Communist punitive actions for surprise attacks by resistance groups. According to unofficial estimates, around 6 million people fled from Afghanistan in the decade after the Soviet invasion - a fourth of the entire population. From 1989 to 1992, the communists fled, fearing vengeance as resistance groups were about to take the capital. From 1992 to ‘96, the population of Kabul fled from rocket attacks on the city by the Islamic parties, while others fled to protect themselves from looting. After Taliban’s seizure of Kabul in 1996, a large part of the remaining educated population fled the fiendish decrees of the Taliban. Since 1996 people have fled from areas near the battle lines between the Taliban and the Northern Alliance. The refugee camp as village The majority of Afghan refugees in neighbouring countries live in refugee camps. Today the first camps function largely as villages. However, the refugees own no land, and many families live in miserable circumstances. Around the town of Peshawar in north-western Pakistan, many Afghan refugees make a living as taxi-, bus-, and lorrydrivers. In many of the old refugee camps there are small bazaars with food, textiles, doctors, dentists, and even body-building centres. Advertisement for a dentist in the Peshawar bazaar. The oldest refugee camps today function largely as small villages.

Emergency shelter camps Until the autumn of 2001 refugees were still arriving in Pakistan from front zones in Afghanistan. The new refugees were assigned to barren areas without water and with appalling sanitary conditions. Here they live in thin tents that neither protect against daytime temperatures of 45º C in summer nor against the freezing temperatures of a winter night.

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Danish aid efforts

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· DACAAR · DAC Since the war began to destroy Afghanistan in earnest in the early 1980s, a great many aid organisations have tried to improve conditions for the Afghan population with health projects, road construction, water supplies, school construction, mine-clearing, educational programmes and distribution of relief aid. Denmark supplies aid to Afghanistan through the organisations DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees) and DAC (Danish Afghanistan Committee). These organisations work in the fields of water supply, construction of schools and health care. Despite the difficulties caused by political upheavals, both organisations have achieved good results through close cooperation with local populations. DACAAR DACAAR was established in 1984, and the organisation is governed by a board representing the Danish Refugee Council, The Danish Association for International Co-operation (MS), and ASF, Danish People’s Aid. From 1990 to 2000 DACAAR has installed 23,000 wells in towns and villages in Afghanistan and in Afghan refugee camps in Pakistan, supplying 3.5 million people with clean drinking water. In addition, the organisation has been in charge of renovating 134 school buildings in Afghanistan. Finally, the organisation runs an embroidery project as a help to economic independence for women in Afghan refugee camps. As far as possible, DACAAR makes use of local labour. In 1999, DACAAR employed 650 Afghan engineers, construction workers/technicians, chauffeurs and mechanics, along with a comparable number of local people on a day-to-day basis in concrete projects. DACAAR is primarily financed by the EU, DANIDA and the UN. General secretary Dad Muhammed in DACAAR’s Peshawar office.

DAC The Danish Afghanistan Committee was established in 1984, and already the following year the organisation sent the first team of doctors and nurses to war areas and refugee camps in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Since 1984, DAC has been involved in projects involving the treatment and prevention of illness and the education of health care personnel. In western Afghanistan DAC has built up a health care system to serve approx. 180,000 people. In the past year (2001), the committee has had 80,000 patient consultations in the province of Herat. DAC receives support from DANIDA and the Danish pools and lottery funds . The AFRIDEV or INDUS hand pump has been important for the improvement of drinking water supplies in Afghanistan. DACAAR’s factory in Pakistan has produced 36.000 hand pumps from 1988 to 2000. Most of these are used in Afghanistan and in refugee camps in Pakistan. The appearance of the 1:4 scale model of the Indus pump does not reveal what is so special about it. An old fashioned suction pump pulls the water up be means of a vacuum, and the limit of its water lifting capacity is 10 metres. The Indus pump has the capacity to lift water from 40 to 60 metres below the ground, because a lifting rod with a valve goes all the way to the bottom of the well pipe.

The exhibition is presently being updated with information and photos from November to July 2002

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