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NEW GUINEA RE SEARCH BULLETIN Numbe r 11

LAND TENURE AND LAND USE AMONG THE MOUNT LAMINGT ON OROKAIVA

Max R imo l d i A s s i s te d by C romwe l l B urau and Rob e r t F er ra r i s

Ap r i l 1966

Pub l i shed by the New Guinea Re s earch Un i t , Au s t ra l ian Na t iona l Un iv e r s i ty , G . P . O . B ox 4 , Canb er ra , A . C . T . and

P . O . Box 779, Por t Mo r e sby , Papua - New Gu inea

AUSTRALIAN NAT IONAL UNIVERS ITY Re s e arch S choo l o f P ac i fi c S tudi e s New Guine a Re s e arch Uni t C ommi t t e e

S i r J ohn C rawford , Cha i rman , D ir e c tor o f t h e School J . W . D av i d s on , De p artment of Hi s t o ry and G ove rnme n t H . C . B r o o k f i e l d , Departmen t o f Geogra phy Ann C hown in g , Departmen t o f Anthrop o l o gy and S o c i o l o gy E . K . F i s k , Dep a r tmen t o f E c onomi c s R . G . C ro c omb e , N ew Guine a Re s e arch Uni t

Edi t o r , New Guinea Re s e arch Bul l e t i n R . G . C ro c ombe E d i tor s o f thi s i s s ue D . G . B e t t i s on and R . G . C r o c ombe

Ap r i l 1966

Contents

1

F o r ewor d Chap ter 1 .

I n t r o duc t ion

Chap t er 2 .

The sub s i s t enc e e c onomy a. b. c. d. e. f. g.

Chap t e r 3 .

3

C l ima t e and s o i l s T h e cu l t iva t ion cyc l e Hunt ing a nd f is h in g L iv e s to c k E c onom i c tr e e s E qu ipmen t Labour

Land t enu re and s o c ia l s tru c ture a . The tr ib e and c lan as t e rr i to r i a l o r p o l i t ic a l un i t s b . The h i s t ory o f l o c al s e tt l ement c . Loc a l i z e d d e s c en t g r oup s d . P a t t erns o f l andhold in g s e . Land u s e a n d mobi lity f. LocaLorgaiiizatioti andc land.._trans fe:r;s

Cha p t e r 4 .

29 39 47 62 65 71

The c a sh e c onomy a . I n c ome and exp end i ture b . Emp l oym ent c . C ommer c ia l a g r icu l ture

C hap t e r 5 .

13 14 21 22 23 25 25

76 81 83

The l and and e c onomic d ev e l o pment

a . S h i f t ing cu l t iva t ion and r e s ident ia l s tab i l i ty b . D ev e l opmen t s r e l a te d t o l and t enur e c . E c onomic inc ent iv e s

i

94 95 98

ii App end ic e s A. B. C. D. E.

The ident i f i c a t i on o f ' th e t r ib e ' The l o c a l c o - op era t ive v en ture Mon thly ra infa l l for Awa l a 1 9 5 5 - 62 ( inch e s ) P lan t emb l em s C a s e s o f l and trans f e r s

B ib l iography

104 107 109 1 10 111 1 18

Map s 1 . S ivepe and e nv irons 2 . S iv e p e l an dho l d in g s a nd garden s i t e s

5

40

D iagrams S c h ema o f ma j o r l o c a l m igra t ions 1 900 - 1 9 50 A g enea l ogy o f the s amp l e S e l ec te d g enea l ogy ( i) S e l ec te d g en ea l o gy ( i i)

44 52 113 115

Tab l e s 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10 .

F o o d plant s p e r hou s ehold C u r r en t gar den a r e a s R i gh t s t o e c onomic tre e s T ime pa t t e r n s (6 week s) Righ t s t o land c ur r en t ly c u l t iva t ed b y the s amp l e Inc ome o f 1 2 hous eho l d s Exp en d i tur e b y 1 2 hou s eho l d s C a sh va l u e and a c qu i s i t ion o f hambo and d i Y ea r s s p en t i n employment Typ e s o f f o rmer emp l oyment o f hou s eh o l d h e a d s

17 19 25 28 70 78 79 80 81 82

F o r ew. o rd The New Gu inea R e s earch Uni t ' s current progra� inc l ud e s a c ompara t iv e s tudy of chang ing agr icul tura l and s ocia l s y s t em s among a numb er o f group s o f th e Orokaiva p eople o f Papua ' s No r thern D i s t r ic t . A w i d e var i ety o f schemes for th e d ev e l opment of agric ul tural land ha s b een in troduc e d ther e , e s p ec ia l ly over the l a s t d e c a d e . A s group s to be s tud ied , s amp l e s were cho s en which curr ent ly d i f f e r in the ir s y s t ems o f land t enur e , s o c ia l organiza t ion and manag ement o f l abour r e s ourc e s - t o name the mo r e s tr iking g en e ra l a r e a s of d i f f er enc e w i thout men t ion o f fac t o r s wh ich may b e c on s tan t . F or th e p r e s en t r ep o r t f i e l dwor k wa s c onduc t ed a t S iv ep e v i l lage ( a l s o known a s 'S ive ) dur ing Dec emb er 1 9 62 a n d Janua ry , F eb rua ry and ea r l y Mar c h 1 9 63 wi th a b r i ef v i s i t a ga in in May 1 9 63 . Th e b a s ic sub j ec t o f our s tudy wa s a s amp l e of 50 v i l l a g e r s . Work in th e f ie l d was shar ed by Burau , F errar i s a nd R imo ld i . Of the r e s u l t s wh i c h ar e p r e s en t e d b e l ow , the sub s tanc e o f the ob s erva t ions on typ e s of s ub s is t enc e c ro p s a nd a s s o c ia te d m e thod s o f c u l t iva t ion a nd on the t ec hniques c ur r en t ly u s e d i n the hu sbandry and produc t ion of l ives t o c k and o f c a sh - c ro p s at S iv ep e 1 i s the c on tr ibu t ion o f F er ra r i s . He a l s o prepared the p r e l im inary d ra f t s o f map s f r om wh ic h he d id mo s t o f the b a s ic c a l c u l a t ion s of s i z e s o f landho l d ing s and a r ea s under c ul t iva t ion . Among o th e r ta s k s in the f i e l d , Burau had th e ro l e o f inte r ­ p r e t er . H e a l s o c la r i f ied many a s p e c t s o f the r e la t io n o f th e Oroka iva to the i r l a nd and c on t r ibuted p o int s to mo s t p a r t s o f the rep o r t . Our thanks a r e due to the peop l e o f S iv ep e f o r their ho s p i ta l i ty and c o - op era t ion , t o Mr and Mrs C . E . S ea r l e , who in many way s p rov ided va l uab l e a s s i s tanc e , to M r and Mr s R . Chee tham , t o the s ta f f of the Depa r tment of ,D i s tr ic t Adm in i s tra t ion , the Na t iv e Land s C omm i s s ion a n d o f the Ang l ican Mi s s ion a t Agenahambo and Sa s emba ta , who a l l gave gener ous h e l p . For informa t ion and d i s cus s ion we are indeb t ed to th es e p e op l e , to Mr H . P lant , Mr R . Sp inks and e s p ec ia l ly t o Mr G . Hogb in , Mr P. Kr inks a nd Mr E . Wadde l l . S e e Chap t e r 2 , Sec t ions b . and c. and ,cha p ter 4 , Sec t ion c . 1

2 We were f o r tuna t e in the ext ens ive a s s i s tanc e and guidanc e wh ich we r ec e ived from Dr R . G . C ro c ombe in c onduc t ing the surv ey and a t a l l s ta g e s in the pr epara t ion of the manus c r ip t . D r s B e t t i s on , B r o o kf i e l d and B r own a l so r ea d dra f t s o f th i s r ep o r t and w e a r e gra t eful f o r the ir c ommen t s wh ich w e found va l uab l e in r ev i s ing the manu s c r ip t . We w i sh a l s o to a c knowl edg e the c o - op era t ion o f the S ta t i s ­ t ic ian , Bureau of S ta t i s t ic s , Papua , who mad e ava i l ab l e th e da ta from the Food and Agr ic u l tur e Organ iza t ion Surv ey , and of the trus t e e s of the M i tc h e l l L ibrary , Sydney , who gav e p e rm i s s ion to q uo te from F . E . W i l l iam s ' paper s in the i r c o l l ec t ion .

Chap ter

1

Introduc t ion There is no l o c a l c ons ensus a s to wh ich p e op l e s in the Nor th ern D i s t r ic t shoul d be r ega rded a s Oroka iva ( s e e W i l l iams. 1:930': 1 - 4) , but a l l the p eo p l e s c onc erned r e c ogn i z e tha t they have a r e la t iv e l y un i f o rm c u l ture and s p ea k mutua l ly inte l l ig ib l e d ia l ec t s o f one language . The p eop l e in th i s c ulture area numb e r at leas t 2 5 , 000 . A l though they d i d no t hav e an inc lus ive name f o r them s e l v e s unt i l 10roka iva ' wa s introduc e d b y E urop ean s , they g enera l ly d r ew the d i s t inc t ions among thems e lv e s b e tween r iver p eo p l e , s a l t wa ter ' p eop l e , and inland p eop l e ( umo - ke , eva embo and p er iho ) . Ther e a r e wid e - s p r ea d tra d it iona l b e lie f s dea l ing w i th the c ommon o r i g ins no t onl y of the s e d i f f erent c a t e go r i e s of p eop l e , but a l s o o f mu tua l ly ho s t i l e tr ib e s , the l arg e s t p o l it ic a l uni t s among them , and o f the v a r i o u s d ia l ec ta l g roup ing s and l o c a l c u l tura l var ian t s , wh ich c o r r e s pond to a l imi t e d ext ent w i th the po l i ti c a l d iv i s ion in to tr ibe s . l Our s tudy o f S iv e pe wa s d e s igned to c omplement a s tudy o f l and , wor k and p r o duc t iv i ty a t Inonda v i l l a g e ( Cr o c omb e and Hogb in; l963) and o ther r e l a t e d s tud i e s in the area (Dakeyne -�-19;6.5; Howl e t t, 196 5; C r o c omb e 1 9 6 4 ; and Chee tham) . We a t t emp t no gener a l c ompar i s on w i th the r e s u l t s o f the o th er s tudi e s a t this s ta g e . B ec au s e l and t enure prob l em s were c en tra l to our inv e s t igat i ons , the group s a t I nonda a nd S iv e p e wer e cho s en from v i l la g e s in the Higa turu Na t iv e Loc a l Government Counc i l a r ea whic h is o c c up ie d b y abou t 1 2 , 000 o f t h e Oroka iva . I n 1 9 5 6 th i s c ounc i l a do p t ed a s c heme t o r e g i s t e r ind iv idua l t i t l e to pa rc e l s o f l and wh ich wou l d b e a l l o c a t ed by land-ho l d ing group s to ind iv i dua l memb e r s f or u s e a s c a sh - c rop gar d en s . T h e s ch eme h a d enc oun t ered s ev era l

1

S e e W i l l iams E9-30:155; W . 4 7 , 1 40 , 148 ; 0 . 40 , 4 l l , 48 6 , 5 9 8 , 640 ; F o l kta l e s No s . 45 , 5 4 . W . 47 , . . . 0 . 40 , . . . F o l kta l e s , e tc . , r e f er t o the no ta t ion u s ed by W i l l iams in h i s f ie l dn o t e s , s ee B ib l iography , p .121 .

3

:

4 ob s ta c l e s , 1 b u t the p o l icy o f reg i s t e r ing v i l l a g er s ' land wa s b e ing imp l emented a t the t ime o f our s urvey s . Inonda and S ivepe a l ike ha d exp e r i enc e w i th the i r c ounc i l ' s r eg i s tra t ion s c heme . The p r inc ipa l rea s on f o r work ing w i th th e s e v i l lage s i n par t ic u lar i s tha t they may b e r egar d e d a s typ ic a l o f two extrem e s among l o c a l c ommun i t i e s i n the c ounc i l area . The f o l l owing c on s p icuous var iat ion wa s taken in t o a c c ount , in v i ew o f the need t o inv e s t ig a t e the r e l a t ion o f l o c a l c on d i t ions and prob l ems to ec onom i c c hang e in genera l and t o the c ounc i l ' s t enur e s cheme in p ar t i c u l a r . S iv epe i s l o c a t ed in the Sa iho C ensus D iv i s ion wh ich ha s an overa l l popu l a t ion d en s i ty of 75 p er sons p er s quar e m i l e , but ther e a r e l o c a l c onc entra t ions o f much h igher d en s i ty , for examp l e , 237 p e r s on s p e r s quare m i l e at S iv ep e ; 2 th e d en s i ty of the Sa iho D iv i s ion i s the h ighe s t in the Nor thern D i s t r ic t and th e third h ighe s t among the rura l c ensus d iv i s ion s in Papua , 3 but do e s not a pproa c h the dens i t ie s found in s ev er a l p la c e s in the New Guinea Highland s . 4 The d en s i ty o f the Buna C en sus D iv i s i on where Inonda i s s it ua t ed i s abou t 8 p e r s on s p er s quar e mi l e , the l owe s t among the Oroka iva . Th e averag e s i z e o f S a iho v i l lag e s i s about 175 p er s on s , c ompar e d w i th an avera g e o f 1 00 in the Buna C ensus D iv i s ion . The S ivepe p e op l e l iv e on the high l y f e r t i l e s lo p e s o f Mt Lam ing ton , r ec e iv ing an annua l ra infa l l of about 1 60 inc he s ; I nonda ' s l a nd i s l ower , f l a t t er and c ompara t iv e ly poor and r e c e iv e s about 9 5 inc h e s a year . I nonda is 1 1 m i l e s f rom Poponde t ta o n t h e road t o Oro Bay a nd S iv ep e i s roughly twi c e a s far f r om the t own sh ip , a l ong a road l ea d ing in land . F o r b r ev i ty we w i l l s p eak o f th e ' moun ta in Oroka iva ' a s an a l t erna t ive to ' Mount Laming t on Oroka iva ' . ( S e e Kee s ing: 1'95 1. : 5 -6 . ) Th i s group , we b e l ieve , wa s the l a rg e s t s o c io - po l i t ic a l uni t , the

For an ac c ount o f the d ev e l opmen t s o f the reg i s tra t i on s cheme s ee C ro c omb e and Hogb in 1"9 6 3: 8 9 - 9 3 . 2 Popu l a t ion i s ov er 8 , 0 00 and the r e a r e 8 . 6 a c r e s ava i l ab l e p er head in the c en s u s d iv i s ion . Th e p e r s ona l o p inion o f a t l ea s t s ome l oc a l o f f i c e r s ha s b e en tha t l o c a l d en s i t i e s o f 2 0 0 , and mo re , p er s on s p er·s quar e mi l e are no t at a l l rare in the d iv i s ion . 3 Af t e r Ka ip i , Gulf D i s tr ic t and Kub oma , Mi l ne Bay D i s tr ic t . 4 However , Ke e s ing ( 1 9 5 1 : 2 ) ma in ta ined tha t thes e Oroka iva on the Mt Laming ton s l o p e s ach i ev e d ' p erha p s the d en s e s t s e t t l ement pa t t erns o f any of the sh i f t ing "dry" c u l t iva t o r s in the New Guinea a r ea ' .

6 t r ib e , wh i c h inc l uded S ivepe . I t o c c up i e d the vo l c an i c s l o p e s under fa irly uni fo rm a n d d i s t inc t iv e e c o l o g ic a l c ond i t ions . The mounta in Oroka iva now inc lude r ough l y the 8 , 000 peop l e in the c l o s e ly - s e t t l ed Sa iho C ensus D iv i s ion a r ea s , tha t i s , the p eop l e who have b een c a l l ed ' Wa s i da ' o r ' Per iho ' . They a l s o inc lude the memb e r s o f the f ew a d j a c en t v i l l a g e s who are the only ' Sangara ' p eop l e s urv iv ing the 1 9 5 1 erup t ion o f th e v o l c ano . B e l shaw ( 1 9 5 1 : 2 ) repor t e d tha t among the moun ta in Oroka iva un t i l 1 9 5 1 ' th e r e s ident ia l g roup . . . c on s i s t e d of a numb er o f s �para ted haml e t s . . . . Haml e t s group ed them s e lv e s t og e ther und e r a c ommon name , s u c h a s Wa s i ta 1 , I s iv i ta 1 , I s iv i ta 2 e tc . . . . Each haml e t group , o r nv i l lage" in a dm in i s tra t ive par l anc e , wa s s epara t ed g eo g raph ic a l ly from i t s ne ighb our ing haml e t group ' . The two ' v i l la g e s ' , I s iv i ta 1 and 2 , had c ompr i s ed 1 9 named ' haml e t s ' and r epr e s en te d the I s iv i ta ' na t iv e d i s t r i c t ' whi c h , P la n t l ( 1 9 5 1 : Append ix 4) says wa s j o ined w i th the Sa s emba ta ( 8 haml e t s ) , Kor opa ta Wa s i ta , Awa la , Soroputa , Sa irop i , Mumun i 2 and Wa i rop i d i s tr ic t s t o f o rm the P e r iho t r ib e . Th i s ' c l o s e ly approx ima t e s t o ' wha t W il l iams c a l l ed the Wa s ida t r ib e .

Shor t ly b efore the e rup t ion o f Mt Lam ing t on in 1 9 51 , S iv e p e , B induta , Nahih i t a , Pusahambo , Kor ina s u su and Hehe r i ta 3 wer e grou � ed under the name o f Awa l a 2 and had a t o t a l popu l a t ion o f 2 50 , c ompar e d w i th t h e range o f 1 50 t o 400 wh ich B e l shaw ( 1 9 5 1 : 2 ) a t t r ib u t e s to ' haml e t group s ' in the a r ea . There i s a rad ica l differenc e in s iz e b e tween the sma l l haml e t d e s c r ib ed b y B e l shaw and the charac t er i s t ic nuc l ea te d v i l la g e o f p o s t - erup t ion y ea r s ( exc lud ing int e r im eva cua t ion ' camp s ' ) . Nev e r th e l e s s , w e h e r ea f t er r e f e r t o b o th a s a ' v i l l a g e ' when no t quot ing . Th i s d o e s no t

P lant u s e s the t e rm ' v i l lage group ' for B e l shaw ' s ' ham l e t group ' o r ' v i l l a g e ' . W i l l iams ( 1 9 3 0 : 1 3 1 ) r e f e r s t o B e l shaw ' s ' haml e t ' s ome t ime s a s a ' v i l la g e ' and s om e t ime s a s a ' v i l l a g e g r oup 1 • 2 H e ear l ie r ( 1 9 5 1 : 3 ) omi t t e d Mumun i a nd Wa irop i - s e e p.3 1 . On Map 1 s ee Hururuta for Mumun i D i s tr ic t , and Omb i su s u -A j eka area for Wa irop i D i s tr ic t ; the Sa i ro p i p eop l e a r e about 4 m i l e s south o f the Mumuni . 3 The l a s t 3 ' haml e t s ' wer e no t r e - f o rmed a f t e r the e rup tion ; ano ther wh ich wa s e s tab l i shed about th i s t ime t o o k the name Awa l a No . 2 . 4 In a s amp l e o f 50 nea rby haml e t s in o ther group s in the Saiho C en s u s D iv i s ion the average ham l e t s iz e wa s 36 p e r s on s a s a ga ins t 4 1 in t h i s g roup . No t e a l s o tha t in 1 92 3 the Awa l a ham l e t s ( inc lud ing tho s e i n Awa l a 1 ) may hav e numb e r e d 1 5 (Wi l l iam s : W . 8 3 ) .

7

ob: scur e any imp o r tan t d if ferenc e s in struc ture and our h i s torica l da ta a r e no t c omp l e t e enough t o p ermi t of c on s i s t en t d i s t inc t ions , acc ord ing to s i z e , b e tween ' haml e t s ' and ' v illag e s ' . The v il l a g e o f S ivepe now ha s a p o pu l a tion o f 120 a n d i s l inked w ith B induta , s evera l hund r e d yar d s away , a nd w ith Nah ih i ta ha l f a m ile away, to f o rm a un i t in Adm in i s trat ion c en su s e s . The 3 vi lla g e s , toge ther wi th Awala No . 2 , 1 f o rm a l ocal governmen t c ounc i l e l e c tora t e . S ivep e i s s i t ua t e d on the we s t ern bank of the S ohu R iver , a

t r ib u ta ry o f th e Kumu s i R iver , about 2 5 m i l e s by road s outh -we s t o f Popond e t ta and r oughly 7 m i l e s nor th -we s t o f the c ra t er o f Mt Lam ington . I t i s on a j eep road l ea d ing f rom Kenda ta , h igh on the Mt Lam ing ton s l op e s , t o Awa la , wh ich l ie s 3� m i l e s nor th o f S ivepe on the Kokoda - Po p ond e t ta road . The minor r o a d wa s c o n ­ s truc t e d in abou t 1944 f o l low ing t h e rou t e o f a n o l d t ra c k . B e tween Awa l a and S iv ep e i t i s mar ked b y the s i t e s o f 9 abandoned v i l l a g e s , f ir s t v i s ib l e ind ica t ion o f the h i s t ory of c l o s e s e t t l e ­ ment o n the c ount ry i t t raver s e s .

There wer e v e ry f ew fac i l i t ie s f o r f o rma l educ a t i on in t h i s t r iba l a r ea unt i l shor t ly a f t e r the s ec on d wor l d war when a numb er o f m i s s ion s chool s , s ta f f e d by Papuan t eacher s , were e s tab l i shed through the a r e a and ' m inor e l ementary educ a t ion wa s b r ought t o over 90% o f c h i l dr en o f a va r ied a g e range ' (B e l s haw 195 1_ : 2) . An Ang l ic a n Mi s s ion pr imary schoo l wa s e s tab l i shed a t S a s emba ta , 1 m i l e s ou th o f S iv ep e , in 1945 a nd a Eur opean t eacher ha s b e en on the s ta f f s inc e 1951 ; 9 of the 13 ch i ldren of approx imate ly school age in the g r oup we stud i e d now a t t end . 2 Some ch il dr en from Sivepe a r e pup i l s at Mar tyr s ' Angl i c an Mi s s ion s chool s ev era l m i l e s away a t Ag enahamb o . A pr imary T school3 wa s e s tab l i sh e d a t Awala in 1 9 61 but no S iv epe c h i l dr en are pupi l s ther e . S evera l v i l l a g e r s r egular ly a t t end the church a t S a s emba ta , wh ich i s in the cha rg e o f a Papuan p r i e s t , and mo s t make per io d ic u s e.-of the med i c a l s e rv ic e s prov ided by the m i s s ion si s t er . Some women c on su l t an infant we l fa r e c l in i c former ly ava i l ab l e a t the m i s s ion on a l t e r na t e Tue s da y s a nd s ome have j o ined a women ' s s ewing c la s s he l d on Wednes day s .

2

To be d i s t ingu i sh e d f rom Awa l a 2 , the ' haml e t g r oup ' .

The age s o f pup i l s in the 4 grad e s wou l d range r ough ly f r om 5 to 1 5 yea r s .

3

A gov ernment s choo l for Papuan s a t wh i c h the c urr i c u l um i s a d j u s t e d t o the n e e d s o r s oph i s t i ca t ion o f the l o c a l pup i l s - a s d i s t inc t f rom p r imary A s choo l s , a t t ende d a lmo s t who l ly by Europ ean c h i l dren , whe r e the s y l labus is s e t by the N.S.W . D ep a r tment o f Educ a t i on.

8 The Publ i c Health Depa r tmen t ma inta in s a large b a s e ho s p ital a t Sa iho , 5 mile s from S ivep e . A v e g e table marke t a t Saiho , or i g inal l y e s tabl i shed t o supply the ho s p i ta l , now s erve s a w id e r range o f c u s t omer s a n d a t pr e s ent i s open every Thur sday a n d Sa turday (E. Waddell : pe r s ona l communication). A f ew Sive p e p e ople in our s ample s el l vege tables there r egularly but s e l d om buy anything excep t lime (for chew ing wi th b e t e l nut ) . The r e a r e w e l l - s t o c ke d t ra d e s to r e s a t S a iho and Awa l a a n d a Sav ing s Bank a g ency a t Awa l a . In 1 9 63 a trade s to r e wa s e s tab l i sh e d nea r S a s emba ta , by a memb e r o f Kongahamb o v i l l a g e . We c ould no t c omp l e t e th i s in troduc tory s ke tc h o f l o c al f a c il i t ie s a nd c ond i t ions w i thout no ting the t rauma t ic exp e r i enc e s o f the mounta in Oroka iva dur ing the l i f e - s pan o f t h e old e r men . Even an abbr ev ia t e d d e s c r ip t ion of loc a l a t t i tudes t owa r d s introduc e d ec onom i c a nd s o c ial c hanges s uch a s w e a t t emp t l a t er , wou l d be inad equa t e unl e s s i t a l luded to the l ik e ly deep impac t o f the f o l l owing ev en t s . F ir s t , the early g overnment p a t ro l s , wh ich enc oun t e r e d w id e ­ s p r ead oppo s i t ion f r om the Or okaiva , w e r e a t tac ked mo s t p er s i s tent ly b y the 1 Wa sida 1 p e op l e who inc l ud e the S iv e p e v i lla g er s . F igh t ing wa s f i er c e and many o f t h e o l d m e n we ta lked to had � e en c l os e·tela t iv e s k illed or wounded .

Sec ond , during World War II the path s of advanc e and r e trea t of Australian and Japanese troop s cro s s ed th i s a rea and the Oroka iva were ' dr awn in as h e lper s , wil l ing ly or unwill ing ly , on bo th sid e s of the l ine s ' . 1 Some Oroka iva group s a l s o b e c ame involve d in inter tr ibal sk i rmi s h e s at this t ime - dur ing our s tay an imminent m i lita ry exerc i s e o c c a sioned apprehen s ion s among s om e Oroka iva a b o u t a p o s s ib l e r e sumption o f dorman t int e r t r iba l c on f l ic t a t the t ime o f the exer c i s e .

S c a ttered f o r sa f e t y in the b u s h wh ile the war t ime c ampa igns swep t the a r ea , many p e op l e in the n e i ghbourhoo d of Sivepe d i ed o f ma lnu tr ition . I n a ddit ion , the r e wa s v ery tho rough r e c ru i t ing of l oc a l men f or s ub s e q uent pha s e s of the war e l s ehwe r e in the T er r i t ory . In 1 948 p a t r o l s ta f f repo r t ed tha t the r e wa s c au s e f o r c oncern i n the c on t inue d dec l ine i n popu l a t ion . 2 At th i s Kee s ing: 19 51.: 8. Fo r an a c co un t of th i s ep i s o d e s e e McCar thy 1 9 5 9 : C h . 4 , 1 0 f f . , s e e e s p . p p . 1 1 0 , 1 26n and map s pp . 1 2 3 , 3 5 7 . 2 The war wa s s a id t o have b een a c on t r ib u t ing fac t o r ; mor e ov e r , many v i l lager s wer e emp l oyed a s labourer s on l oc a l European p la n t a t i on s and r e turn e d on l y at weekend s ; mor e impor tan t , the p e rc entag e of ab l e -b o d i e d ma l e s a b s en t e l s ewhe r e as ind entured l abour ha d reached 31 and the o f f ic er a c c o r d ing ly r e c ommende d in 1 948 tha t the area inc lud ing I s o g e , I s iv i ta and Awa l a v i l l a g e s b e c l o s ed t o r e c ru i t ing .

9 t ime the proc e s s o f r ea d j u s tment and r e s t ora tion wa s s t il l a ma j o r que s t i on d emand ing a t tent ion . A f ew y ear s la t e r the th ird m i s f ortune o c c urred . The e rup t ion o f Mt Laming t on , wh ich c au s ed c a t a s troph i c l o s s 1 l e f t d e ep o f l if e and d i sp o s s e s s e d many peop l e o f the ir land , imp re s s ions on the m inds o f the s urv ivor s , par t ic u l a r ly an a c u t e s en s e o f gui l t wh i c h h a s b e en w id e ly r emarked upon . They f e l t tha t God had pun i sh e d them f o r no t h e l p ing the Al l ie s e nough dur ing the war , and f o r no t heed ing the w i sh e s o f the m i s s ion and Some ob s erve r s a s c r ib e d both the mar ke d the a dm in i s tra t i on . s p ir it o f c o - op e ra t io n no t ic eab l e i n eva c ua t io n c amp s a n d the avowed inten t ions of many to ob ey governmen t d ir ec t io n s in the fu ture , to the s e n eg a t iv e f e e lings (Be l shaw. 1'95L : 3 - 6 ; K e e s ing: 1951:5). By th i s t ime ' popula t i on t rends ind ic a t e tha t w i th the p r e s ent p erc entage o f ch i ld r en , there a r e l ikely t o be c on s ider ­ ab l e inc r ea s e s i n the futur e ' ( P l an t: 1 951 : 4). The a r ea wa s c lo s ed for recruiting b u t th i s d id not s o lv e the prob l em of the s upp l y of l ab our for r e c on s t ruc t ion b ecau s e men were drawn back to the i r c a s ua l job s on l o c a l rubb e r p lanta tions a nd the m i s sion a s ke d each v i l la g e t o work a day a week r ebu i l d ing m i s s ion stat ions (B e l shaw 1"951 : 8).

Af t e r the war , c omp ens a t ion wa s pa i d f or prop e r ty of the v i l l a g e r s which had b een damage d or d e s troyed , and f ol l ow ing the erup t ion a programme of r e s e t t l ement and r ehab i l i ta t i on wa s ins t i tu t e d .

F o r our inve s t iga t ions , Siv e p e wa s c ho s en from the v i l l a g e s in the S a iho C en s u s D iv i sion ma inly b ec au s e i t had b ee n one o f the s amp l e v i llag e s in the Survey of Ind igenou s Agr i c u l ture c onduc t e d by gov ernmen t departm en t s o f the T er r i to ry a n d o f Aus t ra l ia o n b eha l f o f t h e F o o d and Agr icul tur e Organ i z a t ion ' s Wo r l d Survey o f Sub s i s t en c e Agr i cu l ture . Informa t ion from the surv ey ha s provided quan t i ta t ive ma t e r ia l whi c h , thou gh summ a ry , i s d i re c t ly c ompa rab l e w i th r e su l t s o f our shor t s urvey o f sub s i s t enc e cu l t iva t i2 n . The F . A . O . surv ey ' s s amp l e wa s cho s en by s ta t i s t ic a l me th o d s . The in t er e s t wh i c h g overned our own s e l ec t ion o f a s amp l e o f manag eab l e s i z e from among Sivep e v i l l a g e r s - and c ompa rab l e w i th

S evera l thousand o f the Orokaiva on the s lo p e s o f the v o l c ano were k i l l e d by the c l ouds of ho t dus t emi t t e d at ab o u t 200 m . p . h . and 200°c. S ivepe wa s jus t b eyond the limits of the a r ea d e s t roye d . The v i l lager s s p en t about a y ea r ' s enforc e d ab s en c e in evacua t ion c amp s ( s e e p . 7 6 ) , but s ome n e ighb ouring p eop l e who surv ive d were ab s en t f rom the ir l and for far l onger p eriod s . 2

Walt e r s 19 63 : 4 .

10

tha t s tud ied a t Inonda - wa s the r e l a t ion ship b e tween l o c a l iz ed l andho l d ing pa t r i l inea l group s and the i r r e s ourc e s . The f ir s t group s e l ec te d wa s tha t known a s Jega s e , wh ich i s in t e rmed ia t e in s i z e among the 3 ma j o r group s in the v i l l a g e ; in order to f r e e o u r s amp l e o f po s s ib l e b ia s i n i t s a g e -s truc ture and o ther phy s ic a l cha rac t e r i s t i c s , we a l s o inc luded the sma l l e s t group , the T imumu . Thi s a dd i t io n happ ened to b r ing the s i z e o f the s amp l e t o 50 p e r s on s . The inclusion o f the s ec ond d is c r e t e pa t r i l in ea l g roup s ligh t ly b roadened th e ba s e o f our enqu ir ie s , bu t s tudy o f the J ega s e p rov i d ed the mo s t s ign i f ican t da ta on the subj e c t o f land t enur e . The s ample wa s mad e up o f 12 hous ehol d s , 8 o f them Jega s e and 4 T imumu ; 10 o f the 12 hou s e s c on tain e d a nuc l ear fam i ly , 1 c on ­ ta ine d a w idower l iving a l one and the o th e r a w idower and 2 clo s e kinsmen dependent o n him ( s e e G enea l o gy o n p. 52 f or l inks b e tw e en hous eholds ) . Th e third maj o r group in the v i l l a g e i s known a s S eho . Jega s e , T imumu a nd S eho a r e in fac t the nam e s o f 3 non ­ exogamou s d i s p e r s ed pa t r i l inea l c lans 1 w i th branche s a l s o in othe r v i l l a g e s c on ta ining s uch fragmen t s o f s everal c lans . The s e f r a gmen t ed d e s c en t uni t s a r e s o c ia l c a t e g o r i e s ( s ee Ch . 3) who s e memb er s d o no t hav e ' ip s o fac to ob l i ga t ions o f a spe c if ic kind' .2 Our ob s ervation s at S iv ep e w e r e s upp l ement e d by l e s s sy s t ema t ic in terv iew s w i th o ther v i llage r s in wha t we wil l c a l l ' th e neighbour ­ hood ' . We f i nd thi s t e rm c onvenient , taking S ivepe a s a p oin t o f r e f er enc e , f o r a r eg ion wh ich inc l u d e s th e v i l l a g e s who s e memb er s in t e rac t c l o s e ly w i th S iv ep e in the sph er e s o f in t e re s t wh ich we examined . I t is no t a soc ia l g r oup even though the r e is o n ly a sma l l prop o r t ion o f the s e v i l lag e s out s id e t h e terr i t o ry o f the g roup named Awa la . 3 O f ten r e f e r r e d to a s clan s by the p eop l e them s e lv e s , s o that, w ith the p o s s ible exc e p t ion of orope ( s e e Croc omb e a nd Hogbin 196 3 : 1 7 ) , ' clan ' s e em s to b e the only c urrent g enera l t erm in l o c a l u s a g e , wh ich d e s igna t e s a d i s t inc t typ e of grouping ba s ed on d e s c en t . 2

S ee de f in i t i on of ' c l an ' in Royal An thropolog i c a l Ins t i tu t e , 1 9 60 . 3 I t s p er ime t e r i s ab o u t the same a s the l im i t s o f the outermo s t o f the l o c a l ' z one s ' wi th in which a no table major i ty of S iv ep e marr iage s hav e b een c onc ent ra ted ove r 3 genea l o g i c al g ene ration s (s e e p.48-9). The r e a r e s ugg e s t ions of a t ende ncy a t S ivepe f o r int e rv i l l a g e v i s i t ing , a s so cia t ed g enera l ly w i th dir ect or s ec onda ry ec onom ic i n t er e s t s , to be c on f ined to villa g e s w i thin such a s pa tial r ang e , q u i t e sma l l c omp a r e d with the w i d e network of s imi l a r links in the c a s e o f I no nda ( P. Kr inks and E . Wadde l l : p er s ona l c ommun ic a t i on) .

11

B e side s data c o l l e c t ed on a s tandar d s er i e s of top ic s inv e s ­ t ig a t ed in the r e l a t ed s er ie s mention e d abov e , our r epor t a l so includ e s d i s cu s s ion of the r elat ion sh ip s b e tween land tenure a nd l and u s e on the one hand and r e siden t ia l and l oc a l o r ganiza t ion on the o the r - q u e st ion s whi c h have been r ai s ed by anthropo l og is t s and admin i s t r a tor s writing on th i s Oroka iva area .

The popu l a t i on d i spla c ed and r e s e t t l e d a f ter the e ru p t ion were a lmo s t a l l mounta in Oroka iva ; one l egacy o f the s e eve n t s wa s the p ro t ra c t ed c omp lic a t ion of land tenure, which s om e of the p eo p l e l a t er f ound a n ob s t ruct ion when they were c augh t up i n a g enera l inc r ea s e in enthusiasm for c a sh - c ropp ing . T h i s c o inc ide d w i th the f orma t ion o f the H iga turu Counc i l who s e memb er ship c on s i s t e d i n l a r g e par t o f the mounta in Oro ka iva . C ommuni ty d ev e l o pme n t p lans made a ft e r the erup t ion 1 wer e never

s uc c e s s ful l y l aunched , but the t enur e s i tua t ion in the c ounc i l terr i tory and s p ec i f ic area s o f a c u t e l and - c on s c i o u s ne s s a r e the p rob l ems which pa t ro l s ta f f f e l t mad e i t e s s en t i a l t o r egul a r i z e the tenure o f c a sh c rop s a t th i s t ime .

I n 1 9 5 1 Kee s ing exp e c t e d tha t the mar ke d t r end towa r d s larger s e t t l ements w i tn e s s ed a f ter the e rup t ion wou l d , as a ma t t e r of c ours e , be r ev e r s e d as c ircums tanc e s p erm i t t e d v i l l ager s to r ever t t o the i r no rma l hor t ic u l ture inv o lv ing f requent r o ta t ion o f cul t iva t e d a r ea s ; parad ox ic a l ly , i t wa s i n v i ew o f t he s pr ead ing enthu s i a sm of the Oroka iva for a mor e intens ive , c ommerc ia l a g r i c u l ture about 5 y ea r s l a ter , tha t s om e m i s s io n s ta f f an t ic ipa t e d s im i l a r f r a gmenta t ion o f the s ame l a r g e v i l l ag e s .

C ons i d erab l e top i c a l int e re s t is g iv e n to the q ue s t i on o f the c onnec t ion s b e tween s e t t l emen t p a t te rn s , a g r icu l tura l s y s t ems and t i t l e to l and by current c hang e s in the Oroka iva a r ea wh ich have imp l ic a t ions o f further rad ic a l a d j u s tm en t s in r e s i d en t ia l pa t t e rn s . In a r e c en t d ev e lopment a f ew l oc a l governmen t c o unc i l l or s had in i t ia l s uc c e s s in a dvoc a t ing the c on s o l id a t ion o f v i l l a g e s a pparent l y a s a means o f e s tab l i sh ing a n e c onom i c b a s e f o r the prov i s ion o f l o c a l s erv i c e s or amen i t i e s . Memb e r s o f S iv e p e a nd o ther v i l l a g e s d e c ided to r ebu i l d t o g e th er on land near Sa s emba ta S ta f f o f the m i s s ion hav e ( E . Wadde l l : p er s ona l c ommun i c a t ion) . f o r many year � f avoure d th i s typ e o f s e t t l ement among i t s Oroka iva par i sh ion e r s . A l though , w i th c o n s i s tent e f fo r t , pa t r o l s ta f f of the D epa r tmen t o f D i s t r ic t Admin i s tra t i on a c h i ev e d the p e r i o d ic ama l gama ­ t ion o f p r e - e rup t io n v i l l a ge s , the d e pa r tm en t d i d n o t endor s e the rec ent mov e and p o in t e d ou t tha t c o unc i l lo r s ac t ed indep endent ly o f any d e c i s i on o f the c o unc i l o r a dv ic e o f its exec u t iv e . 1

Men t ioned by B e l shaw 195 1.

2

S e e C r o c omb e, 19 64: 3 1.

12 Moreover , the Yega c oc oa project 1 ha s had a r emarka b l e d emon s tra ­ t ion e f f ec t throughou t the Orokaiva a r ea ; l and d eve l opmen t along s imil ar lin e s a s a t Omb i susu is n ea r ly everywhere und e r s e r ious c on s idera t i on an d , whenever under taken , may b e a s s umed t o involve s ome degree o f r e s e t tlement on indiv idual b l oc ks . It i s now gov ernmen t po l icy in the di s tr i c t to f o s ter thi s s p r ea d o f sma ll ­ ho l der p ro j ec t s a s a ma t t er o f h igh p r ior i ty . 2

We have a ttemp t e d s ome c ompara t ive d i s cu s s ion by introduc ing ma t er ia l on ano ther area o f c l o s ely s e t tled popu la t ion s , Ch imbu . 3 F i r s t ly , th i s provi d e s c on t ra s t s in pa t t erns o f r e s i denc e and mob i li ty , the in t en si ty of sub s i s t en c e c u l t iv a t ion and in the r e sul t s of chang e s in land u s e . The Chimbu examp l e i s an approp r ia te t e s t c a s e regarding a rgument s for c e r tain nec e s s a ry c onnec t ion s b e tween l o c a l sy s t em s o f a g r i c u l tur e , the s tab i l i ty o f s e t t l ement and the po t ent ia l f o r s chem e s f o r l and d ev e l opment among the s e Oroka iva . The s e t t l ement pa t t ern ev entua l ly f o rmed a f t er the e rup t ion a f f or d s da ta for in s truc t ive bu t n o t c onc l u s iv e c ompar i s on w i th t h e p r e - erup t ion s i tua t ion . S e c ond l y , a c on s idera ­ t ion o f Chimbu l and t enur e and l oc a l o rgan i z a t io n throw s s ome l i gh t on our Oroka iva da ta .

2

Thi s i s ful l y d i s cu s s ed by Dakeyne 1965.

In l a t e 1 9 64 the many ind iv idua l s in t e re s t e d in these s c h eme s showed c on s i derab l e in t er e s t in the new Land T enure ( C onve r s i on ) Ord inanc e , 1 9 64 ( E d r ic Eupu : p e r s ona l c ommun i c a t ion) . 3 S e e p . 7 2 f f.

Chapter 2

T he sub s i s tenc e e c onomy a.

C l ima t e a nd s o i l s

The n e ighbourhood ha s a warm , mo i s t clima t e w i th an average annua l ra infa l l of 1 60 inc h e s ( s e e App end ix C ) . Sivepe is b e tween 1 , 250 and 1 , 300 f t abov e s ea l ev e l and n i gh t s are o f ten c o o l . Ac c or d ing to the C . S . I . R . O . s o i l s survey (19 54 : 1 1 ) , the v i l lage i s o n a s o i l a s s oc ia t i on o f the Awa l a land s y stem wh ich ha s a n 8-12 inc h very dar k b r own top s o i l . Chemica l t e s t s sugg e s t tha t thes e l oams a r e f e r t i l e , r i c h i n n i tr o g en and pho s phoru s . T h e f ine ­ tex tured s ub s o i l s range f r om 10 t o 22 inche s in d e p th . The t e r ra in i s chara c t e r i z ed by a g ent l e rad ia l s l ope on wide p lanar r idge s between the l arg e r s t eep - s ided s tr eams f l owing f r om Mt Lam ington (5,634 f t) i n to the Kumu s i R iver . Numerous sma l l er c re eks , tog e ther w i th the s e s t r eams , f o rm an e f f ec t ive f ine -tex tured rad i a l dra inage s y s t em . Th e l o c a l peop l e r e c ogniz e 5 type s o f s oil b a s ed on dif f erenc e s o f c o l our , t ex ture a n d mo i s ture . l

1

(a ) Ho ho r i - a ny r e d s o i 1 ; 2 s ub type s a r e d i s tingu i shed : i . w i thou t sand . Thi s i s popu l a r f o r c u l t iva t i o n; i i . s a ndy . Avo id e d if p o s s ib l e a s taro do e s not grow we l l in i t . (b ) G ind ir i - a ny s o i l whi c h i s s tony o r ha s a h igh s and f ra c t ion . I t may b e u s ed f o r c u l t iva t ion bu t in the dry s ea s on taro grown in it b e c om e s s tunt ed and the c o rms a r e sma l l . ( c ) Mume - th i s s o i l i s the pr edom inant type in the area . I t i s the dark b r own l oam d e s c r ib ed i n the C . S . I . R . O . r eport a s c over ing a lmo s t the who l e o f the s o i l a s s o c i a t i on . I t i s c er ta in l y the mo s t widely u s ed and toge ther w i th Hoho r i , typ e i., it g iv e s the b e st y i e ld s . ( d ) Pusu - any c lay . Taro growth i s s tun t e d . ( e) Pegara - swampy or wa t e r l ogg e d s o i l s . The s e are s ome t ime s u s ed dur ing a d ry s ea s o n . 13

14 T h e C . S . I . R . O . ( 1 9 54 : 1 2 ) r ep o r t e d tha t a w i d e rang e o f annua l and p erennia l c ro p s wh ich wi l l grow a t a l t i tude s up t o approx ima t e ly 1 , 500 f t and d o no t r eq u i re a marked d ry s ea s on c ou l d b e g r own su c c e s s fu l ly . The r e p o r t c omment e d tha t the who l e l an d s y s t em i s a very good a g r i cu l tura l area and tha t th i s i s r e f l e c t ed i n the r e l a t iv e ly d en s e popu l a t i on , a fac tor wh ich unde r the p re s en t s y s t em o f na t iv e a gr i ­ c u l ture w i l l inf luenc e the extension of Europ ean a g r i c u l ture. The p o t en t ia l i t ie s of the a r ea , however , f a r exc e ed th e pr e s en t l and u s e , wh ich means the r e i s s c ope i n th i s area f o r the s uc c e s s fu l application of extens ion work d ir ected to the improvement of na tiv e agricul ture and horticulture.

The na tura l v e g e ta t ion o f the a r ea i s a ra infor e s t c l imax (Pome t ia p inna ta - c h i s oche ton sp . Al l ianc e ) , o f wh ich v ery li t t l e r ema ins . A bel t o f p r ima ry and s ec ondary ra in f o re s t s epa ra t e s the s e t tlemen t s o n the mounta in slo p e s f r om their northern n e i ghbours but the area s ou th of thi s b el t i s mo stly c ov e r ed with mor e r e c en t s ec ondary growth in va rious stages of r egenera tion a f t e r c ultiva t ion . I s olated patches of 'kunai' grass o c c u r 1 (mainly Sac charum spo n tane ium , w i th s ome Ropbe l ia , Imperata spp . ) b u t the ir area i s ins ignif ic ant by c omparis on with the gra s sland s f ound on the Oroka iva p l ains . b.

The cul t iva t ion cycle

Ov er a p er i o d o f 8 y ea r s the average monthly ra infa l l ha s rang ed from 9 . 6 , 7 . 9 and 8 . 2 inc h e s in June , July and Augu s t (when ra in f a l l s about 1 5 day s p e r mon th) t o 2 0 . 9 , 1 6 . 8 and 1 7 inche s in Dec emb er , Janua ry and F eb rua ry (wi th 2 2 we t days p er mon th) . The c o e f f ic ient of s ea s ona l var ia t ion u s ed by Brook f ie l d and Brown (1963:20) ind i c a t e s only s l ight s e a s ona l var iab i l i ty in the a r ea . 2 An o c c a siona l br i ef drough t is po s sib l e at any t ime , but w i th good s o i l , and no mar ked dry s ea s on , c ond i t ion s for the g rowth of s ub s i s t enc e c r o p s are u s ua l ly f av o urab l e throughout the year a nd new gardens c an b e mad e as needed . 3

2

D i s t r ic t Agr i c u l tura l Of f i c er : p er sonal c ommun ica t ion .

The c oe f f i c i e n t o f s ea s onal var ia tion wa s 0.30. T hi s mea s ure i s ob ta in ed b y c a l c ula t ing from rainfa l l figur e s the s ta ndard d ev ia ­ t ion o f monthly mea n s f r om the mean o f the mon th ly means a nd then d iv i d ing the s tandard d ev ia t ion by the mean of the mon t h l y means . 3 We found no e f f ec t s in th i s a r ea o f the ra inshadow z one r e f err e d to b y Kee s ing; l 95 1 :6.

15 There i s , howev e r , a s l ight s ea s ona l va r ia t ion in t h e ra t e o f agric u l tura l a c t iv i ty . There i s n o c o rre la t ion b e tween t h e var ious pha s e s of gar den ing a c t iv i ty and the s ea s ona l va ria t ions in wea ther c ond i t ions , such as is some time s found among shi f t ing c u l tiva t or s , l but the a n t ic ipa t e d c l ima t e may d e t e rmine the extent o f new cul ­ t iva t ion c a r r ied out a t a par t ic u l ar t ime . Mor e new garden s a r e made about t h e s tar t o f th e s ea s on o f heav i er ra ins than a t any o ther s p e c i f ic t ime of the year (cf . W i ll iams; 1'930: 144) . Dec i s ions a s t o the typ e o f garden wor k t o b e und er taken in the immed i a t e fu ture take a c c oun t o f s u i tab i l i ty o f current wea th er c on d i t ions . F o r ins tanc e , mo s t v i l l a ge r s t o o k the oppor tun i ty o f f er e d by a l ong uns ea s ona l dry s p e l l dur ing the la s t wee ks of our s u rv ey , at the t ime wh ich woul d normally have b een the height o f the we t s ea s on , t o make exten s iv e c l ea�ing s f or new gard en s to ensure a more cont inuous s upp ly o f f o o d .

The natura l h igh f e rt i li ty o f the a s h - a gglomera t e slop e s o f the v o l c ano is ma in t a ined under the sy s t em of shor t - fa llow s h i f t ing agr i c u l ture. Garden s a r e small , s c a t tered and irregu l a r in shap e . U s ua l ly e a c h a r ea i s worked with va ry ing intens i ty f o r only 18 mon th s . Genera l s ea s ona l c ond it i on s do no t c l o s e l y d e f ine th i s per iod . There is minima l r o ta t ion of c r o p s ; o n ly s ing l e p l an t ing s o f taro a r e made and th i s c rop c over s ov e r 9 0 p e r c en t o f a r ea s unde r c u l t iv a t ion .

C rops ma ture qu ick ly bu t weed inf e s t a t ion and l e a ching r e s u l t in a mor e rapid dec line in y ie l d s und er c ropp ing than i s found. in h igh land a r ea s . Aft e r one c r op , p e s t s and d i s ea s e s b e c ome e s tab l i sh ed and r educ e the y ie l d s of any further imme d i a t e I t i s ther e fore e s s en t ia l to r e ly mor e on extend i ng p lant ing s . new c l ea r ing s than on the intens ive us e o f a f ew e lab ora t e ly prepared garden area s .

The dec i s ion to cu l t iv a t e a new a r ea and the cho i c e o f a s i t e r e s t s w i th eac h hou s eho l d . Onc e a garden s it e i s c ho s en , the s ec ondary grow th is c l eared by the memb er s o f· th e hou s eho l d , u s ing axe s and bushkn iv e s . The undergrowth is c u t f ir s t ; t r e e s are then f e l l ed a t shou l d e r l ev e l and the s tump s a r e l ef t t o p r ov ide supp o r t f or yams a n d sugar . T h e b ranc h e s a r e r emoved from t h e f e l l ed tre e s a n d t h e trunk s a r e u s e d l ater f o r f enc e s , garden b oundary marks , bui l d ing ma t e r ia l s o r f ir ewo o d . Undergrowth i s l ef t t o dry f o r abou t a wee k a n d then burn t . Onc e th i s i s done , e d ib l e p i t pi t ( Sa c c harum edu l e ) and bana na s a r e p lan t e d a t random ove r the c l eared area . Suga r i s p lanted near the t r e e s tump s s o tha t i t may b e t ied u p t o p r ev en t l o dg ing . I t i s thus l e s s su s c ep t ib e to

1

C onkl in 1 9 5 4 ; Lawr enc e 1 9.5 5 : 5 ; V ic a ry, 1 9,60 : 182.

16

roden t a t ta c k . A hardwood p lant ing s t ic k ( t i) i s u s ed t o l oo s en the s oi l , though o c c a s iona l ly shov e l s a r e u s ed t o make m ound s for swee t p o t a t o runner s and ··tub er s , o r f o r yam s . Sugar cane a nd p itp it a r e p lan t e d e i ther in c lump s. of suc k e r s o r in l eng th s or 3 nod e s hu t bana na s a r e propaga t ed only f rom sucker s . Ma i z e , c u curb i t s and t oba c c o are p l anted b ef o r e o r w i th the ma in c rop o f taro . They usua l ly grow b e s t nea r s tump s or l o g s , p e rha p s b ec a u s e they b enef it f r om ext ra p o t a sh a nd humu s . 1 T ob a c c o s e e d s a r e thrown near s tump s and when s eed l in g s are about 6 inche s h i gh they a r e t ran s p l an ted throughout th e garden . Numerous var i e t i e s of taro (Co l o c a s ia spp . ) , d i s t ingui shed by the i r c o l our a nd stem and l ea f shap e , are p ropaga ted b y s ucker s . The suck er s are p la c e d in ho l e s 6-8 inc he s d e ep and s pa c e d about 2 f e e t apar t . A smal l amoun t o f Xanthos oma taro i s p lant ed , u s ua l ly on s l o p ing ground , and n o t n ec e s s ar i ly in the ma in garden s . Yams a r e p l a n t e d in s epa r a t e area s i f p lant ing ma ter ia l i s p l en t i ­ ful . Otherw i s e they a r e p lanted a t random through the gard en . Two c ommon var i e t i e s a r e recogn i z ed . Swe e t po ta t o i s grown only in sma l l quan t i t i e s a s a supp l e ­ men tary d ie t t o the t a r o . I f i t i s p la n t e d among t h e taro , the Sma l l p l o t s a r e p l ant ing i s d e l ayed unt i l the taro is suc kering . o f t en mad e in a taro garden a f t e r mo s t o f the t a r o ha s b een ex tra c ted . Minor c ro p s found in the garden s a r e c abbage , man io c , b eans , t oma to e s , g ing e r , sha l l o t s , p ineapp l e and pawpaw s . (Tab l e 1 . ) Gardens are u sua lly weeded 3 time s . Weed inf e s ta t ion becom e s too heavy to handle a t thi s s tag e , bu t c ro p s a r e ma ture enough to c omp e t e suc c e s sful l y and shade from the w e e d s i s c la imed to b enefit the taro . F enc ing i s no t a s extens ive o r e labo ra t e a s in many Oroka iva a r e a s , due to a s c a r c i ty o f w i l d p ig s . Ga rdens are u s ua liy made on s i t e s a t a d i s tanc e f rom the v i l lage wh ich i s c on s i d er e d too f a r f o r dome s t ic p i g s t o wander . D e s p i te th i s p r e c a u t i on , 2 men had th e ir gardens s p o i l ed by v i llag e p ig s j u s t b e f o r e our v is i t .

Fenc e s a r e rai s ed t o a he igh t o f about 4 f e e t by p i l ing l o g s hor i z on ta lly on a bro a d ba s e and s ecur ing them w ith perpend i c u l a r s ta kes . In mo s t c as e s t h e f enc e i s erec t e d on ly on t h e gard en b o rder which i s c on sidered mo s t a c c e s s ib l e t o p i g s . Th i s i s o f t en done a f t er th e area has been p lanted . The harr i er may b e ex t ended la t e r i f ano ther s id e i s found t o n e e d pro t e c t ion . A v ir tua l ab s en c e o f w i l d p i g s i s par t l y r e s p on s ib l e f o r the I n o ther pa r t s o f t endency for the gardens t o h e s c a t t er ed .

C f . V icary

l 9fr.o: 188.

17 Oroka iva terr i to ry wher e mor e e f f o r t i s d evo t e d t o f enc e c on s t ruc ­ t ion i t i s mor e c ommon for the memb er s o f a v i l l a g e o r a l oc a l p a t r i l in ea l group t o c u l t iva t e c on t i guous plo t s and t o c o - op era t e i n the c on s t ruc t ion o f o n e f enc e t o pr o t ec t s evera l gardens . Th i s r educ e s the t o ta l labour requ ired for the ta s k . Tab l e 1

Food plan t s per hous eho l d* C r op

Taro (Col) Swee t p o t a t o

Corn

B anana s P i tp i t Sugar Yam s T a r o (Xantho s oma ) Na t iv e c abba g e Pawpaw B ean s C uc urb i t s Sha l l o t s ) Man i o c ) Ginger ) Toba c c o * 1 2 hous eho l d s .

Range

Average

0.97 a c r e s

0 . 07 a c r e s 2 23 plant s 7 1 trees 88 c lump s 34 s too l s 65 v in e s 2 8 p lants 2 2 p lant s 1 7 trees 1 7 p lant s 1 3 v ine s

0 . 39 - 2 . 30 - 0 . 20 442 12 6 35 0 400 54 11 136 0 91 0 0 100 32 5 0 1 10 28 9 0 0

acres acres plant s trees c l ump s s t oo l s v in e s p lant s p la nt s trees p lant s v in e s

a f ew p lant s 18 p lant s

0

59 plant s

On the o ther hand , a to ta l o f 1 acr e o f taro p la n t ed in s c a t t e r e d p l o t s inv o lve s mor e c l ear ing than the s ame a r ea p lanted in a c on t inuou s block o f garden s . S evera l g arden s in 1 b l ock wou l d have a sma l l er t o ta l p er imeter a djo ining the bu sh whe r e t h e r e i s u s ually a margin o f c l eare d l a n d wh ich i s never p lan t e d . The d i sp e r sa l o f gard en s i t e s fac i l i ta te s na tura l r e s e e d in g o f f a l l ow l and f r om the surround ing b u sh . l I t i s d i f f i c u l t to arr iv e a t an average f i gure f o r the l eng th of the c u l t iva t i on - b u sh fa l l ow c yc l e . One par t i cula r diff icu l ty is the fac t tha t the c l ea r ing of a p l o t is o f t en done progr e s s iv e ly . As one s e c t ion o f the gar d en p l o t i s c l ea r ed by a hou s eho l d , i t i s p lant ed and then a d j o i ning s e c t ions a r e c l ea r ed a nd p lan t ed . In s ome but no t al l c a s e s the succ e s siv e a r e a s may then b e a lloc a ted to d i f f er en t membe r s in the hou s eho l d , such as a woman - a mar r i ed s i s t e r o r a b r o ther ' s w if e - who s e husband i s ab s en t . Sinc e f ew vege tabl e s c an b e s tore d for long , thi s method o f clearing the

C onkl in 195 7 : 145 .

18 a r ea over many mon th s en s ur e s a c on t inuou s supp ly o f ma tur ing f o o d over a l ong p e r io d , but it mean s tha t one s ec t ion may have b e en abandone d s om e t ime before the p l o t a s a whole i s f in i shed . The r e f or e , th ere a r e l im i ta t ion s t o e s t ima t e s of the r o ta t ion p er io d , mad e by d e t erm in ing the numb er of y ea r s whi c h have e lap s ed s in c e the p r ev ious c l ea r ing o f the p l o t . An average o f 6 y ea r s had laps ed s ince the l and und e r c ul t iva ­ t ion wa s s aid to have b e en l a s t u s ed . One area had not b e en c u l t iva ted fo r 1 5 years but in s ev era l c a s e s the l a nd had b e en f a l l ow for only 4 years . 1 Informant s s ta t ed tha t th i s r o ta t i on p er io d wa s l ong enough to ma in ta in y i e l d s . By tha t t ime s ec ondary g r owth (enda ) of a rea s onab l e he i gh t 2 ha s b e c ome e s tab l i s hed on the overgrown garden (manene ) . Many a r ea s of e nda ha d b e en unus ed f o r longer than th i s average f a l l ow per iod . The s e inc luded s ome parc e l s o f land he ld b y the pa t r i l inea l g r oup wh i c h ha s the l ea s t land per c ap i ta among our s amp l e ( s e e p . 5 8 ) , b u t the b l ocks wh ich have be en f a l l ow f o r a t S ome l ea s t 20 y ea r s be l ong t o the g r oup s w i th l a r g e l an dho l d ing s . of the s e a r e a s wer e c o n s idered l e s s s u i tab l e e i ther b e c au s e the s o i l is o f a s l igh t ly poorer type o r b ec au s e they a r e not a c onven i en t d i s tanc e f r om the v i l la g e .

The s h or t c u l t iva t ion - bush fallow ro ta t ion do e s not occ ur r ep e t i t iv e l y even on a f ixed numb er o f s e l ec te d parc els he l d b y t h e member s o f t h e s amp l e . Sinc e t h e average p e r io d o f bush f a l l ow wa s d educ e d f r om the da t e s of the p r ev ious u s e o f the t o ta l area a t pre s en t und e r c u l t iva t ion , i t mus t b e no t e d tha t 4 9 p er c en t o f th i s wa s on l and b e l ong ing to a group o ther than the p l ante r ' s ( s ee p.70 ff.}. The s h o r t e s t fallow per i o d wa s n o mor e c ommon among t h e gardens of me n with sma l l landholding s than among garden s of tho s e with large a r e a s . Some ga rdener s from each g roup were exercising u s uf ructuary right s a s c ognatic kinsmen of l and ­ ho l d e r s of o ther patrilineal group s (s e e Table 5) . Tho s e who wer e c u l t iva t ing a t o ta l o f 6 a c r e s o f land of memb ers of o ther c lan s g enera l ly c la imed tha t perm i s s ion t o u s e th i s land wa s gran t e d on a recipro c a l b a s i s .

Wi l l iams ' inf ormant s a t Wa s i da s a id tha t l and wa s r eplan t e d a f t er 4 yea r s ' f a l l ow (Will iams: W .27).

2

The Oroka iva g enerally maint ain tha t i t i s e a s ier t o c l ear are a s wh ere fairly lar g e tree s a r e s tanding than area s with no p rominent t imb e r . See a l s o New ton ( 1 9 60: 1 1 3 ) who p o in t s out tha t w i t h in 5 y ea r s o f the s ta r t o f a trop ic a l r a in f o r e s t f a l l ow ' th e t o t a l q uan t i ty o f nut r ie nt s immob i l i s ed i s more than ha l f the t o t a l immob i l i s ed i n a n e igh t e en -y ea r - o l d f o r e s t f a l l ow ' .

19 About· 2 a c r e s o f land h e l d by the s amp l e were b e ing u se d f o r I f w e a s sume tha t the food gardens by m embers o f o ther c lans . par t ie s p er io d i c a l ly exerc i s in g rec iproc a l u sufruc tuary r ight s to each o ther s ' land eventua l ly use c ompar ab l e a r ea s , the numb er o f a c r e s o f a p a t r i l inea l g roup ' s l and c ul t iv a t e d over s ev eral yea r s w i l l b e rough ly e q u iva l en t to the to ta l a r ea wh ich i t ha s i t s e l f c u l t iva t ed .

C ha in and c omp a s s surv eys were mad e of a l l curre n t gardens c u l t iva t e d by the s amp l e . The s e gardens ranged f r om p l o t s over ­ grown w i th w e e d s , b u t s t i l l y i e l d ing taro o r swe e t p o ta t o , to newly c l ea re d a r e a s . Mea surement s of the area s wh ich were c leared dur ing th e l a s t 2 weeks o f our survey were mad e hur r i ed ly and a r e l e s s a c c�ura t e than the o ther f i gures . T h e t ime s p en t c l ea r ing new area s in each o f the s e 2 weeks wa s mo re than the t o t a l t ime s pent on gar den ing r ec or d e d in any p rev iou s week and the f igur e s b e l ow a t l ea s t g iv e a fa ir ind i c a t ion o f the s ign i f icant s iz e o f new c l ea r in g s in r e l a t ion to o ther � a t e go r i e s of the a rea und e r c u l t iva t ion s hown i n T ab l e 2 . T h e l a c k o f ra in a t t h e t ime ma d e i t impo s s ib l e to p l a n t any o f the new area s imme d ia t e l y . Tab l e 2

Current garden a r ea s ( ac r e s ) A r ea p er h ea d o f popu l a t ion Garden c urren t l y ·p r o duc ing

Area p e r b o d ied p er s on ( over 1 6)

Area p er hous eho l d

T o ta l

0 . 14

0 . 27

0 . 57

6 . 86

Gard en p lanted no t y e t produc ing

O . l2

0 . 23

0 . 48

5 . 81

Gar d en c l ea r e d no t ye t p lan ted

0 . 10

0 . 20

0 . 43

5 . 17

0 . 36

0 . 70

1 . 48

1 7 . 84

T o t a l area under c u l t iva t ion

The 0 . 3 6 a c r e s o f c urrent garden p er h ea d o f popu l a t ion c ompares with the figure o f 0 . 3 1 at lnonda ( C ro c omb e and Ho gb in 1 9 63 : 1 0 ) .

The prop o r t ion o f c ur re n t l y - p r oduc ing gardens s eems t o hav e b e en unu sua l ly sma l l a t the t ime o f our survey . S ixty - on e p e r c ent o f the gar d en a r ea ha d b ee n brough t under c u l t iva t ion i n t h e pa s t 5 months ( 2 . 2 a c r e s p e r month) , wh erea s the -.r e 1s t. wa s a l l tha t wa s s t i l l produc ing a f ter c u l t iva t ion dur ing the y ea r b e fore tha t . S ome hou s eho l d s had p la n t e d , harv e s t ed and abandoned s om e p lo t s in the m ea n t im e . Mo s t o f the gardens wh ich wer e b e ing harv e s t ed

20 dur ing o u r s tay had b e en p l a n t e d w i th in the prev ious 6 mon ths and tho s e which had b e en p lanted l onger were gener a l ly we l l ove r a year o l d and were enter ing the c lo s ing pha s e s o f produc t ion . One hou s eho l d e r who s e o l der garden had b e en d e s t roy ed by p ig s h a d f ir s t c l ea r ed h i s p r e s en t gardens onl y 5 months b e f ore our s urvey . S ome of the o l der c urrent gardens mea s ur e d wer e a lmo s t exhau s te d and wou l d only j u s t la s t unt i l the taro i n the hou s e ­ ho l de r s ' new gardens ma tured . The supp ly o f f o o d from the o l d gardens i n the s e c a s e s wa s supp l emen t ed ma inly by the n ewly - s own c o rn wh ich mature s in ab out 3 months , by t r e e c ro p s , yams and Xantho s oma taro f r om sma l l s c a t t ered s tand s . I n dec id ing on the t im e t o e s tab l i s h new gard en s f o r the ir future sub s i s t en c e needs the v i l l a g e r s s eem to have taken in t o c on s i d er a t i on t h e p r eva i l ing s ea s ona l c on d i t ions a n d the p r o s p ec t s o f heav ie r ra in s a f ew mon th s b e f o r e our s urvey s o tha t w e no t ed only a f ew garden s tha t were mad e in the y ear b e f o r e our arr iva l and a l ready p r o duc ing .

By d e t ermin ing the a r ea wh ich ha s b e e n c u l t iva t ed by each hou s eho l d s inc e it mad e the f ir s t c l ea r ings for i t s c ur r en t ga r d en s a mon th l y ra t e a t wh ich i t e s tab l i shed garden s wa s c a l c u l a t e d . The t o ta l a r ea gardened month ly b y the 1 2 hous eho l d s tog e th er wa s f ound t o b e 1 . 5 3 a c r e s . The s amp l e t h er e f ore c u l ­ t iva t e s 1 8 . 3 6 a c r e s p er year o r 0 . 3 6 ac r e s per c ap i ta . 1

F o r the abov e r ea s on s we b e l iev e tha t we wou l d h av e ob t a ined mor e r e l iab l e f igur e s had w e b e en ab l e to ext end the l eng th o f t h e s urvey t o c ov er f lu c tua t i ons i n the ra t e o f c u l t iva t i on and in the rat io of n ew to o ld gar d en s . The f igure o f 0 . 3 6 a c r e s a s the year ly p e r c a p i ta r e q u ir emen t f o r garden l and may b e unus ua l ly h i gh : however , the Survey of Ind ig enous Ag r icu l ture at S ivepe e s t ima t e d t ha t b e tween Apr i l 1 9 6 1 and Ma rch 1 9 62 , 5 3 . 7 6 ac r e s had b e en b r ought unde r c u l t iva t i on b y th e 1 5 9 peop l e in the v i l lage , or 0 . 34 a c r e s p e r c ap i ta . The mi s s ion f rom the I n te r ­ na t iona l Bank g iv e s the av erage p e r c a p i t a r eq u i rement a s about 0 . 3 a c r e s und e r thi s c la s s o f l and u s e i n Papua a n d New Gu in e a 2 .

I f an av e r a g e 6 y e a r f a l l ow c yc l e i s f o l l owed , the p r e s en t popu l a t ion o f t h e s amp l e c u l t iva t ing l and a t the ra t e o f 1 8 . 3 6 a c r e s p e r year r e q u i r e 1 1 0 ac r e s to ma int a in the ir pr e s en t

The 4 hous eho l d s who had no c ur rent gardens o l de r than 1 0 month s had ma d e the s e new gardens a t the annua l p e r c ap i ta ra t e o f 0 . 5 1 a c r e s c ompar ed w i th 0 . 2 9 f or the r e s t of th e s amp l e who wer e s t i l l u s ing ear l i er garden s . 2 Mi s s ion from the I n t e rna t iona l Bank . 1 9 6 4 : 7 4.

21 s tandar d s o f sub s i s t enc e agr i c u l ture . 1 1 38 acr e s . c.

The ir own prop e r ty t o ta l s

Hunt i ng and f i sh ing

Thes e pur su i t s add var i e ty ot the d i e t but prov id e c ompara t iv e ly l i t t l e food . Mo s t o f the game surv iv ing in the a r ea i s sma l l and ther e are no large f i sh to be f ound in the mounta in s tr eam s . Sma l l ma r s up ia l s s uc h a s the c u s c u s , b and ic oo t a nd , mor e r a r e l y , the land wa l laby , t o g e ther w i th f ly ing foxe s and b ir d s are the ma in s ourc e s o f anima l p ro t e in . Ne t s and hun t ing s p e a r s a r e g e ne ra l ly u s ed to c a tch the s e a n ima l s a f t e r they hav e b e en f lu sh e d out by the hun t e r ' s dog . T ra p s are s e l dom s e t for game but we we r e to l d t h i s f o rmer ly wa s a more c onunon t echnique . S na r e s f o r the sma l l er typ e s o f an ima l a r e o f t en mad e by b oy s and one o r two o f the men . Two memb e r s o f th e s amp l e owned l ic en s e d sho t guns and the s e were very e f f ec t iv e ly and e c onom i c a l ly u s e d . One o f the s e men wou l d p la c e h i s s erv ic e s a t the d i s po s a l o f anyone who s up p l ie d c a r t r id g e s f or t h e gun ; t h e o ther a l l owed a l imi t e d c ir c l e o f p eop l e t o u s e h i s gun . The gun s wer e f r equent ly u s ed for hun t ing at n igh t in the dry wea the r dur ing our survey . Ne ither o f th e two f o rms o f c onc er te d hun t ing c onunon among o ther Oro ka iva ( the d r ive t oward s a p ig ne t and g ra s sburn i ng , W i l l iams 1 9 3 0 : 45 ) i s prac t i s ed t o any extent a s the r e a r e f ew w i l d p ig s and l it t l e g ra s s land in th e a r ea .

S p ea r s and f ine -me s h ne t s a r e u s e d in l oc a l s t reams t o c a tch e e l s and the 7 typ e s o f sma l l f i s h found . Thi s ta s k is s har ed by men and women u sua l ly when the wa ter i s l ow dur ing a p e r i o d of d ry wea the r . They may s ea rch f o r f i sh w i th a ne t a l ong the S ohu R iv e r wherev e r it pa s s e s through land h e l d by a memb e r o f the v i l la g e , but the sma l l roc k dam s bu i l t by a man t o f o rm p oo l s s u i tab l e f o r the u s e o f the s p ear a re mad e on l y whe r e the r iv e r pa s s e s through h i s own land .

T h i s r e q u i r ement i s 2 . 2 a c r e s p e r c ap i ta . Bar r au ( 1 9 58 : 7 5) says tha t 2 . 5 to 5 a c r e s p e r cap i ta a r e s uf f ic i en t f o r thi s typ e of a g r i c u l ture in Me l ane s ia , a s s um ing the av erage a r ea o f garden i s 0 . 2 5 a c r e s and t ha t t h e dura t ion o f b u s h fa l l ow rang e s f r om 1 0 t o 2 0 y ea r s . I n Mar c h 1 9 5 1 , 40 s quare mi l e s o f unre s tr ic te d land were s idered s u i ta b l e for r e s e t t l ing 4 , 500 o f the surv ivo r s of the c on r e c ent e r�p t ion ( P l a n t 1 9 5 1 : 4 ; B e l shaw 1 9 5 1 : 9) . I t wa s f e l t that th e s e 5 a c r e s per c a p i ta wer e enough only to meet the inuned ia t e requ ireme n t s o f tra d i t iona l s ub s i s tenc e garden ing f o r t h e n ex t f ew y ea r s . ( I t wa s w e l l -wooded and appeared ' mo s t produc t iv e ' and ea s i ly a c c e s s ib l e b y r o ad . ) Cons i derab l e popu l a t ion inc rea s e s were ant i c ipa t ed .

22 The only l o c a l hun t ing l and h e l d b y S ivep e peop l e i s tha t he l d b y ind iv idua l s a s garden ing l and . A v i l l a g e r may hunt o r f i sh on the land h e l d b y m emb er s o f any g roup in th e v i l la g e and in f a c t o f t en s tray s fur ther a f i e l d than t h i s ' v i l la g e l and ' wi thout a t trac t ing the a t t en t i on o f o ther group s . A man may , w i thout c on su l t i ng o th er s , inv i t e a kin sman f rom ano the r v i l l a g e to hun t o r j o in in a f i sh d r iv e w i th him but no hunt ing par t i e s invo lv e t h e a s s emb ly o r c o - op e r a t ion o f l a rger group s . A man w i sh ing t o hun t on t h e l a n d o f one o f h i s kinsmen i n ano th e r v i l l ag e wou l d c on su l t h i s kin sman f i r s t . d.

L ive s to c k

Apa r t from the game ava i lab l e t o the hunt er , the r e a r e only

2 s our c e s o f f r e sh mea t ava i lab l e , the dome s t ic p i g and f owl .

S ix hous eho l d e r s own a t o t a l o f 1 5 f ow l s wh ich were e i the r b r e d o r b ought b y the ir owner . They a r e va lued ma inly a s an a s s e t f o r t ime s o f fea s t ing a n d on l y t o a l im i t e d ext e n t f o r e gg produc t ion . They a r e a l l owed t o run l oo s e in th e v i l l a g e dur ing the day but a r e enc l o s e d in s he l t e r s at n ight f o r pro t ec t i on aga in s t d og s . L ike f ow l s , p ig s a r e f e d by women ma in ly on s c ra p s b u t they f ind muc h of the ir f o o d by r oaming in the bush and gra z ing in o l d gardens . They have c omp l e t e f r e edom o f movemen t wi thin o r ou t s id e t h e v i l l a g e dur ing t h e d a y and in s ome ins tanc e s on ly a r e they hou s ed in p en s dur ing the nigh t . A s a r e s ul t , they a r e a c on s tant thr eat t o gardens wh i c h are no t thorough ly f enc ed ; the i r movemen t s ar e a frequent s ou r c e o f d i s pu t e and r equ ir e the gardener t o exerc i s e c a r e i n s i t ing h i s ga r d en and s ome t im e s t o d evo t e c on s i d erab l e t ime wa i t ing there to a t t a c k a p ig wh ich ha s b e en f re q ue n t ing the a r ea .

Of the 2 4 p ig s o r p ig l e t s c la imed by 7 o f the 1 2 hou s eho l d e r s , 1 5 were b r e d by them and the r e s t rec e ived in g i f t exchang e s ; none wa s inher i te d . The only l ong s tanding d eb t s a dm i t t e d o r c la imed b y memb e r s o f the samp l e w e r e in t e rms o f p ig s . Ther e i s l i t t l e a n ima l pro t e in in the v i l l a g er s ' d i e t ; s ome f r e sh mea t and smoked mea t or f i sh is pur cha s ed at S a iho market o r f r om vend o r s trav e l l ing t o the ma rket - th i s s ourc e of mea t s e ems to b e q u ic kly b e c om ing r ea s onab ly a c c e s s ib l e ( E . Wad de l l : p e r s ona l c ommuni ca t i on) , b u t w i l d p ig s - a v ery imp o r tant s ourc e i n many o ther Oroka iva a rea s - a r e rare and the a r ea f o r hun t ing res tric ted . I t wou l d b e f ea s ib l e to take s t ep s to mod i fy a ny l a c k o f anima l pro t e in by inc r ea s ing s to c k numb e r s a nd imp rov ing the i r q ua l i ty , b u t th i s woul d invo lv e the in t ro duc t ion of n ew s tra in s and , t o ma in ta in any inc r ea s e o r improvemen t s , husbandry t e c hn i qu e s wou l d n e e d to b e r e f ined . 1 At p r e s en t p a ra s i te s take

Ab out 50 Berksh i r e b oa r s were d i s tr ib u t e d to V i l la g e C on s tab l e s among the group s a f f e c t ed b y the M t Laming t on erup t ion .

23 S ow s a r e s ome to l l on grow th ra t e s , s iz e and l ength o f l i f e . qu i t e pro l i f ic , howev e r , and l i t t er s o f 6 to 1 0 p ig l e t s wh ich surv ive weaning a r e c ommon . Boar s a r e no t numer ou s b u t i t i s c la imed tha t t h e owne r c ha r g e s n o f e e for the ir s erv ic e s . I t i s d oub t f u l whe ther improv e d b r e e d ing a n d hu sbandry c ou l d i n thems e lv e s induc e a s ignif icant inc r ea s e in the c on sump t ion o f mea t b y p ig owne r s . P i g s a r e too s carc e in th i s area to mee t the exi s t ing d emand and p r io r i ty is g iven t o the u s e o f p ig s f o r d i s t r ibut ion a s pork a t f ea s t s or f o r g i f t exchang e s . V e ry o f t en n e i ther a man nor h i s c l o s e kin have a s u i tab l e p ig ava ilable when needed and in one s uc h ins tanc e a p r ic e of £ 2 0 wa s s e t by the owner of a p ig in ano ther v i l lage . Any p e r s on who a imed to e s tab l i sh a herd o f s igni f icant numbe r s f o r c ommerc i a l purp o s e s woul d probab ly n e e d t o d ivorc e h ims e l f a s a par t ic ipan t f r om the ne twork o f exchange s wh ich invo lv e p ig s . e.

E c onom i c t r e e s

Al though t h e v il l a g e i s 2 3 m i l e s f rom Gona on th e c oa s t and ov er 1 , 0 00 ft abov e s ea l eve l , mo s t e c onom i c t r e e s are abundant . The av erag e hous eho l d c la imed 62 t r e e s f r om which c r o p s a r e ga thered i n s ea s on . 1 I n o r d e r o f numer i c al impor tanc e t he s e were c oc onut , b r e a d f ru i t , a r ec a ( b e t e l ) nut , sago , pandanu s and tauga ­ nu t ( Cy c a s med ia ) t r e e s . E a c h hous eho l d a l s o owned o n e o r two c i trus , �-nut ( T e rm ina l ia o ka r ia ) , mango or b a r kc l o th t r e e s . Sago doe s no t grow w i l d in this a r ea a s i t doe s on mor e l ow - ly ing l and , but numerous sma l l c re eks prov ide s i te s s u i t ab l e for p l an t ­ ing . The 9 3 s a go t r e e s owned b y Jega s e and T imumu p e o p l e a r e suf f i c ient t o mee t the in t e rm i t t en t d emand f o r s a go f or d i s tr ib u ­ t ion a t l a r g e ga the r ing s o r dur ing t h e o c c a s i ona l p e r iod when there are l im i t ed amoun t s of the mor e c ommon c rop s r ea dy to b e Wh enever a tree is harv e s t ed harv e s t e d f r om the v i l l ag e ' s gard ens the owner i s exp e c t e d to s ha r e the s a go w id e l y w i th the o ther v il la g e r s whe ther t h ey a r e h i s a gna te s or no t . Mo s t v i l l ager s had l iv ed in s ev era l v i l l a g e s , som e o f which a r e now abandon e d , and had p l an t ed c oc onu t s ther e whic h they s t i l l c la im . They u sua l ly had s im i l a r numb er s s c a t t ered ove r parc e l s o f l and wh ere th ey had gar d ened in the pa s t . S ixty - two per c en t o f a l l t r e e s had b e en p la n t e d o n the pa t r imon ia l l and o f the per s on c la iming the t r e e s . A man o f ten p la n t s t r e e s wh i l e garden ­ ing on the land o f a f f ine s or ma t r i l a tera l kin and the s e t r e e s a r e inher i t ed by t h e p lant er ' s s o n .

1 The s e c la ims were no t thorough l y inv e s t iga t e d but the i r a c curacy wa s c h e c ke d on a numbe r of s amp l e parc e l s where hous eho l d e r s c la imed a s p e c i f ic numb er o f t r e e s o f v a r iou s kind s .

24 I t i s c u s tomary f o r a man t o p l an t a f ew t r e e s o n h is own l and f o r his s i s te r ' s c h i l dren for the i r l a t er u s e . Women s ome t ime s a c quire t r e e s o f the i r own in th i s way but un l e s s a woman i s the s o l e surv iving memb er o f the agna t i c g r oup in wh i c h a r e ve s ted the r igh t s to the l and c arry ing ec onomic tr e e s wh ich she u s e s , she a c q u i r e s no r ight s to s p ec i f ic trees from h e r f a th er . Af t e r mar r iage she ha s only l im i t e d a c c e s s t o h e r p a t r ikin ' s t r e e s who s e produc e s he p r ev iou s l y shared . One hous eho l de r s ta t ed tha t h e wou l d no t expe c t h i s s i s te r t o a s k f o r p r o duc e from h i s t r e e s b e c a u s e h e r husband shou l d have enough o f h i s own . Ano ther onc e l odged a f o rma l c omp l a in t w i th the D ep a r tment of D i s tr ic t Admin i s tra t ion s ta f f aga in s t h i s s i s t e r ' s hu sband who had c ome f r om ano ther v i l l ag e to ha rv e s t one of h i s t r e e s w i thout f i r s t s eeking h i s p e rmi s s i on . The s e re s tr ic t ion s do n o t app ly to a widow who ha s r e turned t o t h e v i l l a g e a s a d ep enden t on h e r f a ther ' s kin ; n o r do they a pp l y t o a ma r r i ed woman i f t h e t r e e s i n que s t i on wer e p l an t e d b y h e r hu sband wh i l e gar d en ing on t h e l and o f h e r g roup . E c onomic t r e e s a r e i d ea l ly inher i t e d pa tr i l in ea l ly in the s ame way as the l a nd of the p lan ter ( s e e p . 3 8 ) . S ome t ime s a man i n ­ h e r i t s tree s f r om h i s f a ther , u s ua l ly i n an a r ea s om e d i s t anc e f rom where he l iv e s , w i thout r e ta in ing propr i e tary r igh t s to h i s f a ther ' s land whe r e t h e t re e s s tand . The he ir then n e e d s to s ee k p erm i s s ion f o r a c c e s s to the t r e e s whi c h h e may have b een a l l owed to r e ta in b y the d e c e a s ed ' s c o - r e s id ent kin who inh er i t ed the l and . On the o ther hand , an ind iv idua l may r e c e ive a s a g i f t ( f rom a d i s ta n t ly r e la t e d kin sman) c on t inuous r igh t s t o t r e e s on l and wh ich he know s w i l l be inh e r i t e d by the donor ' s p a t r i l inea l d e s c endant s . In each o f the s e way s r igh t s t o t r e e s a r e tran s ­ m i t t e d from the p la n t e r t o ano ther p e r s on who do e s no t r ec e iv e t h e p l an t er ' s l a nd . We no t e d one c a s e whe r e a n ind iv idua l s eems to have r e in f o rc e d a c l a im t o inh e r it pa r t i c u la r parc e l s o f t h e l a n d wh i c h he hoped he wou l d s ha r e w i th a no the r h e ir , by p lan t ing p ermane n t t r e e s the r e whi l e garden ing . T h e t r e e s b o r e w i tn e s s to the fac t tha t the s e par t i c u l a r ga r d en ing a r ea s had l ong b een i d en t i f i e d w i th h im . A man may p e r i o d ic a l ly v i s i t a d i s tan t area whe r e h e c l a ims prop r i e tary r igh t s to l a nd wh ich he ha s not gard ened for s ome t ime and ha rv e s t t re e c ro p s , or perhap s hunt ther e , and thereby r ea s s e r t his c l a im to the land , but th i s mec han i sm is doub t l e s s ina d equa t e un l e s s a c l o s e kinsman permanen t ly r e s ident the r e i s w i l l ing t o r e p r e s ent h i s in t e r e s t s a t o ther t ime s . On s p e c ia l f e s t iv e o c c a s ions a l o c a l i z e d pa t r i l i nea l gr oup ha s s ome c a l l on the p r o duc e o f the t r e e s o r ev en o f garden pr o duc e o f r e s iden ts o f o ther v i l lag e s who a r e e ither c lo s e l y r e l a t e d

25 c lansmen or o th e r kin o f member s o f the g roup . B u t t h i s take s the f o rm o f a reque s t to the s e kin to a t t end and to b r ing the food wi th them and the group could never d emand ac c e s s t o the r e s ourc e s o f o ther s . Tab l e 3 R ight s t o ec onomic t r e e s

P lanted by r ightho l d e r or h i s fa ther on the ir own land P la n t e d by r ightho l de r ( o r o th er s ) o n land o f ano ther c lansman in S ivepe o r e l s ewhe r e P l anted by r ightho l de r o n land o f ma t r i l a t era l kin P la n t ed by o ther s on l and o f h i s ma t r: i l a t e r a l kin P l anted b y r ightho l de r on land o f a f f ine s P l a n t ed by r igh tho l de r ( or o ther s ) on l and o f c ogna t ic kin o f ano ther c lan P l an ted w i th in v i l l a g e s i t e s f.

No .

trees 4 63

62

55

7

22

3

31

4

43

6

14

2

1 20

16 100

7 48

Equ ipment

The har dwoo d d ib b l ing s t ic k , t i, i s s t i l l u s ed un iv e r s a l ly for p lan t ing taro . Other tub e r s a r e s ome t imes p lan t e d in mound s ma d e w i th a shov e l b u t a l l o f t h e 4 shov e l s u s ed by membe r s o f the s amp l e ha d b e en f ound ( a t Wor l d War I I Army dump s ) or had b een Every hous eho l d e r owned a t l ea s t 1 bushkn i f e g iv e n to the owner . f o r u s e i n c l ea r ing , weed ing and harv e s t ing ; a l l had 1 a x e or s ome t ime s 2 , and a t l ea s t 1 g ra s s kn i f e . A f ew of the s e t oo l s had b e en r ec e iv e d a s g i f t s . Two hou s eho l de r s ha d p i c ks and 2 o th e r s had b o th hammer and s aw , wh i l e 2 men had only a s aw . T o t a l c urrent rep l a c ement va lue o f a l l the s e too l s , inc l ud ing tho s e f ound or r ec e iv e d a s g i f t s , is £ 50 . 6 . 0d . The 2 sho t gun s owned ( apar t f r om l ic enc e s ) .

g.

by

2 men wou l d c o s t r ough ly £ 30 each

Labour

We c onduc t ed a p i l o t s urvey of the pa t t erns of wor k among memb e r s of our s amp l e for 6 we eks . 1 Approx ima te t imes were F r om 1 0 . 1 2 . 62 to 2 0 . 1 . 63 a s im i l a r surv ey wa s c a rr i ed ou t at I nonda ( C r o c ombe and Hogb in 1 9 63 : 61 ) and ful l er s tud i e s by P . Kr i nks and E . Wadde l l a r e now b e ing p r epared f o r pub l ic a t ion .

26 r e c o rded ev ery a f te rnoon , when each ab l e - b o d ied a du l t wa s a s ked how he ha d d i s tr ib u t e d h i s working hour s . O f the p opu l a t i on of 5 0 , 2 5 were ab l e - b o d i e d p e r s on s ov e r the age of 1 6 . 1 The s e fa l l into 2 d i s t inc t c a t e go r i e s ac c ord ing to a g e . S even hous eho l d e r s a r e b e tween the a g e s o f 45 and 6 5 y ea r s , a n d t h e o ther 5 b e tween 25 and 35 y ea r s of a g e . There were no younger men o r boy s ove r 1 5 y ea r s in t h e v i l l a g e . F ive o f t h e women were a g e d 4 5 o r mo r e , 5 were b e tween 2 5 and 30 , and 3 young er women who s e hu sband s were ab s ent in emp l oyment , were s tay ing w i th the i r kin in the v i l l a g e . On e Jega s e woman wa s a t o t a l c r ipp l e .

N ine o f the 24 chi l dr en a t t end s choo l and 1 1 a r e 5 y ea r s o f a g e o r und er . The r e s t , 2 boys a n d 2 g ir l s i n the 1 0 - 1 5 a g e g r oup gave on ly in t e rm i t tent a s s i s ta nc e in garden wor k . The boys wou l d o f ten g o hun t ing b u t we r e no t engaged i n produc t iv e wor k a s r e gu l a r l y a s the ir e l d e r s . The g ir l s ha d a r e l a t iv e ly h eavy s chedu l e o f dome s t ic chore s .

The hous eho l d c onta in ing a nuc l ear fami l y i s the ba s ic uni t o f produc t i on a nd c on s ump t ion . Member s o f a n expanded fam i l y u s ua l ly ma ke the ir gard ens on a d j ac ent p l o t s and the men u s ua l ly c o - opera t e i n t h e h eav ier c l ea r ing wor k . I t s memb e r s usua l ly t r av e l tog e th e r t o th e ir gard ens , but e a c h hous eho l d th en c ul t iva t e s i t s garden a l one . Apa r t f r om the harve s t ing , wh ich i s the ta s k o f women , the d iv i s ion o f lab our b e tween s ex e s in garden ing a c t iv i t i e s s eems t o b e f l ex ib l e i n each h ou s eho l d . Women a s s i s t i n c l e a r i n g under­ growth for new gardens and men j o in them in p l ant ing a nd weed ing . I t wi l l b e s een f r om Tab l e 4 tha t men s p en t nea r ly a s muc h t ime as the women in sub s i s t enc e garden ing dur ing our s urvey . Hous e -bu i l d ing i s c a rr ied ou t genera l l y b y the hous eho l der and a ny a du l t s on s , w i th only o c c a s i ona l a s s i s tanc e f r om a ne ighb our or another kinsma n . W iv e s s ome t ime s h e l p to prepare ma ter ia l s such as sago tha tch for the r o o f . La rger wor k- group s than the s e a r e s e l dom mob i l i z e d f o r sub s i s ­ t enc e a c t iv i t i es . 2 One o r 2 men c an rea d i ly c l ear enough s ec onda ry g r ow th f o r t h e ir own n e e d s and l it tle c o - op erat ion i s 1

Inc luded among the s e were 1 man who s e a c t iv i ty wa s r e s t r ic t e d b y tub ercu l o s i s , a n d ano ther v ery o l d man . However , b o th ma in ta ined the i r own gardens . 2 E . Wa dde l l ( p e r s ona l c ommun ic a t i on) sugg e s t s tha t a s s i s tanc e w i th hous e -bu i l d ing i s no t ' oc c a s iona l ' but ' c on s iderab l e ' e s p e c ia l ly w i th making roo f s ; he a l s o p o in t s out tha t l ar g e work- g roup s a r e a s s emb l ed for harv e s t ing yams (which do no t need to b e l e f t in the g r ound for s to ra g e ) . Ne i ther type of c o - op e r a t ion wa s in ev idenc e dur ing our s ho r t s urvey o f work pa t t erns .

27

required to bu i l d the shor t p i g f enc e p r o t ec t ing the averag e garden . A hou s e i s r e p l a c e d by interm i t tent wor k on c on s truc t ion ove r a p e r io d of s evera l weeks . C o - opera t i on w i th hous eho l d s out s ide the expanded fami ly i s usua l ly o n the b a s i s o f a s s i s tanc e g iv en f o r a d a y or two b y an ind iv idua l to f u l f i l s ome kin ship ob l iga t ion or t o h e lp a neighb our who i s s ic k . Any a s s i s tanc e a man r ec e iv e s u s ua l ly c ome s from ind iv idua l kin ra ther than a working p a r ty c omp o s e d o f h i s agna te s . Thi s may b e b e c au s e S ivepe i s one e xamp l e o f th e type o f Me lanes ian s oc i e t i e s where c lans or the ir s egmen t s ' ar e sma l l a n d c ommun i t i e s c omp o s ed o f s evera l , p ermi t t ing l o c a l endogamy ' a n d c o - op era t i on w i th l oc a l kin a n d a f f in e s d i lut e s the s tr ength o f the un i l inea l group ( Brown 1 9 62 : 68 ) .

The wor k p a t t erns we r e c orded a r e summar i z e d in T ab l e 4 . The f igure for the t ime ta ken up by s ic kn e s s ( inc lud ing c a r ing for the s ic k) was a f f ec t e d by the fac t s tha t dur ing the s urvey 2 hou s eho l d e r s s u f f e r e d from l eng thy b ou t s o f ma l a r ia ( 1 wa s ho s p i t a l i z ed) and tha t s om e women needed to a t t end to the ir s ic k c h i l dr en ; the f igure for t rav e l wa s a f f ec t e d b y the ab s enc e for s ev era l days of 1 hous eho l de r and his wife who wa l ke d t o Popond e t ta where they had bus ine s s a t the D i s tr ic t Of f ic e . The extreme wea ther c ond i t ion s exper i enc e d dur ing our survey 2 6 . 3 inc h e s o f ra in in 1 month w i th 2 5 wet days f o l l owed by a l ong per iod wi thout ra in - r e s t r ic te d b o th th e rang e of s ub s i s t enc e ac t iv i t i e s pos s ib l e a nd to s ome ex tent the t ime ava i lab l e f o r them . The amoun t of t ime d evo t ed to sub s i s t enc e and c a s h c rop garden ing wa s apprec iab ly l ower dur ing each of 3 weeks wh i c h were mar ked by the c e l eb ra t ion of non - trad i t iona l f e s t iva l s . S evera l v i lla g e r s were among a group o f 100 p e op l e bap t i z e d a s Ang l ic a n s a t Sa s emba ta Mi s s ion . Dur ing the week t h i s o c c ur red the women o f the s ampl e d evo t ed mor e t ime to prepa r ing f o r and a t t end ing the r i tua l than to ec onomic ac t iv i t i e s . The men a l s o s p ent mor e t ime than u sua l in the v i l lag e , s ev era l of them bu i l d ing or r epa i r ing hous e s . Mo s t o f the men s p en t s ever�l hour s wa tching the b ap t i sm i t s e l f . A l though the bap t i sm d i ff er e d from the l i fe - c r i s e s trad i t io na l ly c e l eb ra t ed b y fea s t s , a numb er of sma l l indep enden t ga ther ing s t o mark the tran s i t ion w e r e h e l d a fterwar d s in the v i l lage by the c l o s e kin o f tho s e bapt i z e d . Re l ig i ou s o b s ervanc e s wer e a c c orded a l i t t l e mor e t ime dur ing the week o f Chri s tma s than in norma l we e ks . Ther e were no f e s t iv i t i e s w i th in the v i l lage t o ma rk the o c c a s ion and c hurch a t t endanc e wa s the only o rgan i ze d C hr i s tma s c e l eb ra t ion exc ep t f o r c er emo � i a l a t S a iho wh ich a f ew S ivepe p eo p l e a t t ended on Boxing Day . S ev e ra l peop l e were d i s ab l ed by a t ta c ks of ma l a r ia a t the t ime b u t f ew o f the o th e r s c on s idered the s e 2 day s a s

28

regular wo rking day s . One man o n vac a t ion f r om regu l a r pa id emp l oyment wo rked b o th day s w i th his w i f e in h i s s ub s i s t enc e garden but mo s t r e laxed in the v i l lage or v i s i t ed kin smen . Tab l e 4

T ime pa t t erns ( 6 weeks ) (Av erage hour s per week) T rad i t iona l ac t iv i t i e s * Garden ing Hunt ing , f i s h ing Bu i l d ing

Income - ea rn ing a c t iv i t ie s

Pa id wor k C a s h c ro p s

Non - ec onomic ac t iv i t i e s** S ic k T rav e l Re l ig io n Counc il T OTAL

Men

Women

1 3 . 50

15 . 19

1 7 . 53

16 . 77

1 . 29 2 . 73

2 . 60 0 . 79 3 . 39

4 . 94

4 . 14 0 . 96

1 . 19 0 . 39

0 . 31

0 . 31 3 . 81 2 . 51 3 . 97

s ex e s 14 . 35 1 . 24 1. 5 6 1 7 . 15

1 . 30

0 . 55

1 . 85

4 . 38

3 . 33 2 . 46 0 . 92

0 . 41 10 . 45

1 1. 72

1 1 . 09

3 1. 3 7

2 8 . 80

30 . 0 9

1 . 44

*Exc l ud ing dome s t ic act iv i t ie s . ** F o r c ompara t iv e purpo s e s , we have r e c o r d ed day s taken up by n on - pr o duc t ive a c t iv i t ie s , s uc h as trav e l ( in ­ c lud ing v i s i t ing and ab s enc e f o r r ea s on s o f o th e r s o c ia l ob l iga t ion s ) a s 7 hour s , t h e s tanda r d u s ed b y C r o c omb e a n d Hogb in a t I nonda ( 1 9 63 : 62 ) .

A t en d e n c y f o r men to r egard the s ea s on a s a t im e f o r r enewing s o c ia l c ontac t s became mor e apparent in the week of the New Y ea r . A l though New Year ' s day wa s no t s pe c i f ica l ly ob s erved , the men who were we l l enough s p en t a t l e a s t 1 day o f the week v i s i t ing kin in o ther v i l l a g e s . Women t o o s p en t more t im e than usua l away f r om the v i l l a g e b u t by New Year they we r e a l s o r e s um ing the rout ine o f sub s i s t enc e ga rden ing . A genera l inc r ea s e i n mov ement b e tween v i l l a g e s in the a r ea a p p ea r s t o be usua l at th i s t ime o f the year . S evera l v i l l ag er s u s ed t o v i s i t Kokoda a t th e New Year t o trade tra d i t iona l va l uab l es w i th m emb e r s o f o ther t r ib e s .

C ha p t er 3

Land t enur e and s o c ia l s tru c ture a.

The

t r ib e and

c la n a s t e rr i tor ia l o r po l i t ic a l

un i t s

T h i s s e c t ion ou t l ine s the range o f w i d er c ommon t err i tor ia l int e re s t s and c o nc er te d po l i t ic a l a c t ion among t ra d i t iona l group ing s . C lans a r e the l arge s t un i t s in whi c h memb e r s h ip i s d e t e rmin ed b y pa t r i l inea l f i l ia t ion a s d i s t inc t f r om the l oca l a l l eg ianc e und er l y ing memb e r s h ip of the t r ib e , and o f the ' d i s tr ic t ' , v i l l ag e , e tc . , into wh ich the t r ib e may be d iv ided .

The tr ib e i s the l a r ge s t un i t wh ich ha s a c ommon t e r r i tory (Wi l l iams 1 9 3 0 : 1 5 6 - 7 ) . Th i s is u s ua l ly i s o l a t ed f r om n e i ghb our ­ ing t r ib a l terr i to r i e s by a b e l t o f un inhab i t ed coun try and i t s o c c upant s wou l d s p eak o f i t a s ' one ground ' , pu su tahavo . The t er r i to r i e s of g roup s of various o rders o f inc l u s iv ene s s w i th in th e t r ib e a r e a l s o d e s c r ib e d in th i s way ( s e e W i l l iams 0 . 3 64 ; 1 9 30 : 1 5 7 ) .

Memb er s o f a group of any o f the s e l ev e l s m igh t c on s i d e r them ­ s e lve s a s t oho , ' c ount rymen ' ( s e e W i ll iams 1 9 30 : 1 6 6 ; 0 . 1 00 , 3 64) . I n another c on t ex t a g roup wou l d c on s ider o ther s in the s ame t r ib e a s ki toho ( ou t s i d er s , a l i ens ) . A l l memb e r s o f t h e t r ib e s ha r e d c ommon enmi t ie s s o tha t a t t imes they wou l d r egard them s e lv e s a s toho whe r e a s n e i ghbour ing t r ib e s were a lway s c on s idered ki t oho . 1 There wer e c u s t omary r e s tr ic t i on s upon f eud ing w i thin the t r ib e . As W i l l iams ( 1 9 30 : 3 0 9 f f . ) po in t s ou t , th i s po l i t i c a l un i t i s the larg e s t group w i th i t s own in tragroup mora l i ty , in t h i s c a s e sharply d i s t ingu i sh ed from the s tandar d f o rms o f ho s t i l i ty b e tween t r ib e s . Agg re s s io n aga ins t memb e r s o f a no th e r t r ib e t o o k the form o f o rgan i z e d , o f t en c ann iba l is t ic ra ids ( i s o r o ) . W i l l iams ( 1 9 30 : 1 60 ) m en t ions exc ept ions wher e ' f r iend s h ip ok a f f in i ty b e tween c er ta in t r ib e s a l lowed the use of the f ormer wo r d ' ( toho) , b u t ' tr ib e s . . n o rma l ly s tand in the mu tua l r e l a t ion of Ki tohu ' ( s ic ) ( ib id : 1 7 0 ; s ee a l s o 0 . 1 00 , 3 64) . .

29

30

There were o r d ina r i l y no p e r s on s who c ou l d c ommand the a l l eg ianc e o f the tribe as a who l e , nor wa s the r e any s ta tu s w i th autho r i ty to e f f ec t the s et t l ement of d i spu t e s b e tween d i f f er ent s ub gr oup s o r the i r ind iv i dua l memb e r s . S om e t im e s per s i s t en t intra t r iba l c on f l i c t s l e d t o shor t - te rm m igra t i on or t o a s p l in t er ­ g roup ' s s ec e s s ion f r om the t r ib e . However , the s e d i s turbanc e s were very minor i n c ompa r i s on w i th the ' f l ight , d i s per s a l and migra t ion ' in g enera l r e s u l t ing f r om inc e s sant int e r tr ib a l 1 f eud s ( s ee p . 3 5 ) . Kins h ip and l o c a l a f f i l ia t ion t o g e ther wer e the b a s ic pr inc i p l e s by wh ich subgroup s o f the ra id ing � ar ty s eem t o have b e en d rawn up dur ing a t ta c k and on wh ich l ea d e r s w i th in the pa r ty b a s ed the ir r ight s to c ommand s p e c i f ic c omb a tan t s . Re ta l ia t ion wa s a s impor tant a mo t ive f o r i s oro a s wa s ind iv i ­ dua l and group p re s t i ge . I t wa s ' ra r e i f no t impo s s ib l e ' f o r t r ib e s to s e t tl e ho s t i l i t i e s amicab ly by c omp en s a t i o n , exchange o f ho s tage s o r o th er means ( W i ll iams 1 9 30 : 1 6 6 , 1 70 f f . , 3 11 f f. ) .

C onquer ing group s op era t ing f r om within the i r e s tab l i shed t e r r i to r ia l f ront i e r s s eem s e l dom t o have s e t o u t w i th th e exp r e s s a im o f a c qu i r ing n ew land f o r s e t t l emen t o r ev en t o have u s ed the vaca t ed land when they f or c e d the ir enemi e s to w i thdraw . 3 Nev er ­ the l e s s , the Aiga peop l e (mo s t l y the T imb a r iund i , i . e . , wandere r s ) , f o r ins tanc e , a r e known t o have mi gra t e d to the i r p r e s en t terr i t o ry by exp e l l ing another t r ib e and s e t t l ing on the ir l and . The high va l ue o f the land o n th e v o l c anic s l op e s o c c u p i e d b y the peop l e c a l l ed ' Pe r iho ' a nd ' Wa s ida ' (by P la n t and W i l l iams , 1

' In ter t riba l ' , ' in t e r c l a n ' , e tc . , a r e t e rms wh ich we a p p l y t o r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween any - i . e . , no t nec e s s a r i l y a l l - r e p r e ­ s enta t iv e s o f the uni t s in que s t i on . 2 I n the c our s e o f a ra id , s ome o f the s e l ea d e r s woul d a s s um e the ro l e of i s o r o ambo j igar i , a man who shou l d ra l ly the s l owe s t o f h i s c ompany i n a t ta c k and p r o t e c t t h e s tr a g g l er s dur ing w i thd rawa l ; the o th e r c l a s s of l ea d e r wa s known a s i s oro ki t i j iga r i , tha t i s , a war r io r who o rd inar i ly d irec t s r a i d ing g roup s from in f ront and t a ke s th e in i t ia t iv e in tac t ic a l d ec i s ion s . Ki t i j igar i i s s ome ­ t ime s a t e rm f o r l ea de r s in o r d ina ry v i l la g e a c t iv i t i e s ( ki t i , the f ir s t , f o r emo s t ; j ig a r i , one who d i rec t s and c on tr o l s an e n t e rp r i s � ; c f . pp . 5 1 - 3 . S e e a l s o W i l l iam s (W . 2 3 ) who wa s t o l d tha t in p re ­ c on ta c t t im e s a renowned memb er o f Sarahu c lan wou l d l e a d from b eh ind in a t ta c ks by men o f th e. Jega s i - Sarahu v i l la g e s ( of t h e ' Wa s ida ' tr ib e ) .

3 As the Sangara d id t o the D iv in i kovar i , f o r ins tanc e (Wi l l iams

0 . 12) .

31

s ee p . 6) and by the S a ngara wou l d hav e b e en c omm o n knowl edge but the ne ighb our ing tr ib e s on the p l a in s wer e we l l endowed w i th l an d . Land sho r tage and t err i to r ia l amb i t ions were s e l d om l ike ly t o have b e en .suf f ic i en t to induc e warr ior s t o c onquer n ew l and s f r om tra d i t iona l enem i e s . l W i l l iams ( 1 9 30 : 1 5 1 ) say s tha t the Hun j ov a r ehu ( inc lud ing the p eo p l e o f D iv in ikova r i ) and the ' Wa s ida ' p eop l e t o the i r s ou th a r e 2 s ub d iv i s ion s o f 1 t r ib e b u t in o ther c on t ext s ( 1 9 30 : 1 6 6 ) h e men t ion s tha t th e s e 2 g roup s c a r r ie d o u t or gan i z e d ra id s on each o th er ' s t e r r i t o ry ; th e s e were f r e quent and wer e cha ra c t e r i s t i c o n l y o f in t e r t r ib a l f eud s . H e r e f e r s a l s o to t h e ' Wa s ida ' a s t rad i t iona l enem i e s o f the D iv in i kova r i ' tr ib e ' ( 0 . 9 ) . Monc kto n too ( T er r i tory o f Papua 1 904- 5 : 3 6) h a d r e p o r t e d tha t the ' Wa s ida ' u s ed f r e q u en t l y to ra id ' the l ow - ly ing v i l la g e s of the Kumus i ' inc l ud ing the N imanakwa r i ( or D iv in i kova r i ) ' tr ib e ' ; inde e d , the anc e s t o r s o f s ome o f the men at S ivepe wer e ki l l ed wh i l e f igh t ing the D iv in i kova r i , T o gahau and A s i g i p eop l e t o the nor th . ' The p e o p l e known as Hun j ovarehu ' and ' th e peop l e of th e P e r iho group ' , a c c o r d ing to P l ant , shou l d not b e r egarded a s memb e r s o f the s ame tr ib e ( 1 9 5 1 : App end ix 4) . I n f o rman t s s a i d tha t the ir a nc e s tor s wer e no t invo lved in the i s o r o wh ich the Wa s i da v i l l a g e r s f ough t w i th the Oroka iva o f Sa irope - and a t t ime s wi th tho s e a t Baro p i (Wa irop e ) - and w i th the p e op l e of the Mana ga l a s Moun ta ins to the s ou th ( s ee R eay 1 9 5 3 : 1 1 8 ; W i l l iams W . 2 3 ) .

Our r ea s on f o r a r g u ing tha t a l l the moun t a in Oroka iva - the Sanga ra as we l l as t h e P e r iho ( i . e . , Wa s ida) - c on s t i tu t e d 1 t r ib e , i s tha t the b a s ic c r i t e r ion f o r i d en t i f y in g a t r ib e a s a d i s t inc t un i t i s i t s memb e r s ' j o in t p o l i t ica l ac t iv i ty , a s W i ll i ams s ay s ( 1 9 2 5 : 40 6 ; 1 9 30 : 1 5 6) the ' a lmo s t p er p e tua l s ta t e o f wa r w i th i t s n e i ghb our s ' . -

In f eud s w i th ne i ghbour ing Oro ka iva o f t r ib e s t o the nor th , memb e r s of the Awa l a D i s t r ic t had r egular a l l ianc e s w i th peop l e a s d i s tant a s Ko ropa t a t o the w e s t and the Sanga r a t o the ea s t . However , on no o c c a s i o n known t o u s d id the moun t a in Oro ka iva a s a who l e c omb ine in d e f enc e o r a t tac k en ma s s e . I t i s even un l ike l y tha t the P e r iho 'we l d e d them s e lv e s in t o a s o l id group ' , wh ich P l an t ( 1 9 5 1 : 3 ) c la ims ' wa s ba s ed on po l i t ic a l n ec e s s i t y ' , d e f ended a r e c og n i z ed c ommon b ounda ry and c omb ined t o c onduc t i s oro a s a un i t . 2 A t the t ime o f pac i f ic a t ion they a l on e mu s t Th i s i s true o f a lmo s t a l l New Gu inea s o c ie t ie s , wha t ev er the extent of the i r po l i t ic a l o r ga n i z a t ion : e xc ep t ions inc l u d e Ch imbu and the Ma e Enga ( s e e B r own and B r o o kf i e l d 1 9 5 9 : 42 ) . ?

� P lant ' s inc l u s ion o f the Wa irop i and Sa irop i d i s tr ic t s in the t r ib e ( s e e p . 6 ) is ha rd to rec onc i l e w i th s ta t emen t s by W i l l iam s (W . 2 3 ) a nd by R eay ( 1 9 5 3 : 1 1 8 ) .

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have numb er e d s evera l thousand a t l ea s t ( no r d id they have a ' d i s t inc t d ia l e c t a n d a un i f o rmi ty o f c u s t om ' tha t m i gh t ind i c a t e tha t they b y them s e lv e s c on s t i tu t e d a t r ib e ) . Ev ery Oro ka iva p er s on i s r ec ru i te d by b i r th to the c la n o f h i s fa the r . Al l memb e r s o f th i s d e s c en t un i t c la im b u t c anno t t ra c e 1 c ommon pa t r i l inea l de s c en t f r om a u s ua l ly eponymou s anc e s to r ; they do no t a lway s s ha r e the s ame p lant emb l em ( erahu) 2 c ommon l y h e l d by pa t r i l inea l group s . A large numb er o f c la n s a r e inc luded among the mounta in Oroka iva ; c l an memb e r s h ip d o e s no t o f t e n ove r lap w i th t r iba l memb e r ship ( though s e e W i l l iams 1 92 8 : 40 6 ; 1 9 3 0 : 1 54) . I t i s v ery r a r e f o r the c la n t o ac t a s a p o l i t i c a l un i t , wha t ev e r i t s func t ions i n the pa s t . W i l l iams ( 1 9 30 : 10 2 - 8) ha s in m ind a d i f ­ f erent kind o f un i t ( a sma l l , u sua l ly l o c a l iz e d group ' un i t e d by f ee l ing s of a c tua l kinship ' , s ca r c e ly mo r e d i s tant than nuc l ea r f am i l y r e la t ionship s ) wh en h e says t h e c la n wa s ' c o - op era t iv e . . . in r e sp e c t t o c er emon i e s and f ea s t s , and mo r e impor t an t ly o f f ight ing ' . There a r e s ev e r a l c la n s r ep re s en ted in th e g r ea t ma j or i ty o f the p r e s en t v i l l a g e s a n d fragmen t s o f the s ame c la n s - wha t we c a l l c lan branc h e s 3 - wi l l be f ound s c a t t er e d among s im i l a r c ompo s i t e v i l l a g e s , o f t en a c on s id erab l e d i s tanc e away .

C lans a r e n o t l inked t o form a wider d e s c en t gr oup . S ome memb e r s of 2 or mo r e d i s t inc t named c lans , who s e a nc e s tor s were a l l at one t ime known by the one c lan name , s ome t ime s p ro f e s s c l o s e r t i e s t o one ano th e r f o r th i s r ea s on . Jega s e c la n , for ins tanc e , i s s a id t o hav e f o rme r ly inc lud e d g roup s wh ich have b e c ome indep enden t c la n s . 1

T h i s d i sa g re e s w i th W i l l iams ' d e s c r ip t ion ( 1 93 0 : 1 0 8 ) wh ich show s no c l ea r d i s t in c t ion b e tween the c la n and l inea g e ( s e e Roya l An thropo l og i c a l I ns t i tu t e 1 9 60 : 8 8 - 90 ) . 2 Da ta f r om Awa l a and Wa s ida v i l l a g e s ( s e e W i l l iam s 0 . 8 3 ; and Append ix D) d i f f e r s f r om the inf orma t ion f r om I nonda ( C roc omb e and Hogb in 1 9 63 : 1 6) . 3 No t e tha t W i l l iam s ( 1 9 2 5 : 4 1 0 and 4 2 0 ) us e s e i ther the t erm ' l o c a l

c la n b ranch ' o r ' subc l a n ' to d eno t e ' an inc i p i e n t c lan ' wh ich ha s mov ed away f r om the parent g r oup b u t r e ta ins e i ther the o r ig ina l c la n name wh i l e a c qu i r in g a new p l ant emb l em or the o r i g ina l p la n t emb l em wh i l e a s sum ing a new c lan name . E l s ewher e ( 1 9 2 8 : 1 2 5 ) he d e s c r ib e s how s ome c l ans o c c upy s ev era l v i l la g e s o r par t s o f v i l lages . S ome ' branche s ' o r ' s ec t ions ' may have a d op t e d a d i s t inc t iv e name o r t a ken po s s e s s i on o f the sub d iv i s i o n o f f o rmer c l an l and they o c c upy , wh i l e o ther s may no t yet have t a ken e i ther s t ep ( ib id . ) .

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A l though i t i s s a id that memb er s o f the s e c lans wer e a l l ie s in the p a s t and t o day the i r l oc a l b ranche s in the one n e i ghb ourhoo d in t e rmarry , the i r r e la t ion s ip to o n e ano ther in r ega r d t o l a n d i s no t d ir e c t l y � e te rm in e d b y t h e r ec ogn i t ion o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l t ie b e tween them . P lant ( 1 9 5 1 : App e nd ix 2) s ug g e s t s tha t ano ther inf o rma l l in k ex i s t s b e twe en c l an s who s e f ound e r s are s a id to have b e en a l l ie s o r a s s o c ia t e s . The typ i c a l d i sp er s ed c lan among the mounta in Oro ka iva now appear s to b e on l y a s oc ia l c a t e go ry . I t s memb e r s s t i l l a c know ­ l edge c ommon d e s c ent f r om a s ing l e a nc e s to r and have inhe r i te d the s am e nam e , but th i s g iv e s them no sp ec i a l a cc e s s t o each o ther s ' l and . Men have only a s up er f ic ia l a c q u a in tanc e w i th the l and o f o ther b ranc h e s o f the ir c lan . Nor d o e s th e c lan s e em t o f unc t ion as a gr oup in any o th e r s phere of a c t iv i ty . 2

I n the pa s t the s c a t t e r ing of c l an fragment s in d is tant v i l l a g e s p robab ly s erve d an impo r tant func t ion i n fac i l i ta t in g t rave l , b u t

c l ansh ip h a s b e e n a lmo s t who l ly rep l a c ed in th i s capa c ity b ec a u s e a trave l l e r now c an u s ua l ly r e c e ive h o s p i ta l i ty f r om var ious k in s ­ men , o f t en c l o s e ly r e l a te d , who a r e wid ely d i sp er s e d , f o r o n e o r ano ther r ea s on a s so c i a t ed w i th s oc ia l a n d ec onom i c change i n the ar ea .

We have no d e ta i l s c onc ern ing e i ther the p r e s en t numb er and s i z e of c lans among the mounta in Oro ka iva or the ext en t of th e i r f ra gmenta t io n . Ther e i s no doub t that the g rowth o f m o r e nuc l ea t ed v i l l a g e s s inc e the 1 9 5 1 erup t ion o f Mt Lam ing ton ( s e e S e e s b . and e . of th i s chap t e r ) is a s ig n i f i c an t unc on t r o l l ed va r iab l e in any inf er enc e f r om a s i tua t ion p re c e d ing the e rup t i o n . Never the l e s s , we th ink that a r ea s onab l e ind ica t ion o f the p r e s e n t pa t t ern o f P lant ( 1 9 5 1 : 3 and Append ix 2 ) , how eve r , i s i n c omp l e t e a g r e ement wi th W i l l iams ( 1 9 2 8 : 1 2 6 f f . ) and s ay s tha t ' owne r sh ip o f l and is v e s t e d in the c lan ' ; a l though th i s owner ship i s nomina l and in prac t ic e each b ranch of the c lan regards the land it u s e s as i ts own , p eo p l e f r om one v i l l a g e agr e e that the i r c la n smen e l s ewh ere hav e ' every r igh t t o c ome and s e t t l e at the i r v i l l a g e a nd tha t land wou l d b e mad e ava i l ab l e to th em ' and s im i l a r r igh t s wou l d b e c onc eded b y memb e r s o f a ' pa r en t c lan ' to o n e o f it s b ranche s wh ich ha s a s sumed a n ew c lan name . 2 Fur ther in f o rma t ion now b e ing c o l l ec t e d a t S iv ep e by the New Guinea Re s ea r c h Un i t w i l l show whe ther or not th i s s ta t ement h o l d s f o r ec onomic a c t iv i t ie s i n g enera l ; c f . the s e c la n s w i th the S ta r Mounta in s p a t r ic lan ( J . Pouwer in Wa t s on , e d . , 1 9 64 : 1 3 6) wh ich c an ' b e s t b e char a c t e r i z ed a s a name group , s inc e the c l an name pa s s e s from fa ther to s on ' , and ' i s n e i ther exogamou s nor c orpora t e w i th r e s p ec t to p o l it ic a l , s o c ia l , r e l ig ious o r l ega l ma t t e r s ' .

34 c lan d i s tr ib u t ion c a n b e ob ta ine d from t h e f o l l ow ing s umma ry o f d iver s e info rma t i on f rom the moun ta in Oroka iva a n d the Aiga . The peop l e grouped under the name s I s iv i ta 1 and 2 and Sa s emba t a 1 and 2 numb ered more than 1 , 60 0 in 1 948 and o c c up i ed 44 v i l l a ge s . B y the t ime of the e rup t i on i n 1 9 5 1 the numb er o f v i l l a ge s had b e en r e duc e d t o 2 7 ( s e e P lan t 1 9 5 1 : Append ix 3 ) and 40 c lans had branc h e s in one or mor e of them - the r e were at l ea s t 1 7 c la n b ra nc he s i n v i l l a g e s o ther than t h es e , r ep re s en t ing 6 o f the 40 c la ns . E l even o f the I s iv i ta and Sa s emba ta v i l la g e s c on ­ s i s te d only o f membe r s o f 1 c lan , a l though only 3 o f the s e v i l l a g e s c on s t i tu t ed a who l e c lan .

W i l l iam s ( 1 92 8 : 1 24 ; 1 9 30 : 1 0 1 ) s ugge s t s tha t a p er i o d i c in ­ c rea s e in the ' mu l t ip l ic i ty o f sma l l c la n s ' , c a u s e d by s ub d iv is ion , i s o n l y ' in p a r t n eu t ra l i z ed by the dy ing out o f o l der c l ans ' . He says tha t ther e is a mar ke d c on s i s t ency in c lan orga n i z a t ion throughou t the Oro ka iva a r ea ( 1 9 2 5 : 40 6) 1 and in 1 9 2 3 the g enera li ­ z a t i on tha t ' l o c a l and l in ea l group s s eem to b e la r g e l y c o inc ident ' wa s t rue o f the Jega s i - Sa rahu , i . e . , the Wa s ida g roup o f v i l l a g e s (W . 1 0 , 3 1 ) . I n th i s c on t ext he a d d s that thi s pa t t ern wa s a l t e r ed s omewha t by the d i sp er s a l caus ed by a s p ec ia l fac t o r : a n a t ta c k by the f ir s t g overnment pa t r o l on Wa s ida and ne i ghbour ing v i l la ge s . He d o e s no t r e c o r d the r e l evan t c la n b ra nc h e s p r e s en t in l o c a l group s o ther than the 1 5 J ega s i - S a rahu v i l l a g e s o f the tr ibe , b u t 5 o f t h e 7 c la n s l i s t e d a r e s een t o b e repre s ent ed in mor e than one v i l l a g e . However , only 2 of the 1 5 v i l la g e s c on t a ine d 2 c lan b ranche s . The ave r a g e v i l la g e c on s i s t e d o f 6 hou s e s ( no rma l ly nuc l ea r fam i l i e s ) and a s ing l e -b oy s ' hou s e ( W . l ) , p erhap s 2 5 p eop l e in a l l. Da t a c o l l ec te d in 1 92 4 among the Aiga s how tha t the r e were 3 7 c la n s among the 5 0 v i l la g e s o f the t r ib e , w i th a n ave r a g e o f abou t 3 5 memb er s , o r p e rhap s ' a do z en fam i l i e s ' , i n eac h c l an (Wi l l iams 1 9 30 : 7 , 1 0 1 ; 1 92 5 : 4 1 8 ) . W i l l iams s a y s tha t the ' no rma l ' , ' typ ica l ' o r ' o r ig ina l ' r e s id en t ia l group wa s t h e ' c la n -v i l la g e ' c la n a nd v i l l a g e wer e c o ex t en s iv e ( 1 9 2 5 : 40 7 ; 1 9 2 8 : 1 2 4 ; 1 9 3 0 : 1 03 , 3 1 0 ; and 1 0 7 , 1 3 1 ) - but no t e s tha t i n the l a r g e r v i l l a g e s there In fac t , 1 2 of the 2 4 were ' o f t en two c la n s or more ' ( 1 9 2 5 : 40 7 ) . c lans l i s t ed i n 3 6 o f t h e A i ga v i l la g e s had 2 o r mor e b ra nc h e s th ere ( 0 . 1 9 , 2 0 ) . Ye t W i l l i ams m ight then have a rgued tha t in such in s tanc e s f i s s ion wou l d s o on be c omp l e t ed a nd ' th e norma l c o nd i t ion s r e s t o re d , v i z . the c lan l oc a l ly un i f i ed and in C f . Reay 1 9 5 3 : 1 10 : W i l l i ams ' info rma t io n on the Aiga , B inande l e a n d T a in Dawar e t r i b e s r evea l s ' a s o c ia l organ i z a t ion prac t ic a l ly iden t i c a l w i th tha t o f the Wa s ida p eop l e ' ; s e e a l s o W i ll iams 1 9 30 : 7 .

35

po s s e s s i on o f i t s own trac t s o f land ' ( 1928 : 1 2 5) . I n v iew o f the unc e r ta i n t i e s r e ga r d ing a t t r ib u t e s wh ich , we have no ted , W i l l iams a s s oc ia t e s w i th t h e ' c lan ' , w e c an no t readi ly s ay whe ther our d i s c u s s ion in the f o l l ow ing s ec t ions c onf irms o r c o n t rad i c t s th i s s ta t ement o n land t enur e .

F igh t ing w i th in the t r ib e ( emb oge) , though frequen t , wa s governed by r e s t r ic t iv e c onv e n t io n s ab s e n t f r om th e c onduc t o f Organ i z e d aggr e s s ion wa s rare and th e de l ib era t e ra id s d e l ib e r a t e d e s t ruc t ion and homic ide charac t er i s t ic o f the tr ib a l ra id were ab s en t from t h e s kirm i she s which aro s e p e r i o d ic a l l y in the c our s e of ord inary int e rc l an : r e l a t i on sh ip s . D i sagreement ov er r igh t s t o land in the n e ighb ourho od wa s one o f a numb e r o f c au s e s o f i n t e r c lan ho s t i l i t i e s ( s ee W i ll iams 1 9 30 : 1 0 7 , 1 63 ) . B u t we f ound no ev i d enc e from th e a r ea d i s c u s s ed in th i s r e p o r t t o ind i c a t e tha t land d i s p u t e s b e tween memb e r s o f d i f f e r ent c la ns invo lv ed the mob i l i zat i o n o f the ir d e sc en t g r oup s . Inf ormant s f irmly deni e d tha t p eop l e wou l d r e s o r t t o a t tac king n e i ghb our s f r om ano ther c lan in o r d er to ac quir e land . 1

In pr e s en t i n g a p i c t u r e o f c on t inuo u s f eud ing b e tween l o c a l g r oup s w i t h i n t h e t r ib e , Ke e s ing ( 1 9 5 1 : 6) q uo t e s W i l l iams o u t o f c on t ex t : W i l l iam s ( 1 9 30 : 3 1 1 ; and 1 60 - 7 ) was r e f e r r in g t o t h e i n ef fe c t iv e n e s s o f in t e r t r ib a l t r uc e s no t to ins t a b i l it y o f p ea c eful r e l a t i o n s h ip s b e tween the s e sma l l er g r o up s when h e say s tha t no v i l l ag e l ived in p e rman e n t s ec ur i ty f o r f e ar o f ra id s f r om i t s n e i ghbo ur s . The t r ib e l a c ke d c l o s e p o l i t i c a l c ohe s ion b u t r e l a t ions b e tween l oc a l group s w i t h in it do n ot s eem to have b een a s p r e c a r i ous as Kee s ing d e s c r ib e s . As P lant ( 1 9 5 1 : App end ix 3 ) ind i ca t e s , a n e twork o f a ff i l ia t ions b e tween d e s c en t group s in w i d e ly s c a t t er ed area s f ormer l y e n s u r e d g ene ra l y peac e ­ f u l r e l a t i on s w i thin the t r ib e . kin

The f requ en c y w i th wh i c h fragme n t s o f o n e clan a r e f oun d s c a t t e r ed in 3 o r mor e d i s tr ic t s o f the t r ib e sugge s t s tha t he r e Langne s s ' d i s c u s s ion o f t h e H igh land s (Wa t s on , ed . 1 9 64 : 1 7 4 ) may b e r e l evant whe n he p o in t s to the probab i l i ty of a c au s a l c onnec ­ t ion b e tween c on t inuous v io l en t wa r f a re and the weakly p a tr i l inea l s truc ture o f group s , 2 in v i ew o f the fac t tha t mo s t war r ing group s needed c on t inua l ly t o r e p l a c e lo s s e s in numer ica l s tr en g th by r e c ru i t ing out s id er s ; they wou l d repea t e d ly s c a t t er , r eg roup , ta ke r e fuge o r a t ta c h them s e lv e s p e rmanent ly t o s tr onger g roup s for In fac t , W i l l iams (W , 3 7 ) records that memb e r s of Jega s e c lan onc e f ough t s ome o f the Sa rahu , ev en tho u gh the nam e s of the 2 c l a n s were l inke d a s the name o f the p o l i t ic a l uni t wh i c h h e d e f ined ( s e e p . 34) . 2 S ee s ec t ion s c - f o f th i s chap t er .

36 s a f e ty . P l ant f o r in s tanc e ( 1 9 5 1 : 3 ) no t e s tha t the I s iv it a v i l lage s , s tra t e g i c a l ly s itua t ed on a r id g e , wou l d o c c a s i o na l ly g iv e r e fuge to f e l l ow t r ib e smen though no t every d i s t r i c t wo ul d u s ua l ly hav e rec our s e to j o in the I s iv i ta . W i l l iams a s c r ib e s the f o rma t ion o f ' s omewha t l oo s e ' and t emporary ' c onf ederac i e s o f c lans ' , which c onduc t e d r a i d s upon the t r ib e ' s ki toho , t o a l oca l s p ir i t . But i t is n o t c l ea r whe ther by th i s h e mea n s th e ident i f i c a t i on o f memb e r s o f a t r ib e w i th one t e r r i t o ry o r the un i ty o f the ' l oc a l i ty g r oup ' wh ich u s ua l ly ta ke s in a numb er o f ' c lan-v i l lage uni t s ' ( s e e p . 34) and wh ich he de s c r ib e s as a mor e r e s tr i c ted ' sympathy - group ' than the tr ib e ( 1 9 30 : 1 0 7 , 1 5 7 � 1 63 , 309 - 1 2 ) . When h e s ta te s ( 1 9 2 5 : 40 7 ) tha t ' over and above c l an p a t r iarchs the r e a r e r e c o gn i s ed l eader s o f sma l l c l an c onf ederac i e s and ev en - in war - t ime - o f t r ib e s ' , he s eems to equa t e the t r ib e w i th the d is tr ic t among the moun ta in Oroka iva ( in par t ic u l a r Wa s ida and I s iv i ta ; s e e W . 2 3 , 1 24) . 1 However , ne i ther the d i s t r i c t no r any 6 ther l oc al g r oup ing among the mounta in Or o ka iva wa s an independent p o l i t ic a l un i t . The terr i t o ry o f th i s t r ib e wa s no t s o c ompac t a s t o c a l l f o r ( or ev en to enab l e ) a l l i t s c ons t i tuen t l oca l g r ou p s to g ive c on t inuous mutua l s uppo r t i n pro tec t in g the inte gr i ty o f th e a rea they o c c up ied . Nev e r th e l e s s memb e r s o f d i s c r e t e l oc a l group s c on t inua l ly fo rm ed ad ho e a l l ianc e s a c r o s s d i s t r ic t b ounda r i e s . I t i s c l ear tha t the r egular cha ins o f a l l ia nc e s enc ompa s s ed a wider a r ea than u s ua l ly d e s c r ib ed a s the t r ib e (whe th e r Jega s i ­ Sarahu , Wa s ida o r Per iho ) .

The u s ua l s tr a t a g em o f the i s oro wa s the s urpr i s e a t ta c k on 1 o r 2 s e l ec t ed v i l l a g e s . In the s e c ircums tanc e s the v i c t im s were ab l e to s ummon only immed ia t e n e ighbours t o he l p wa rd o f f the a t ta c ker s and prox im i ty wa s a t l ea s t one of the c ommon p r inc i p l e s b y wh ich spec i f i c v i l l a g e s c omb ined i n r e t a l ia tory ra i d s .

An ind i c a t ion tha t w i t h in th i s t r ib e the named l o c a l g r oup s o f v i l la g e s wer e t err i tor ia l ly d i s t inc t un i t s i s B e l s haw ' s s ta t emen t tha t the popu l a t ion wa s d iv ided into ' haml et groups ' l ike Awa l a 2 , There i s s ome doub t whe the r the ev idenc e in the s e c a s e s s hows tha t there wa s ev en a m i l i ta ry l ea d e r s h ip in th e d i s t r i c t ( and war i s s a i d t o hav e b e en a lmo s t p er p e tua l ) . The t i t l e of the f ormer l eader of I s iv i ta (who had no t b een rep l a c e d ) is g iv en as embo j avoar i and the l i t era l m ea n ing i s g iv en ( 1 9 30 : 1 04) a s ' th�n who g iv e s the name ' ( c f . embo j awo vaha i , C r o c omb e and Hogb in 1 9 63 : 1 7 ) , i . e . , the d e c ea s ed eponymous anc e s tor of one c l a n . The la s t renowned war - l ea d e r among the Wa s ida may have b een the embo peni ( j av o ) , l i t . man - b ig ( - name} , o f a group no l a rg e r than a v i l lage or c la n ( s e e 1 9 2 5 : 4 1 7 ; W . 2 3 ) .

37

each s epara t e d g eograph ic a l ly from i t s n e ighb our s . 1 The r e i s a l s o W i l l iams ' p o in t (W . 2 8 ) tha t i n 1 9 2 3 there wa s unc l a imed l and a d j o in ing the ' haml e t s ' in the un i t named Wa s ida ( i . e . , Jega s i ­ Sa rahu) . L i ke mo s t o ther d i s t r ic t s thi s c on s i s te d o f two ' haml e t group s ' . Nor ton ( 1 9 62 : 6) say s tha t s ome t ime s v i l l a g e s , wh ic h ' ar e known to have b e en q u i te l a r g e ' a n d s to c ka de d ( c f . W i l l iams 1 9 30 : 67 , 1 64 - 6) , wer e s epa ra t e d by t ra c t s o f unc l a imed v ir g in l and un t i l the t ime o f the s uppr e s s ion o f f eud ing . T h i s c omb ina t i on f o r b e t t e r d e f enc e may have b ee n c ha r a c t er i s t ic o f t r ib e s throughout the Oroka iva a r ea . We b e l i eve , however , tha t the sub d iv id ing o f the t r ib e into d i sc r e t e named g r oup s o f named v i l l a g e s ( e i ther d i s tr ic t or ' haml e t gr ou p ' ) · wou l d be unique to the mounta in Oro ka iva in the c u l ture a r ea ; we do no t have enough ev idenc e t o show i f th i s f ea ture is r e l a t e d t o th e ea r l ier c lus t e r ing f o r s a f e ty , and to the grea t e r p opula t ion d e n s i ty in th i s tr ib e . The emergenc e o f t riba l sub d iv i s ions a t th i s l eve l , however l im i t e d o r o c c a s i ona l the i r indep end enc e , s e ems c ons i s t e n t w i th th e unc e r ta int i e s enc ountered by ob s e rver s in s e eking t o d e t e rm ine the l im i t s , th e l oc a l name a nd the d i s t inc t iv e c u l t ura l and l ingu i s t ic chara c t e r i s t ic s of the inc l u s ive p o l i t i c a l un i t . 2 At th i s p o in t we s ha l l ident i fy the l o c a l p a t r i l in ea l group s to b e men t ioned in the f o l low ing r e s ume o f th e h i s t ory o f l o c a l s e t t l emen t and then ma ke a p re l im inary c ommen t on l an dho l di ng by ind iv i dua l s .

The memb e r s o f J e ga s e c lan in S ivep e a r e d iv id e d among 4 named sub group s , each c l a im ing t o t rac e i t s o r i gi ns t o e i the r o f 2 c on t i guous v i l la g e s o c c up i e d by a l l the anc e s t o r s o f the J e ga s e i n the n e i ghbourho o d . W e sha l l c a l l the s e s ub g roup s l ineage s ; they a r e B eb ehupa , 3 S e s ewopa , B er ekipa and Ar ehu . A f if th l inea g e c a l l ed Hamba i or Hamba i ' embo ha s d i e d out on ly in th e p r e s en t g enera t ion , y e t a l l b u t t h e key m emb e r s o f t h e g roup a n d a l it t l e 1

S e l dom d o e s the t er r i t ory o f a ' d i s tr ic t ' a t p r e s en t c lear ly app ea r d i s t inc t f rom o ther s , and tha t of a ' haml e t g roup ' ev en mor e rare ly . 2 E i ther ' pa r i s h ' o r ' sub t r ib e ' c ou l d b e c on s i d e r e d a s a t e rm for such a un i t w i th in t he t r ib e . But r a ther than a d d t o the c onfus ion of t e rms u s ed in d e s c r ip t ions o f l oc a l o rgan i z a t i on we r e ta in the t erms wh ich we have a lr eady adop t e d . 3 The s uf f ix - p a ( o r - j a , f ema l e ) shou l d s tr ic t l y b e us e d in addr e s s ing o r r e f e r r ing t o an ind iv i dua l memb e r , but i t now s eems t o be c ommon l o c a l usage to r e f er t o a group i t s e l f in th i s way , and we s ha l l f o l l ow thi s u sa g e .

38 gene ra l inf o rma t ion i s a l r ea dy b eyond the immed ia t e r e c a l l o f the surv iv ing Jega s e men . The S iv e p e p eo p l e who b e long t o T imumu , the s e c ond c lan repr e ­ s ented i n our s amp l e , a r e memb e r s o f 2 l ineage s , P ekuma and Ha j e j opa . Oth er than c lansh ip the two can r e c kon no l ink o r i g ina t ing in the ' d i s t r ic t ' f r om wh ich b o th em igra t e d indep end ­ en t ly to the n e i ghb ourhoo d o f S iv ep e ; the ir c l o s e ly para l l e l h i s tor i e s o f m igra t ion , s ub s equent r e s idenc e and mar r iage a c c ount for the p r eE en t f irm c onnec t i on b e tween them . The larg e s t exogamo u s group s a r e l ineage s , but t h i s ru l e r ead i l y lap s e s whe n a l ineage a c h i ev e s a much wider s pan than average , e s p ec ia l ly if it b e c om e s s c a t t er e d for any l en g th of t ime o r in mor e than one ' haml e t group ' .

Al l land a r ound S iv ep e and ne ighb our ing v i l lag e s i s d iv ided into named a r eas wh ich we w i l l c a l l ' b l o c ks ' . Each i s u s ua l ly a l o c a l i ty d e r iv ing i t s name from a p rominent l oc a l na t ura l f ea ture o f t en a t r e e o r a g rove o f t r e e s , henc e Kor ina s u su o r Ko r ina turu . F o r any sub d iv i s i o n s o f a b l oc k we u s e the t er;-r;e c t i on ' and we r e f er t o e i ther ' b l o c ks ' o r ' s ec t ions ' as ' pa r c e l s ' of l a nd . l No c o rre l a t ion i s imp l ie d b e twe en the typ e o f a parc e l and the type o f r igh t s he l d t o i t .

A l l land c on s t i tut ing t e r r i tory o f the Jega s e , T imumu o r o th e r s i n t h e ne ighbo urhoo d i s d iv ided in to parc e l s which a r e t h e ho l d in g s e i ther o f ind iv idua l s o r o f ful l b r o th er s . A man ' s r ight s a n d o th er proper ty a r e idea l ly inhe r i t ed pa tr i l inea l ly . I n s ome c i rc ums tanc e s a d e f in i t iv e d iv i s ion of th e fa ther ' s l an d may b e mad e among h i s sons b efor e h i s d ea th . Th i s usua l ly ta ke s p l ac e i f the s on s a lr eady have th e i r own hous eho l d s , i f the f a th er i s n o l onger v e ry a c t iv e in v i l l a g e l i f e o r i f the younge r men a r e only ha l f - b r o ther s . W e know o f n o ins tanc e s o f a daugh t e r r ec e iv ing a pa r t ic u l a r sha r e a t t h e t ime o f such an a l l o c a t ion , b u t we r e f er e l s ewhe r e t o c ir c ums tanc e s whe r e women ho l d l and ( s ee App end ix E , p . 1 1 1 ) . I n o ther c a s e s bro the r s may j o in t l y ho l d a l l t h e l a nd inher i t e d f rom the ir fa the r . T h i s s eems t o app l y pa r t ic u l a r l y t o ins tanc e s whe r e a young er b ro the r i s unmarr ied or ha s ta ken t emporary emp loyment away f r om t h e v i l la g e

Peop l e c ommon l y u s e th e name o f a b l o c k t o r e f er to a ny p ar c e l o f land , f o r in s tanc e i n l i s t ing th e ir l andho l d ing s . They draw a t t en t ion to any s pec i f ic d i s tr ib u t ion o f s ec t ions o f 1 b l o c k among d i f f e r en t p eo p l e o n l y when the c on t ext r equi r e s them t o . On Ma p 2 , wher e 1 man ho l d s a d j ac en t b l o c ks or 2 a d j o in ing s ec t ions on 2 a d j ac en t b l o c ks , the b oundary b e tween them is no t shown . On ly b ounda r i e s b e tween d i f f er en t l andho l de r s a r e ind ic a t e d .

39 b ef o r e e s tab l i s h ing a hous eho ld . The o l d er b r o th e r shou l d i n t ime p r ov id e the o ther w i th a n e q u i tab l e sha r e of the land . Ther e i s no s y s t em o f p r imogen i tu r e in theory o r p r a c t ic e . 1 In

one c a s e , however , a c h i l d l e s s man , who wa s adop t ed into the l oc a l branch o f Jega s e c la n and ha s a l s o marr i ed a Jega s e woman , e i ther ha s b equea th e d h i s l an d t o th e l eader o f his w i f e ' s l ineage who a l l o c a t e d i t to h i s s e c ond son , o r he ha s h im s e l f b equea thed i t s p ec i f ic a l l y t o the b oy (who wa s g iven h i s w i f e ' s d e c ea s ed b r o th er ' s nam e ) . Mo s t o f the pa t r imon ia l land and s ome l and h e l d by t h e woman a r e t o b e inhe r i t e d by t h e e l de r son .

Turning t o the ext en t o f l andho l d ing , the 1 2 hous eho l d s s tudied ho l d 1 38 a c r e s near S iv e p e or 2 . 7 a c re s p er h ea d , a l l o � i t arab l e S ome w i th the exc ep t ion o f l i t t l e mor e than 1 o r 2 p e r c ent . memb e r s c l a im to r e ta in land in r e la t iv e l y d i s tant a r ea s wher e In c a s e s whe r e the they o r the i r f o r e f a the r s o r i g ina l ly l iv e d . S ivepe peop le had n o t exer c i s ed the i r r igh t s t o c u l t iva t e the s e l and c l a im s , n o e s t ima t e o f : : th e ir s iz e wa s ma d e . b.

The h i s t o ry o f l oc a l s e t t l ement

The t err i tory o f the mounta in Oroka iva wa s op ened up when a new road from Buna to the Yodda Va l l ey g o l d f i e l d s near Kokoda wa s bu i l t in 1 904 . I n th i s pa r t o f Oro ka iva c ount ry indiv i dua l tr ib e s wer e n o t a s i s o la t ed a s e l s ewhe r e . A l though t h e var io u s t r ib e s wer e in i t ia l ly d e s c r ib e d a s b e ing c on s tan t ly warr ing , and l ike ly t o a t ta c k gov ernment p a r t i e s , 3 p ea c e wa s s ec ur e w i th in 4 y ea r s . I nt e r t r ib a l f eu d s w e r e e f f ec t iv e ly s uppre s s ed , exc ep t for an o c c a s iona l ra i d p r omp t e d by the doc i l i ty of n e ighb our ing t r ib e s und e r the nov e l c on d i t ions brought about b y the a r r iva l o f th e Europ eans . Many t r ib e s , inc lud ing the ' Wa s ida ' , wer e ab l e to s e t t l e on the ir out l y ing l a nd s wh ich forme r l y l1h�y had no t oc c up ied f o r f e a r o f ra i d s . Many o f the p e op l e worke d on the c on s t r uc t ion o f the road , and l a t er a s c a r r i er s ; b y 1 90 9 s ome had s igned on for l ab our e l s ewhe r e

I n th i s way , t h e moun ta in Oroka iva d if fe r from a t l ea s t one o ther Oroka iva t r ib e , the Yega at B eporo (R . Dakeyn e : p er s ona l c ommun i c a t i on) . 2 T h i s dens i ty i s the e q u iva l en t of 2 3 7 p er s on s p e r s quare m i l e ( c f . 300 - 50 0 p e r s q ua r e m i l e f o r S o u thern C h imb u , B r own and Brookf i e l d 1 9 5 9 : 7 4 ) . The Sa iho C ensus D iv i s ion , on the o ther hand , has o n l y about 75 p e r s on s p er s quar e m i l e ; however , as Map 2 ind ica t e s , i t inc lude s extens ive area s o f uno c c up i ed and gene ra l ly unu s ed ra infor e s t s ur r ound ing the c onc entra t ion o f popu l a t ions w i t h h igher dens i t ie s and s e para t ing them f r om the i r f o rmer enem i e s . Some o f the l a nd o f the thou s and s o f Kombu S angara k i l l ed in 1 9 5 1 a l s o appea r s t o f a l l i n s ide the Sa iho b oundar i e s . 3 S e e T e r r i t o ry o f Papua 1 90 3-4: 3 9; ib i d . 1 90 4 - 5 : 1 4 , 3 6 .

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41

in Papua ( T e r r i to ry o f Papua 1 908 - 9 : 1 9) . In 1 90 4 , 4 v i l la ge c ons tab l e s had b e en a pp o inted f r om the peop l e s a l ong the n ew road . By 1 908 memb e r s of the var ious t r ib e s wer e p eaceably t rad ing w i th the carr i e r s a l ong the road ( T er r i to ry o f Papua 1 90 7 - 8 : 2 2 ) . In about 50 y ear s prec e d ing the e s tab l i s hment o f the i r p r e s en t v i l lage the g roup s now rep re s en t ed in S iv e p e had b e tween them b e en invo lved in s h i f t s o f r e s i denc e b e tween a s er i e s o f 1 4 v i l lage s i t e s w i thin an a r ea o f ab out 2 s quar e m i l e s a d j o in ing the Sohu R iv e r . I n f o rman t s c l a imed tha t they or the i r anc e s to r s move d f r om 1 1 o f the s e under ins t ruc t ions from gov e rnment o f f ic er s t o ama l gama t e in t o l a rger un i t s . Dur ing th i s per i o d memb e r s o f s ev era l o th e r d e s c en t group s have e i ther a c c ompan i ed them o r e s tab l i shed inde pend en t v i l l a g e s and wo rked l and o f the i r own in the s am e a r ea . I n te rma r r ia g e among c ont emporary v i l l a g e s the r e wa s c ommon a nd i nd iv i dua l s f r eque n t l y mov e d f r om o ne t o j o in kin in ano the r . The 4 Jega s e l in ea g e s can t ra c e the h i s t o ry o f the ir g r oup s a p o i n t o f c ommon o r i g in in the f ir s t d e c a d e o f the

bac k t o c en tury b o th on s ite of

in th e v i l la g e of S imb eha ta and i t s ' sa t e l l i t e ' T o t o ga ta , wha t i s now J e ga s e l an d ha rd ly a m i l e f r om the p re s en t S iv e p e . l

( i) Mi gra t i o n 1 900 - 50 . The B eb ehupa mov e d f r om S imb ehat a t o Kor o g omb a ta 2 a n d wer e j o ined b y s ome member s o f Us ohu l iv ing nea rby . 3 Exc ep t f o r 3 f ami l ie s wh ich moved o u t to f o rm Ki s i s i ta , Aur i j a and Andakahambo v i l lage s , they r ema ined the r e un t i l abo u t 1 9 3 7 when they were a s ked b y the Adm in i s trat ion t o r euni t e w i th the s e 3 to e s ta b l i sh Kor ina su s u . One o f the 2 ma j o r p r e -wa r tra c ks f r om the c oa s t t o Kokoda l ay n ea rby and whe n Japan es e and Aus tra l ian troop s mov e d a l ong th i s in 1 94 2 the p e op l e abandoned the v i l lage and m oved into i s o la t e d garden hut s . Mo s t v i l lager s r e t u rn e d to Ko r ina s u s u a f te r t h e wa r but 1 g roup f o und ed Nah ih ita nea rby .

In 1 9 50 the Adm in i s trat ion in s truc t e d the B eb ehupa o f Kor ina s u s u a nd Nahih i ta t o j o in the U s ohu peop l e l iv ing in Gogovo s u s u and B indut a t o f orm one large v i l l a g e . Up t o tha t t ime the v i l l a g e s had b een c onf ined to J e ga s e land but b ec au s e

1 F o r p la c e name s ment ioned in t h i s s e c t ion s e e Map . 2 . 2 Ment i on e d a s a ' Jega s e v i l l ag e ' by W i l l iams in 1 9 2 3 (W . 8 3 ) , a s a r e S iv ep e , Pusahambo and Han imkumb a r i ( s e e p p . 34 - 7 ) . He a l s o l i s t s them a s Awa l a v i l l a g e s . 3 A numb e r o f the o l d e r Jega s e m en c la imed tha t the U s ohu p eop l e forme r l y r egarded them s e lves a s memb e r s o f Jega s e c lan .

42

the Jega s e peop l e had no land on the Awa l a - Kenda ta road n ea rby , whe re they dec ided to bu i l d , they a c quired r igh t s t o hou s e - s i t e s on t h e road o n the land o f the B e ' ohuah i j e 1 in r e turn f o r r ight s grant ed t o s ome memb e r s o f tha t c l an t o b u i l d on J e ga s e land 3 m i l e s away a t Awa l a No . l . The Jega s e peop l e had b e gun t o move t o t h e n ew v i l l a g e , now B induta , wh en M t Lam ing ton erup te d . A l though they we r e out s i d e the l im i t s of the area o f d e s t ruc t ion the peop l e wer e evac ua t ed f o r s a f e ty . The S e s ewopa , a sma l l l in ea g e , had a c c omp a n i e d the B eb ehup a in the ir mov e s t o Korogomba t a , Kor ina su su and B indu ta . The B er ekipa and the Arehu a c c o r d ing to the men o f B eb ehupa , wh ich i s the d om inant J ega s e l in ea g e , a r e g roup s wh i c h hav e a t tached thems e lv e s t o t h e auth en t i c pa r t o f t h e c la n . The anc e s tor of 2 of the 3 B e r e kipa hou s eh o l d e r s in S iv e p e had a l s o l ived a t S imbeha t a . I t i s genera l ly c onc eded tha t h e wa s a Jega s e man but h e l e f t S imb eha ta t o e s tab l i sh Euru v i l l a g e and then mov e d a c ro s s t h e S ohu R iver t o Hambura ta s evera l m i l e s to th e ea s t near the pr e s en t Kioro ta , whe r e he c l ear e d and l a id c la im t o v ir g in l and abou t 1 9 1 0 . The fa ther ' s f a the r ( b l ) 2 o f the o l de s t hous eho l d e r , ano ther

Jega s e man f r om S imb eha ta v i l lage , wa s ki l l e d n ear D iv ini kovar i in a f eud w i th the T o gahau p eop l e . On h i s death h i s in fant s on � c l ) wa s adop t e d by h i s w i f e ' s b r o th e r a t Hambura ta v i l l a g e and h i s land wa s t a ken ove r b y o th e r Jega s e men . T h e s on h a d b e en named a f ter a T imumu man 3 of Euru v i l l a ge wh o a l l o c a t e d a parc e l o f l and for h i s u s e , when , a s an adul t , h e r e turned f r om Hamb ura ta r e l inq u i s h ing a ny l and r ight s he h e l d ther e . He gardened for s ome t ime on t he land o f h i s s i s te r ' s husband , a B e ' ohuah i j e man but r e - e s tab l i shed r igh t s to a numb e r o f parc e l s o f h i s fa the r ' s land wh ich had b e en c on t ro l le d by B eb ehupa and Ar ehu l ineage s i n h i s ab s enc e . He f ound e d Pusahambo v i l l a g e o n t h i s land abo u t 1 9 2 0 and wa s j o ined b y h i s w i f e ' s b ro ther , a d e s c endant of the f ir s t m igrant f rom S imbeha ta to Hambura ta When he d ie d at Pusahambo h i s s is te r ' s 4 s on ( d2 J ) ma r r i e d h i s w i d ow and a d op t ed one o f h i s s o n s , now head of the s ec ond B e re kipa hous eho l d in S ivepe ( d3 J ) . Th i s man ' s s on i s the th i rd B er ek ipa hous eho l d head ( e2J) .

The B e ' ohuah i j e former ly l ived in t h e nearby v i l lag e s o f S aunhambo and Hehe r e ta and the i r l a nd a d j o in s S ivepe v i l l a g e . 2 S ee Genea l ogy , p . 5 2 . 3 F o r r e l a t i onsh ip b e tween name s ake s ( ta t o ) s e e W i l l i am s 1 9 30 : 9 6 .

4 S e e W i l l iam s 1 9 3 0 : 1 3 2 :

o f one ' s g enera t i on .

1

' There i s no r u l e aga in s t mar ry in g ou t

43 Ne i th er the man nor h i s son ha s every c ul t iv a t e d h i s pa tr i ­ mon ial l and a t Hambur a ta a l though they hun t and f i s h there . The man make s the s e p er i o d i c v i s i t s t o a f f irm his r ig h t s a s h e c la ims tha t cons tant s urve i l l anc e is nec e s s a ry to fo re s ta l l enc roachment on h i s l and . H i s f a ther ' s b r o ther c on t ro l s the l and in h i s ab s enc e . By 1 9 50 the memb e r s of the Ber ekipa hou s eho l d s who numb ered 1 2 h a d thu s a c qu ir e d on ly 5 parc e l s o f land ( to ta l l ing 9 a c r e s ) near S iv e p e s inc e the l ineage r e turned f r om Hambura ta 30 yea r s b e f or e , and had t o r e ly on o ther l in eag e s f o r a c c e s s to a d e q ua t e land . Af t e r the war the B e r ekipa were a s ke d by the Admin i s t ra t i on to mov e f rom Pus ahambo t o a v i l l a g e c a l l e d Pamba wher e Arehu l in ea g e wa s l iv ing . T h e y s e em to hav e b e en l a r g e ly d ependen t on t h e Arehu and on a f f in e s e l s ewhe r e f o r p lant ing r igh t s s inc e then .

The Arehu p eo p l e h a d f ound e d T o toga ta n ex t t o S imb eha ta and r ema ined the r e a f te r the o ther J e ga s e p eo p l e had mov e d on to E uru and Korogomb a ta . S ome memb e r s of B eb ehupa l in ea g e , in r e fu s ing t o r ec ogn i z e Arehu a s a genuine Jega s e l ineage , exp l a i n tha t i t i s an immigrant group d e s c ended from a T ogahau man o f A rehu c lan 1 who wa s adop t ed a s a c h i l d a f t e r a Jega s e ra id on the T o gahau . The l and the g r oup n ow ho l d s i s c en tred on S imb eha ta and the B eb ehup a , a l though they ta ke l i t t l e int e re s t in i t , a l l eg e tha t i t wa s a c quired when the Jega s e man from S imb eha ta wa s k i l l ed a t D iv in i kova r i . T h e Ar ehu have r e ta ined a n d s treng thened the ir r igh t s ove r the y ea r s and to a l l e f f ec t s have b e c ome ab s orb ed into the l oc a l b ranch o f the c l an , ex t end ing the ir e f f ec t iv e t i e s there b y int erma r ry in g w i th o ther l ineage s . When p r e s s ed , the only r e s i dent ma l e ( d4J) even answer s que s t ions about the p o s i t ion a s c r ib e d t o h im a s one of the agna t e s in the l oc a l group by s tr e s s ing tha t h e a nd his fa ther mar r ied Jega s e women , a s i f no mor e need be sa i d . The grand s on of the a l l eg e d o r ig ina l l and ­ ho l d er has d i s pu t e d the r ight s o f t h e Arehu man t o t h e parc e l o f l and o n wh ich t h e o l d v i l l a g e S imbeha ta wa s s i t u a t e d .

S evera l y e a r s a f t e r the anc e s to r s o f the B eb ehupa l e f t S imbeha ta the Arehu wer e t o l d by a gov ernment o f f ic er t o ama l gama t e w i t h o ther Jega s e p e o p l e a n d w i th t h e memb ers o f T imumu a n d S eho c lans f r om Euru and A s ina . The v i l l a g e f o rmed on S eho l and wa s o l d S ivepe w i th i t s s a t e l l i t e , Pamba ; mo s t o f th e peop l e s tayed there un t i l they f l ed the Mt Laming t on erup t io n in January 1 9 5 1 . The P ekuma and Ha j e j opa l inea g e s o f T imumu c la n had b o th j o ined the Jega s e and S eho p e op l e in f ound ing o l d S iv e p e . The fa ther s

T h i s c l an today i s r ep r e s en t e d in S i remb i v i l l a g e in T o gahau C en s u s D iv i s ion and p o s s ib ly in o th er v i l lag e s ther e . In 1 9 2 3 W i l l iams ( O . l ) no t e d tha t they were a l s o p r e s ent i n the v i l lag e s o f Poro r i and Ohamb a .

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45

o f the 2 s enior men o f S ivepe had d iv id e d the ir a l l eg ianc e b e tween b ranche s of the c la n at Euru and Soroputa and ha d e x e r c i s ed r igh t s t o l and near b o th p l ac e s . S in c e the dea th of h i s f a ther the P ekuma man ( d l T ) ha s l ived f ir s t in Euru and then S iv e p e w i th h i s mo ther ' s kin and la t e r h i s w i f e ' s kin . He and h i s a do p t e d son ( e lT ) ho l d 2 8 a c r e s nea rby b u t h e ha s never cul t iva t e d the l and h i s fa ther u s ed at S or opu ta ; h e s ome t imes ob ta in s th e p e rm i s s ion of h i s fa ther ' s b ro ther t o c o l l e c t the p ro duc e f r om t r e e s h i s fa ther p l an t ed ( s e e p . 24) . Ab out the t im e the o l der Ha j e j opa man ( d l ST ) e s tab l i s hed h i s hous eho l d a t Euru , h e wa s inv o lv e d i n a d i s put e w i th h i s fa ther ' s kin f r om S oroputa who wan t ed h im to r e turn o r e l s e r e l i nq u i s h h i s r igh t s t o the l and h i s fa ther had c u l t iv a t ed there b e fo r e s e t t l ing p ermanen t ly at E uru . L ike the Pekuma man he p r e f erred t o s et t l e o n the c ompa ra t iv e ly l arge landho l d ing s ( 1 8 a c r e s ) near S ivepe and s ever e d mo s t c onnec t ions w i th S oropu ta . ( ii)

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Kee s ing ( 1 9 5 1 : 3 ) s a y s tha t ' a f t er t h e f ir s t p a n i c o f s c a t t er in g . . . l oc a l group i ng s we r e in the ma in ab l e to r ea s s emb l e in t h e Re fug e e s reg iona l c amp s w i th such o f f ic ia l a i d as wa s n e c e s s a ry ' from the we s t s id e o f t h e mounta in w e r e c o l l ec t e d f r om emer g ency enc ampmen t s a l ong the Koko da road and taken t o a r e g iona l c amp f ir s t at Wa i r o p e and then a t I l imo near the Kumu s i R iv e r . The v i l l a g e s of the J ega s e and T imumu were inc luded in the dange r z one wh ich wa s d e f ined about 4 months a f t e r the f ir s t erup t ion . They wer e ab out 7 m i l e s f r om the summ i t and the dange r a r ea extended f o r 8 to 1 2 m i l e s a round the a c t iv e c ra t e r . .

When the l im i t s o f the z on e were d e t erm ined ab out 3 , 0 00 p eop l e who s e v i l la g e s wer e no t c l o s ed o f f or who c ou l d f ind kinsmen t o l iv e w i th i n r e s e t t l emen t area s out s id e the z one l e f t the r e fugee c amp s . Mo s t o f the 2 , 000 who r ema ined f o r s ome t ime at I l imo were f rom the v i l l a g e s such as S ivepe o n the mor e f er t i l e land h igher up the we s t and nor th -we s t s l op e s . Memb e r s of our s amp l e howev er l e f t to l iv e w i th c l an smen or o ther kin at Awa l a No . 2 on the mai n road . In the cha in o f fa ir ly c on t inuou s s e t t l emen t s wh ich g r ew a l ong the road grea t unc e r t a in ty surr ounded l a nd u s e prob l ems . There we r e f r equent mov e s , unc e r ta in t i t l e s , d i s pu t e s ove r t enur e , and c o n f l ic t ing a u tho r i ty amo ng l eader s f r om d i f f e r ent l o c a l and kin g roup s . Mo s t o f the s e v i l l a g e s were s t i l l par t ia l ly d e p enden t on emer g ency ra t ions i s s u e d t o them wh i l e b r ea king in n ew gardens . Some o f the Jega s e p eop l e in Awa l a had the ir own sma l l poc ke t s o f land nearby whe r e they p la n t e d eme rg ency c ro p s a n d f ora g e d ; s ome mad e exc u r s ions dur i ng the day into the c l o s ed a rea to c o l l ec t

46 f o o d from the ir abandoned ga rdens wh ich they f ound in good c ond i t ion , apa r t from the unc ont ro l l ed growth of weed s .

No doub t minor a d j u s tm en t s in the d i s tr ibut ion o f l and r igh t s were mad e i n the c our s e o f r e s e t t l emen t o f the l and around S ivepe when the p eop l e r e turned a f te r a year ' s ab s enc e . But they wou l d n o t have b een f a c e d w i th the ma j or prob l ems me t w i th i n the c rowded re s e t t l emen t a r ea s w ith l a r g e numb er s o f immigrant s . When the peop l e o f o l d S ivep e - Pamba r e turned f r om the eva cua t ion c amp they r e - e s tab l i shed the i r v i l l a g e on i t s o l d s i t e . I t wa s no t l ong , however , b e f o r e the T imumu peop l e b ec am e invo lved i n a pro t rac t e d d is pu t e w i th memb e r s o f Kongahambo v i l lage ( a n ew r e s e t t l ement c onc entra t ion near S a s emba ta ) , ove r gar d en damag e c au s ed by p ig s , a nd in order to avo id mor e t r oub l e they d e c ided t o mov e further away t o b u i l d o n the ir l and a t the p re s en t s i t e of S iv e p e v i l l a g e . The memb e r s o f B e r e kipa and A rehu l ineag e s and of S eho c lan r ema ined in th e o l d v i l l a g e unt i l a S inc e Pa t r o l Of f i c er a s ke d them to reun i t e w i th the T imumu peop l e . the T imumu were no t ke en t o mov e bac k and s in c e the o c c upant s o f t h e o l d v i l l a g e a g r e e d w i th the Pa t r o l Of f ic er ' s a s s er t i on tha t i t wa s poorly dra i n ed , the s e J e g a s e and S eho p eo p l e move d to S ivepe in 1 9 5 3 . They wer e given permi s s ion to bu i l d b y the T imumu l ineage wh ich owne d mo s t of the land on the s i t e . Meanwh il e th e B eb ehupa had r e turned ?f t e r the e rup t ion to B induta whe r e they l ived w i th U s ohu p eop l e f or abou t 8 year s . Then fr i c t ion b e tween the 2 group s b ec ame t o o g r ea t and , f o l l ow ing a c c u s a t ions of s or c ery , 4 B eb ehupa hou s eho l d s c ame to l iv e on poc ke t s of l ineag e land w i th in the new S ivep e . The ir hou s e s a r e no t a l igned w i th tho s e o f the J e ga s e m e n who a r r ived ear l i er b u t t h e o ther 2 c l a n b ranc h e s t end t o o c c upy d i s t inc t s ec t ions o f t h e v i ll a g e . 1

( i i i) The d is t r ibut ion o f o ther c lan b ranche s . One Jega s e c lan b ranch l iv e s s ev e ra l mi l e s w e s t o f S ivep e in Hururu ta v i l la g e . Ano ther group o f Jega s e s p l in t ered f r om the l o c a l b ranch o f the c lan a f ter pro t ra c t ed d i s pute s and s e t t l ed at Kakende t ta near Poponde t ta . The S iv e p e p eop l e do n o t know how they a c q u ir ed l a nd r igh t s the r e b u t ins i s t tha t they vo lunta r i ly r e l inq u i shed a l l the ir o r ig ina l r ight s . The c lan i s repre s en t e d in Kioro ta , Nah ih i ta and I s o g e ; P lant ( 1 9 5 1 : Append ix 3 ) a l s o r epo rte d tha t ther e were memb e r s o f the c lan in Kok i t a t e and P ondohe . A l a rg e b ranch o f th e c lan now a t S u in v i l l a g e i s s a id t o have mov e d down f r om the s l op e s on to uno c c up ie d land which lay b e tween 1

The hou s e s of par en t and 1 son or a ma r r i ed daught e r are u s ua l ly a d j ac en t b u t tho s e o f a dd i t i ona l c h i l d r e n a r e o f t en l o c a t ed e l s ewher e .

47

the ir p rev iou s l o c a t ion 1 and the t er r itory o f the i r t ra d i t iona l enem ie s , the D iv in i kova r i and T og ahau , b u t inf o rmant s d i sagreed as to whe ther thi s o c c urred b e fo r e o r a f t e r Europeans had e s tab l i shed c on t r o l o f the a rea . T imumu c lan had a l so o r i g ina t e d we l l t o the s ou th near Sa s emba ta ( a c c o r d ing to i t s memb e r s at S iv ep e ) but f a i r ly e a r l y in the c en tury par t of this c lan too o c c up i ed land a round S o roputa nearer the T o gahau . O ther memb e r s o f the c la n l iv e a t Sa s emb a ta , Hambura ta and Kakita and po s s ib ly o ther v i l l a g e s . The anc e s t o r s o f m emb e r s o f S eho c lan in S iv e p e a r e s a id to have moved to the nearby v i l lage o f Han imkambar i f rom an a r ea c l o s er t o the s ourc e o f the S ahu R iver on Mt Lamin g t on . Wh i l e a t Hanimkamb a r i they c la sh ed w i th the f i r s t g ov ernmen t p a t r o l s i n the a r ea . Ab out 1 9 1 0 s ome of the S eho p eop l e e s tab l i shed ano ther v i l l ag e , A s ina , near e r the pr e s en t s i te o f S iv ep e , l a t e r mov ing to j o in T imumu and Jega s e group s a t E uru . Th e s e o l d v i l l a g e s have now b e en abandone d b u t S eho c lan i s r e pr e s en t ed in numer ous o th er v i l lage s in the a r ea . c.

Loc a l i z ed d e s c en t g r oups

Our c omment s on the c l an and v i l l ag e hav e empha s iz ed tha t the typ ic a l v i l l a ge c on s i s t s of s ev era l g roup s f r om d i f f er en t c lans . Migra t ions a l s o have u s ua l ly b e en by r e p r e s enta t iv e s o f par t icular g roup s . W e now turn to an a c c oun t o f the ind iv idua l ' s k in sh ip and a f f ina l r e l a t ionsh i p s w i th in the v i l l a g e . T h i s a s p ec t i s b e s t approached w i th a n examina t ion o f p o s t -mar i ta l r e s i d enc e .

( i) Re s idenc e . P o s t -mar i ta l r e s idenc e i s idea l ly pa t r iv ir i l o c a l . B u t where r e s i denc e i s f ound t o c onform t o the idea l , any r e f e r enc e t o th i s norm s ho u l d b e supp l emen t ed by f u r ther da ta on th e l inks b e tween c o - r e s ident kin if we are to g iv e an ad equa t e a c c ount o f the kinship c ompo s i t i on o f l o c a l group s ; mor e ov er , a du l t s have a In fac t , o f the 1 2 hous eho l d e r s in our w i d e cho ic e o f r e s idenc e . s amp l e , 5 wer e no t l iv ing in the i r fa ther ' s v i l l a g e , a l though 1 o f the s e wa s l iv ing w i th h i s adop t iv e fa the r ( h i s mo th er ' s s e c ond husband who wa s a memb e r of her na ta l v i l l a g e ) ; the o ther 4 were l iv ing on ly w i th ma t r i l a t era l o r a f f ina l kin , or b o th in one o f th e s e ins tanc e s . I t i s s ignif icant tha t only 1 o f the 7 men r ema in ing had e s tab l i shed his hous eho l d in a v i l l a g e to wh i c h h e wa s a f f i l ia t ed T h i s l oc a t ion may no t in fac t have b e en near S iv e p e . It may have b e en Omb i su s u ( n ea r the p re - c on ta c t v i l l a g e of Wa s ida) wh ich W i l l iams (W. 10) says Jega s e p e op l e abandon ed to e s tab l i s h Suin a f t e r the a r r iva l of the g overnmen t . Th i s may hav e inv o lv e d a mov e d own the s l o p e s .

48 only through his fa ther and even in thi s c a s e h is s i s t e r , her c h i l dr en and his daugh t e r s ub s equen t ly marr ie d in the v i l l a g e s o h e i s now a l s o l iv ing w i th o th e r c o gna t e s and w i th a f f in e s . The 6 o th er men a r e l iv ing in the s ame v i l lage as the ir fa th e r ' s kin , but f o r 4 o f them th i s i s a l s o the ir w i f e ' s hom e v i l l a g e , for another i t is a l s o his mo ther ' s v i l la g e and the la s t man is c o ­ r e s ident w i th p a t r i l inea l , ma t r i l a tera l and a f f ina l kin s imu l taneou s l y . In s evera l c a s e s c er ta in p e op l e f a l l in to mo r e than o n e o f th e s e kin sh ip c a tegor i e s i n r e la t ion t o 1 p e r s on . S ix hous eho l d e r s hav e s i s t e r s who have mar r i e d w i th in the v i l lage . 1 In v i ew o f the fac t tha t such a va r ie ty o f r e l a t ion ship s i s f ound i n th i s group , Hogb in ' s and Wedgwoo d ' s out l ine o f Oroka iva l o c a l g roup ing , wh ich is ba s ed on s ec ondary s ourc e s , d o e s no t s e em r e l evan t t o p r e s ent day s o c i a l o rgan i z a t i on in t h i s n e ighb our ­ hood . They r egard the Oroka iva a s pa t r iv i r i l o c a l 2 ( 1 9 5 2 - 4 : 64 f f . ) and sugg e s t tha t the par i sh or l oc a l po l i t i c a l un i t i s an exogamous pa tr i l inea l group who s e memb e r s we r e s t rong ly un i te d and unrea dy to a s s im i l a t e out s id er s . L ike W i l l iams ( 1 9 3 0 : 1 3 1 - 3 ) they men t ion f r e q uent exc e p t ions t o th i s ru l e of p o s t -ma r i ta l r e s idenc e y e t s e em to und e r e s t ima t e t h e d e g r e e o f var iab i l i ty i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o f the v i l l a g e and to ov e r empha s iz e the s o l i dar i ty of th e un i l inea l group and the impor tanc e o f the p r e f e r enc e for p a t r iv i r i l § c a l r e s idenc e a n d o f exogamy i n l oca l i z ed pa t r i l inea l group s . W i l l iam s on the o ther hand s ay s ' the Oro ka iva organ iza t ion v e ry nearly approach e s a b i l a t era l s y s t em , though in theory it i s p a tr i l inea l ' ( 1 9 2 5 : 40 7 ) and p o i n t s t o ' the l ax i ty o f mar r ia g e r e gu l a t ions ' . Even in the sma l l A i ga c la n ' exogamy i s no t a hard and fa s t ru l e ' ; p r e f e r enc e f o r intrac l an mar r ia g e i s s ome t im e s expr e s s e d ( 1 9 30 : 1 3 1 - 2 ) . I t may b e though t a ' proper th ing to ke e p t h e women i n the v i l l a g e ' - wh ich W i l l iams h e r e imp l ic i t l y equa t e s w i th c lan - ' in the hope o f bu i l d ing u p i t s popula t i on ' ( 1 92 5 : 40 8 ) . A s t r iking propor t ion o f mar r ia g e s a r e c o n t r a c t ed b etween memb er s o f g roups in c l o s e p rox im i ty . Da ta ava i l ab l e f or 3 5 mar r ia g e s c on t ra c t e d ov e r 3 g enea l o g ic a l gener a t i on s by the hous eho l d e r s of our s amp l e , or by the i r p a r en t s , s ib l in g s o r c h i l d r en , show tha t in 2 2 c a s e s 1 s pous e c ame e i ther f r om the F our ins tanc e s of b ro ther - s i s ter exchange ma r r ia g e among memb e r s o f S iv e p e were r ec o rd e d ( i . e . , 8 marr iage s ) . 2 W i l l iams ( 1 93 0 : 1 3 1 ) u s e s the t e rm ' pa tr i l o c a l ' . 3 The loca l organ i z a t ion in th i s ne ighbourhood s e em s c l o s er to the c a t e go ry o f ' o s c u lant mu l t ic a rp e l l a ry pa r i s he s ' than any o ther ( s e e a l s o Hogb in 1 9 63 : 3 2 ) . Howev e r , w e b e l iev e tha t the ab s t ra c t ion , i f l e g i t ima t e now i s no t the mo s t info rma t iv e .

49

c ur r en t v i l l a g e o f the o th er o r f rom a v i l lage w i th in a m i l e o f i t , i n 1 1 c a s e s f rom w i th in a rad iu s o f approx ima t e ly 3 m i l e s o f it ( in f a c t a n a r ea on l y s l i gh t l y la rger than the ' ne ighbourhood ' ) , wh i l e 2 spou s e s c ame f r om out s id e the t r ib e . W i l l iam s ( 1 9 3 0 : 1 3 1 - 3 ) s p ea ks o f ' a c er ta in d e gr e e o f l oc a l endogamy ' . T h e A iga v i l lage ' ( in wh ich there may be s evera l c la n s ) . . . c anno t be c a l l ed exo gam ­ o u s even i n theory ' . B e l shaw t o o ( 1 9 5 1 : 1 5 ) p o in t e d out tha t mar r iage i s usua l ly b e tween peop l e who s e pa ren t s do no t l iv e far apar t . F o r th i s r ea s on he wa rned tha t ama l gama t ion o f nearby ' haml e t s ' a f te r the erup t ion might i nc r ea s e t en s ion b e tween group s l inke d b y marr iag e . But r e la t ions h ip s b e tw e en a f f in e s in S ivepe appeared to b e gener a l l y c l o s e and behav iou r r e la t iv e ly informa l and f r i endly when c ompa r e d w i th o th e r a rea s ( e . g . , Inonda ) . P e rhap s there i s a s imi lar c on tra s t w i th former p rac t ic e ( s e e W i l l iams , ihid : l 0 6 , 1 1 4 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 1 ) . Howev e r , i n 1 924 i n a th ird area ( th e Ope o r A i ga ) , the v i l l a g e , c on s i s t ing as i t m i ght of in t e rmarry ing c lans , wa s quite free from ' qua rre l s and i l l - fe e l ing ' (W i l l iam s , ib id : 3 1 5) and ; mor e ove r , i t i s ' no t unus ua l ' f o r a man to d iv ide h i s t ime q u i t e c omfor tab ly ' b e tween the v i l l ag e s of h i s w i f e ' s peop l e a n d h is own ' wi th the r e s u l t tha t ' the r e l a t ion b e tween the f a ther ' s p eop l e and the mo ther ' s peo p l e i s , in prac t i c e , so f r i endly and in t ima te , tha t the c h i l d a s s o c ia te s h im s e l f a lmo s t a s read i ly w i th the l a t t er a s w i th the f o rme r ' - ' s o c lo s e i s the in t imac y b e twe en the two b ranche s of the un i t e d f ami ly ' ( 1 9 2 5 : 40 7 - 8 ,

410) .

Ind iv idua l s f r e e l y and f r e quen t ly c hange the ir v i l l a g e o f r e s i d enc e , whe rea s the v i l la g e s a r e endur ing un i t s . Dur ing the y ea r s 1 9 5 7 - 61 the popu l a t ion o f S ivepe and B induta t o g e th er ave raged 1 65 : the r e wer e in the s ame t ime no l es s than 1 1 3 mov eme n t s of ind iv idua l s into or ou t o f th i s c oup l e o f v i l l ag e s a nd , a c c ord ing to d a ta c o l l ec te d b y ours e lve s , a t l ea s t 13 b e tween the 2 v i l lag e s . The government c en s u s s ta t i s t ic s r ev ea l n e i th er the c aus e , exa c t d e s t ina t ion nor f r equency o f mov emen t by an ind ividua l nor a r e h i s a g e or mar i ta l s ta tus r e co rd e d . l ( i i) F o rma l f ea tur e s o f the l o c a l pa t r i l inea l group s . In d i s ­ c us s ing the l oc a l d i s p o s i t ion o f c lans , we have a l r e a dy t a ken ' c l an b ra nch ' to d en o t e the r ep r e s enta t iv e s of the c lan l iv ing in one v i l l a g e . We r e ta in the t e rm no t onl y for the T imumu group but a l s o for the memb e r s o f the 4 Jega s e l in ea g e s l iv ing at S iv ep e , even though the s e v i l l a g e r s do n o t c on s t i tu t e a group o f c o - re s ident a gna t e s w i th func t ions to mar k i t as a d i s t inc t iv e uni t w i th in the Thu s the f igure s do n o t d i f f er e n t i a t e b e tween a d u l t s a nd c h i l d ­ ren ( s e e McAr thur 1 9 5 6 : 3 24 - 3 6) .

50

wider group ing o f Jega s e c lansmen in the n e i ghbourhood , whi c h we d e s c r ib e as the ' d i s p e r s ed c la n bra nch ' . Th i s c on s i s t s o f the r eputed d e s c endan t s of Jega s e men s a i d to hav e onc e oc c up ie d t o g e ther the s e t t l emen t S imb eha ta - T o t o ga ta o n t h e terr i tory s inc e a s so c ia te d wi th the g r oup . I t now ha s i t s l a rg e s t s ing l e nuc l eu s a t S ivepe b u t inc lud e s a l s o the B eb ehupa men s c a t t e r e d i n o ther v i l l ag e s , who r e c en t l y s epara t e d f r om o ther memb e r s of the l inea g e now a t S iv ep e . 1 S everal wr i te r s have d e s c r ib e d one order o r ano ther o f l o ca l iz ed pa t r i l inea l gr oup s in th i s c ensus d iv i s ion a s l in ea g e s ( B e l shaw 1 9 5 1 : 2 ; Reay 1 953 : 1 1 5 ; Nor ton 1 9 62 : 3) ; in c a l l ing th e S iv e p e group s l ineage s , w e have ma inta ined s ome c on s i s t ency w ith the t ermino logy u s ed for the i r f o rma l c ount erpa r t s in the s urvey a t I nonda . 2

Each l ineage in ou r s amp l e a t S ivepe r e t a in s a name s a i d t o hav e b een t ransmi t t e d f r om s ome r emo t e pa t r i l inea l anc e s t o r and each s ha r e s a d i s t inc t iv e p lan t emb l em , e rahu , a s s o c i a t e d with i t s iden t i ty a s a n a gna t ic group ( s e e Append ix D) . W i l l iam s ( 1 92 5 : 4 1 0) no t e s tha t the e rahu o f ma t r i la t era l kin i s u s ed by hou s eho lder s to mark the i r d i s t inc t iv e p e r s ona l iden t i ty w i th in the ir p a t r i ­ l inea l group .

The a du l t ma l e memb e r ship o f l inea g e s repre s en t e d in the s amp l e , exc lud ing ab s en t e e s who hav e move d f r om the n e ighb ourhoo d , range s f r om 1 (Arehu l ineage) t o 9 in the c a s e o f th e B eb ehupa memb e r s o f the d i s pe r s e d c la n b ranch . Memb er s o f e a c h g roup t ra c e p r ec i s e g enea l o g ic a l r e l a t ionsh i p s t o one ano the r . Al l the B eb ehupa men w i th one p o s s ib l e exc e p t ion can do s o . Genea l o g ica l memory i s shor t . Anc e s try c a n b e t ra c e d b a c k t o men o f the g enera t ion o f

1

W e shou l d empha s i z e tha t the ' c l an b ranc h ' and ' d i s pe r s ed c lan b ra nch ' ar e no t g roup s at d i f f e r en t l eve l s of a h ierarch i c a l l in ea g e s truc ture a n d tha t t h e d i s t inc t ion i s a d ev i c e f o r d i s ­ c us s ing the J e ga s e group s in que s t i on . 2 At S ivep e we f ound tha t the u s e o f the t e rm a h i j e ( or ha i j e ) wa s n o t r e s t r i c t e d to r e f e r enc e t o the founde r o f a l in ea g e a s a t Inonda ( C r o c omb e and Hogb in 1 9 63 : 1 7 ) . Any memb er s o f Jega s e c lan a r e c a l l ed Jega s e tah i j e and the f ounde r of the c lan is a l s o the i r ah i j e . Moreover , the t e rm may b e u s ed in ano ther s en s e b o th t o r e f e r t o a n y o f ego ' s ma l e c ogna t i c anc e s t o r s o r t o deno t e any ( o r a l l ) o f a man ' s immed i a t e c o gna t ic d e s c endan t s . S im i l a r ly ep ihe , s a i d by Nor ton to r e f e r to a l ineag e s eems t o b e u s ed r a ther f o r ego ' s ma t erna l unc l e o r g randfa the r , p a t erna l grandfa ther , e tc . , ep imane ( p l . ) b e ing a t e rm f o r a numb er of the s e kinsmen , no t for a numb er o f l in ea g e s o r a c l an . Unl ike ah i j e , th i s t e rm i s no t u s ed f o r d e s c end ing g ene r a t ions too .

51 the f a ther ' s fa ther o f the o l de s t memb e r s o f the d i s p e r s e d c lan b ranch but the s pe c i f ic kinship r e la t ions h ip s b e tween the s e anc e s to r s a r e f or go t t en .

The Jega s e p e o p l e do no t name a puta t iv e f ounde r o f the d i s ­ per s ed c l an b ranch . No r do they a s sume tha t the eponymous anc e s to r s o f its subgroup s were b ro ther s . The s in g l e s i t e o f s e t t l emen t o f t h e anc e s tor s o f Jega s e m e n i n t h i s n e ighbourhood is the ir only r e c ogn i z e d ev idenc e o f c ommon o r i g in . B u t th i s f q c u s o f the i r c ommon i d en t i ty s t i l l o f f s e t s the mor e r e c en t a t tenua t ion o f intra - g roup r e l a t ions h i p s owing to d i s p e r sa l . The l inea g e s eme r g e a s c on t ra s t e d c o - or d ina t e group - s e gmen t s b ec a u s e the ir h i s t o r i e s have d iverged s inc e they j o in t ly o c c up i ed one t e r r i tor ia l c en tr e . There i s no f ic t ion o f oppo s i t ion b e tween s e gmen t s in g enea l o g i c a l t e rms . Informan t s s ome t ime s ind ica t e d a s ens e in wh ic h c er ta in l ineages a r e c on s i d e r ed c l o s e r to each o ther than t o the r e s t o f the d i s p er s e d c l an b ranch . T h i s type o f a l ignment s e emed t o b e a s soc i a t e d w i th a j o in t h i s tor ic a l iden t i f ic a t ion o f the s e l in ea g e s w i th a par t o f the i r g roup ' s t e r r i t o ry . I t i s p o s s ib l e tha t th i s in turn i s due t o a c l o ser pa tr i l inea l c onne c t ion now f orgo t t en , b u t the p eop l e do n o t v en ture on th i s type o f exp l ana t ion . ( i i i) Autho r i ty and l and c on t ro l in the d e s c en t g roup . An thropo l o g i s t s hav e r emar ke d on the ind e t erm ina t e s y s t em o f l ea d er ship i n Oroka iva v i l l ag e s and d e s c en t group s a n d t h e lac k o f f o rma l s anc t ions f o r autho r i ty , and g ov er nmen t o f f ic ia l s have f ound tha t c on t inue d l a c k of emer g ing l ea d e r s imp e d e s the p lanning o f l oc a l gov ernment and v i l lage r e f o rms . W i l l iams d i s c u s s e s the ' ab s enc e o f c entra l auth o r i ty ' ( 1 9 3 0 : 3 2 5 ) and the ' en t i r e l a c k o f any c er emony o f c h ie f ta in s h ip ' (W . 2 3 ) : h e p o in t s o u t ( 1 9 3 0 : 1 04) tha t the t i t l e s for ' b ig men ' ( embo pen i , embo d omb o ) imp ly on l y tha t they a r e ' me n o f impor ta nc e who canno t c l a im t o b e l ea d er s ' . There wa s however , a r e c ogn i z e d a s c endancy o f o l d m en . The ' l eader and r u l er o f any c lan ' wa s s a id to be the e ld e s t o f i t s men prov ided h e wa s equa l t o the minima l r eq u irement s o f the p o s i t ion and ' on l y in the larger c lans , whe r e the r e a r e w e l l ­ d e f ined fami l y g roup s , d o e s the q ue s t ion o f h e r ed i ta ry s uc c e s s ion appea r , and then i t i s a s omewha t fa int appearanc e ' ( 1 92 8 : 1 2 5 ) b u t on l y i f the l a r g e c lan s a r e l o c a l i z e d , f o r he s ay s tha t wher e ' the c lan i s s c a t t e r ed , th ere i s no s ing l e l ea d e r sh ip ' ( 1 9 2 5 : 40 7 ) . On the o ther hand Reay ( 1 9 53 : 1 1 5 ) say s tha t ' the emb o ki t i , whom F . E . W i l l iam s c a ll ed a " c l an headman" , but who i s r ea l ly mor e o f a v i l l a g e headman who s e p o s i t ion i s hered i ta ry w i th in a c er ta in l ineage o f the c lan , ha s a l im i t e d a u thor i ty wh ich i s bac ke d by no s anc t ions ' ( embo ki t i : f ir s t man ) .

52