A guide to University grammar of English
1
foreward
To the Vietnamese readers-students! Grammar is an indispensable and essential part of any language which any student and user of the language make a deep insight into. The famous book "A University Grammar of English" by R.Quirk and S.Greenbaum is a precise grammar book, suggested to be used by tertiary-level students of the English language. In the programme of study at university in Vietnam, this book has been proposed to be used as one of your chief reference books. However, the problems presented in the different chapters (fourteen chapters in all) of the book would be rather difficult to graps and memorize particulary for Vietnamese students if they were not systematised and shortened. This is the reason why were have, with the experiences of one of the pioneer researchers in the area, found it necessary to summarize, and emphasize the fundamental contents of the concepts used in the book. The precise book we compile here with can be considered as a guide book which summarizes, highlights and emphasizes, in a rather full manner, the basic and essential problems which any Vietnamese university student of the English language should firmly grasp and thoroughly understand, so that he/she can make use of the English language in a precise and expert way. In the process of finding accounts and explanations for these problems, we also use notes and the Vietnamese equivalent terms when necessary and possible. After each chapter we suggest the exercises that should be concentratedly done (taken from R.A Close's workbook). Therefore this guide book is aimed to serve Vietnamese students of English language at different universities throughout Vienam including open universities, part-time and distant education learners who wish to get a B.A degree, as well as anyone who wishes to grasp the English language. We sincerely hope that with the help of this guidebook, Vietnamese reader-students can read, digest, and more thoroughly interpret what has been written in the aforesaid book. Great successes to you all.
2
Hanoi, 2000 TrÇn H÷u M¹nh, Assoc.Prof.Dr NguyÔn V¨n C¬, Senior Lecturer
3
Môc lôc (contents)
Foreward An Introduction to Grammar Chapter I
Nouns, Pronouns and the Basic noun Phrase
Chapter II
The Complex Noun Phrase
Chapter III
Verbs and the Verb Phrase
Chapter IV
The complementation of the Verb
Chapter V
Adjectives and Adverbs
Chapter VI
Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
Chapter VII
The Simple Sentence
Chapter VIII
Adjuncts, Disjuncts and Conjuncts
Chapter IX
Coordination and Apposition
Chapter X
Subordination Complex Sentences
Terminology
4
An introduction to grammar I. What is grammar: I.1. Definition: Elements of grammar: * In traditional concepts, grammar consists of two parts morphology and syntax. a. Morphology deals with these major problems: (i) Classes of word (different parts of speech) (ii) Different grammatical categories of different parts of speech. N: number, case + gender V: Tense, aspect, voice + mood b. Syntax deals with the combination of words to make larger units of language: phrase, clause and sentence. (i) phrases: treating the combination of words into noun phrases,
verb
phrases,
adjectival
phrases,
prepositional
phrases. (ii) clauses: different kinds of clauses; independent clauses, main/superordinate
clauses
and
subordinate
clauses
(dependent) (iii) Sentences: - Simple sentences; sentence with one clause sentences:
Compound
sentences
sentences
and
complex
consisting of two or
more clauses. In modern concept, grammar may be defined as a set of morphological and syntactic rules which may be treated 5
together to make it essier for the learners - the users of the language to grasp and apply to concrete situations of usage.
I.2. Grammar and other branches of linguistics: a. Phonology: treating phonemes - (smallest linguistic units)
Segmental Vowels
Supra segmental
Consonant
Stress
Intonatio
s
rhythm
n
prosody b. Grammar: dealing with; Morphemes (smallest meaningful linguistic unit) Morphemes (made of phonemes) Words Phrases Clauses (parts of (NP, VP, etc) Independen
Sentences Simple,
speech)
compound
t
Main/dep.cl Complex (Largest grammatical unit) c. Semantics (also called semasiology) Treatments meanings of
of Words Phrases
Utterances
(unit
speech)
Clauses Sentenc es d. Discourse analysis: + Largely concerned with larger units than sentence 6
of
sentences - paragraphs - texts + Means of linking sentences: cohesion coherence II. Parts of sentences and sentence types 1. Traditional concepts Principal parts: Subject and predicate Secondary: Object, complement (predicative), Adverbial Attribute (modifier) E.g: My brother walked to the station (simple Predicate) S
Predicate (V + A)
His sister is a teacher of English (compound nominal Predicate) S
Predicate (V + NP = complement)
2. R.Quirk et al's concepts: Sentences
elements
are
Subject,
Verb,
Object,
Complement and Adverbial (S.V.O.C and A for short) E.g: We all S
know V
They
O
went
S
V
these rules
to the station last week A
A
We elected him President twice S
V
O
C
A
S, V, O, C and A can be used to label clauses (see subsection 4 below) 3. Sentence types: (possible arrangements of S, V, O, A) 7
a. S + V intransitive: E.g: She's coming. They're gone out. The planne took off b. S + Vintransitive + C: E.g: She's my sister. They look tired The milk turned sour c. S + Vintransitive + A: E.g:
They were here. She got off the
bus d. S + Vmonotrasitive + O: Eg:
They built this house. He
gave up tobacco This depends on you. We cut down on this e. S + V ditransitive+O+O: Eg:
We gave him a book . She
informed me of the news
He
took
great
care of the children f. S + Vcomlextrans +O+C: E.g:We elected him our President. She painted the door green g. S + Vcomlextrans+O+A: E.g: I put it here They hung the picture on the wall. These
are also clause types, parts of compound and
complex sentences 4. Compound and complex sentences: These are sentences formed by two or more independent clause joined by "and", "but", "or" and others. E.g: I told him this but he didn't believe me. SV
O
1st indep.cl
O S
V
O
2nd indep.cl.
8
She's a teacher and she's out of work S V
C
S V
1st indep.cl
A
2nd indep.cl.
You can drive my car or you can walk S
V
O
1st indep.cl
S
V
2nd indep.cl.
b. Complex sentences: These are sentences joined by two or more clause of which one is the main clause and the other (s) - subordinate clause 9s) being part (S, O,C or A) of the former. E.g: I know that you're honest S S
V
V
C
= sub. clause
O
= main clause
What he likes isn't what I like O
S V S
O V
S V
= sub.clause
C
= main clause
III. Some basic concepts 1. Closed - system vs. Open class: Parts of ech Open class Noun, Verb, Adjective,
Closed - system Pronoun, Article, Preposition,
Adverb
Conjunction
9
Demonstrative, Interjection - numerous
- Small in number
- lexical meaning
- Exclusively used - Clearly defined in contrast with one another (grammatical
meaning) However, the distinction between these two is not clearcut: E.g: Verb:
open class: lexical verbs Closed-system: auxiliaries
Prepositions:
closed-system: simple preps Open class: compound: prep + N + prep
2. Dynamic vs. Stative: a. Verbs are: + Dynamic when denoting action; play, learn, speak, (often used in progressive tense). E.g: They're playing the piano She's been learning English for 5 years. + Stative when denoting state: be, appear, look, turn, know, understand, used in the Progressive). E.g: She is a teacher. She knows me. b. Subclasses of lexical
verb
Stative Intensive Be, become
Dynamic Extensive Intensive know,
Extensive feel
10
Appear, turn (S+V+C)
understands
grow
(S+V+O) (S+V+C) Intransitive
Transitive A
A
come, go
(S+V)
Monotrans
Ditrans
Comp Buy, ask give, call Give up
offer
p (S+V+O)
(S+V+O+O)
(SVC) c. Parts of eech
Dynamic : V.Adv Stative
: N.Adj
3. Optional vs. Obligatory: a. Obligatory elements of the sentences are those that must be present sentence strurcture. Without these, the meaning of the sentences is incomp and the sentence is unacceptable. E.g: She is a teacher S
V
They got off the bus
C
S
V
A
In these sentences, S, V, C and A are obligatory. b. Optional elements are those that are not necessary in the sentences structure. With out these, the meaning of the sentence is still complete: In most cases A is optional. E.g: She went to London last Sunday 11
A
A
The plane took off immediately A Exercises:
U.G.E Work book (by R.A.Close) 4, 5, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15 (Chapter 2, pp, 5-11)
12
Chapter I
Nouns, pronouns and the basic noun phrases (UGE, chapter 4, pp, 59 - 113)
I. Definition and classification I.1. Definition: A noun is a word use to name person, thing, animal or abstract conce. For example: - Name of persons: E.g: Tom, John, Bill Jones, Mr.Smith, people, m..... boy, woman, girl... - Names of things: E.g: bed, chair, table, house, earth, sun... - Names of animals; E.g: cat, dog, tiger, lion, dragon, cattle... -
names
of
abstract
concepts:
E.g:
peace,
war,
independence... I.2. Classification Nouns (i) Proper nouns
(ii) common nouns
(unique reference)
(generic/specific reference)
Tom, John
(+) Count N
Non-count N
Mr.Smith, etc
man, boy,
Water, oil,
13
people
independence
(+) Concrete
Abstract
man, boy,
Peace, war,
water b. Subclassification of proper nouns:
independence
(i) Personal names: E.g: Tom, John, Mr.Smith, Bill Clinton, Sir Jones, L
B. Russel
(ii) Geographical names: E.g: England, China, the Unite
London,
Vietnam,
States of America, the
Nile (iii) Names of institutions or organisations: E.g: London University, the United Nations, FAO, UNICEF, etc. * Proper nouns have unique reference (i.e. they refer to a unique person, country, organisation or sometimes a group of these). c. Futher classification of common nouns: (i) The most important classification of common nouns is the distinciton between count and non-count nouns * Count nouns are those that vary in form Singular
Plural
E.g: man, boy, ox
man, boys, oxen
* Non-count nouns are those that have only one form which is often used in the singular, E.g: Water, oil, silver, independence
14
(ii) Con nouns and non - count nouns can be concrete or abstract: Concrete
Abstract
Count
Non-count
Count
Non-count
Man, boy
Water, gold
War,
Peace,
activity
independence
II. Grammatical categories II.1. The category of number a. Number is grammatical category that distinguishes count nouns into:
Singular
Plural
E.g: man, boy, War, activity
man, boys, wars, activities
b. General classification of nouns in terms of number (i)
Invariables (= Nouns that do not vary) Invariables
Singular only Plural only Noncount NSubstantivi N Pluralia Collecti Substanti ending sed with tantum ve ve in-s plura s nouns Adj Adj l mater abstrac (abstract) meanin (concre ial t g te) Water Peace News The true Scissor Custom People The s s poor Oil Freedo Physic The Cattle m s beautiful Trouser Arms The s blind 15
(ii) Variables
Regular plural
+S
/-s/ books, stops /-z/ beds, stars /-iz/ boxes, brushes
Irregular plural + voicing (/f/ -> /vz/)
: leaf -> leaves
-en ending
: ox -> oxen
+ change of root vowel
: foot -> feet
+ foreign plural: phenomenon -> phenomena Zero plural: sheep, deer, fish, trout (the same form for both singular & plural) II.2. Case (N's: Genitive) (i) Two genitives: E.g:
's genitive
& of - genitive
the boy's book the wheels of the car
(ii). Choice of 's genitive: with nouns of higher gender classes E.g: The boy's name, this cat's eyes, China's export. Choice of of-genitive: with nouns of lower gender classes (iii): Genitive meaning: Equivalents + Possessive: possession: E.g: My father's My father has a hat
hat the
legs
of
the
table Human relation: E.g: my sister's My friends + Subjective (+original):
E.g: My father's s
sister
friends My
has father
permission permits The arrival of the bus The bus arrived 16
+ Objective:
+ Descriptive: + Appositive
E.g: The criminal's
Someone
arrest
arrested
E.g: Two days'visit
The criminal A visit that lasts
E.g: The town of Vinh
Two days Vinh Yen
is
a
Yen town (iv) Double genitive: of & 's - genitive used together E.g: A friend of my father's
II. 3. Gender: (sometimes considered unimportant) Gender Masculine: man
Sex (semantic concept) (male)
Feminine: woman
(female)
Common teacher
(both male and female)
Neuter: table
φ In English, there is not any further morphological feature that helps distinguish gender (unlike Russian or French).
III. Elements of the basic noun phrase (NP) III.1. Diagram Basic NP Closed -system
Head noun
Premodifiers
17
Predetermin
Determiners
Potsdetermi
ers
(6
ners
(3
subclasses)
(2
subclasses) subclasses) III.2. Determiners: 6 subclasses a. Article: definite a(n)/indefinite the, φ e.g: an old man, boys b. Possessive: my, your, his, her, their, e.g: my brother, their discussion. c. Demonstrative: this, that, these, those, e.g: this book, these boys. d. Interrogative: whose, which, what. E.g: which colour, whose books e. Indefinite: some, any, every, each, e.g: some water, any car (s), every student g. Quantifier: much, e.g: much water. In the basic NPs, these words are central elements of premodifiers. III.3. Pre-determiners (=words preceding Determiners): a. Inclusives: all, half, eg: all the books b. Multipliers: double, twice, three times, e.g: double your salary. c. Fractions: one-third, two-fifths, e.g: one-third (of) this book/the student III. 4. Post - determiners (=words coming after Determiners): a. Quantifiers:
Closed-system: many, little, few E.g: many books, few apples 18
Open class: a lot of, good deal of, A great number of E.g: a lot of books, a great deal of oil b. Numerals:
Cardinal: one, two, three, E.g: one book, two books Ordinal: first, second, third. E.g: first, second book
More examples:
this book, your head, a boy, much
water All these examples, all these fifty students Half that water, the first two books... Uses of head noun and close - system pre-modifiers 1. Common uses of Determiners and all classes of head Noun: Head Noun (in terms of number) Count N
a. Article: the, φ :
Non-count N
b. Possessive: my, your c. Interrogative: whose,
Sing N
Plural N-s
which 2. Restricted uses: a. Article: a(n) with singular count N: e.g: a book, an old man b. Demonstratives: * this/that with singular count N/non - count N.
19
E.g: this books, this oil * these/those with plural count N. E.g: those books c. Indefinite: * some with non-count/ count plural N (stressed) with singular count N (stressed) * any, every/each with singular count N d. Quantifier: * much with non-count N only IV.3. Pre-determiners and head N: a.
* all
Inclusive:
with Non-count N
half
Sing count N
Volum
(+N)
e Volum e
Plural
count
(+N-s)
N E.g: all/half the book (s) * both: with plural count nouns (optional use of of)
(+N-s)
E.g: both (of) my brothers b. Multiplier: often used singular count N (volume) or nocount N E.g: double /twice/three times your salary c. Fractions: with nouns denoting volume in the main E.g: one-third (of) your/the book IV. 4. Post - determiners: a. Numerals
cardinal: - one with singular count N - two/three... with plural count N 20
ordinal:
- with either singular or plural E.g: two books, the second book
9s) b. Quantifiers: little with non-count e.g: little water Few/many with plural count N e.g: many/few friends Other quantifiers, e.g: a great deal of books a large amount of cars IV. 5. Noun reference and article usage All the nouns in their concrete uses have reference of their own a. Proper N: unique reference • Without article (φ ): e.g: Tom, China, Mr.Jones
• With definite article the, e.g: the Smiths (family), the Congo, the Philipines • With indefinite article., e.g: There's a Tom Smith here. I bought a Macintosh (proper N-> common N) b. common Nouns: Non - count N:
Generic: φ
e.g: Oil-floats on water
Specific: the e.g:
The oil in this well
The wine of France Count N: * Singular Generic: a = (every), e.g: A tiger lives in the jungle 21
The (= whole class), e.g: The cat is a small domestic animal Specific: a (=one), e.g: There's a car here The e.g: The man
in the car
You met * Plural
Generic: φ , e.g: boys will be boys Specific: the, e.g: The boys of this group
c. More uses of definite article, e.g: the first car, the right answer, the same
room, to the
left/right (side). Pronouns and numerals Subclasses of pronouns (used in replacement of NPs) a. Specific group includes: (i) Central
Personal: I/m, we/us, you/you, his/him,
they/them Reflexive:
myself,
ourselves,
yourself,
yourselves, himself, herself, themselves Reciprocal: one, another, each other (use with we, you,
they (plural)
Possessive:
my(mine),
their(s) (ii) Relative: who, which, that (iii) Interrogative: who, which, what
22
our(s),
your(s),
(iv) Demonstrative: this, that, these, those b. Indefinite group includes: (i) Universal: all, each, everyone, everything, everybody (ii) Partitive:
assertive:
many,
some,
someone,
somebody No-assertive: anyone, anything, anybody Negative: none, no one, nobody, nothing (iii) Quantifying pronouns: * much, many, (positive). E.g: Many didn't come. * little, few (negative), e.g: Little can be done now 2. Numerals: a. Both cardinals and ordinals can be used pronominally. E.g: Two are absent to day.
We only need the
first b. One can be used as: (i) Numerical "one" e.g: I need one One went this way, the other, than (ii) Replacive "one", e.g: Is this the one you mean? (iii) Indefinite "one", e.g: One can't be too careful, can one/you? IV. Syntactic functions of noun phrases (including pronouns) 1. Common syntactic functions: S, O, C a. Subject (S)
E.g: My brother is a teacher S
b. Direct Object (Od)
Cs
E.g: They like football
23
S c. Indirect Object (Oi)
Od
E.g: We gave our friend a book S
d. Subject complement (Cs)
Oi
Od
E.g: My brother is a teacher S
e. Object complement (Co)
E.g:
Cs
They
elected
him
their
chairman S
Od
Co
2. Some other functions (also called minor functions): f. Prepositional complement (Cprep.)
E.g: On the way we
look at it Cprep g. Appositive (App.)
Cprep
E.g: My friend, a teacher, will
come soon App g. Adverbial (A)
E.g: Last week we telephoned
him A (time) i. Adjectival Complement (Cadj)
E.g: The game isn't worth
the candle Cadj Exercises: U.G>E. Work book (by R.A. Close) 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 57, 58, 59, 63, 64, 65, 66 (chapter 4, pp.28-38)
24
Chapter II The complex noun phrase
I. Elements of complex noun phrase I.1. Diagram Complex NPs Premodifiers Closed-system
Head N
Open-Class
Adv.or
e I.2. Examples:
Nonfinites
Pre.P Adjectiv
Postmodifiers Relative clause
Verb Noun (These)
beautiful girls
Adj
headN
The approaching
train
Det V-ing
head N
The beautiful girl
sitting in the corner
Det Adj
head N
non-finite
I.3. Restrictive vs.non-restrictive modifiers: Restrictive: Essential information No - restrictive: Additional information Eg: My Restr.
old
mother Non-restr.
25
II.1. Major classes of pre-modifiers: Adj Verb
+ Head N
E.g: A good boy The approaching train This broken vase
Noun
My brother's letter This lecture hall II. 2. Minor classes of pre-modifiers: - Adv
e.g:
The
then
minister,
a
far-away
- Prep.P
e.g:
On -the - job classes cottage
- Clause
e.g:
Pop-down-for-the-weekend cottage
cottage
II. 3. Pre-modification by Adjectives: a. Different classes of adjectives: Central Adj General
Age
Colour
Shape/size
Good
Old
Black
Square
Bad
New
White
Round
Orange
Triangular
Beautiful Young E.g: These old cars
The beautiful old orange car * Attributive Adj: - Nationality: e.g: British/American radio - Denominal: e.g: political consciousness, physical conditions
26
b. Relative sequence: Premodifiers
Head N
Adj Gen
Age
Verb
Color
Shape
Denominal
V-ing/V-
Adj
N
ed This pretty
old
black
Crumblin
triangular
g
Church social
Tower life
The extravagant
II.4. Pre-modification by Verbs: a. V-ing rticiple:
temporary,
e.g:
the
approaching
train (= the train which is approaching) permanent,
e.g: an interesting book
(= a book that interests readers)
a. V-ed2 participle: passive,
e.g: the broken vase (= the vase that was broken)
non-passive, e.g: a retired teacher ( = a teacher who has retired) II.5. Nouns used as pre-modifiers: a. N's (genitive)
e.g:
the boy's
cottage
room b. N (common - case) e.g:
the country cottage
27
c. A series of N
e.g:
the
black
market
meat
price
reduction head N II.6. Multiple pre-modification: a. One head N with multiple pre-modifiers * Relative sequence: Premodifiers
Head N
Det Predet.Det +
Adj Gen
Age
Verb Col
Pstdet
Ex: This The
Sha
V-ing/V-
pe
ed2
Denominal
Beautiful new white Old Pentagonal
Adj
Japanese Car Church Towe
crumbing * Change in sequence -> change in meaning E.g: This black old man ≠ This old black man His last interesting novel ≠ His interesting last novel b. Multiple head with one modifier E.g: Old men and women (i) old man and old women (ii) women and old men c. With modified modifiers E.g: The extremly beautiful pictures
The meat production increase measures 28
N
r
The King of England's crown
III. Post-modification III.1. Major classes of post-modifiers: Adv./Prep.P: Head
N Nonfinites:
+
Relative
E.g: The man there The book on the left E.g: The first man to leave Elg: The boy who went with
clauses: you there III.2. Minor classes of post - modifier: E.g:
Head + Adj The boys Easiest to teach
Nothing New III. Post - modification by Adverbs/Prepositional Phrase: - Place:
e.g: The man in the car/at the desk upstairs/down there
- Time:
The meeting on Tuesday
- Manner: A problem of great significance A man of four children III. 4. Post - modification by non-finite verbs: - To V
appositive, e.g: their hope to become teachers descriptive, e.g: the last bus to arrive
29
- V-ing
temporary character, e.g: the man standing
there - V-ed
passive meaning, e.g:
The
vase
broken
during the row the words underlined III. 5. Post - modification by relative clauses: a. Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive relative clauses
Restrictive + Essential information
Non-restrictive + Additional information
+ Head N: Specific reference
+ head N: Unique reference
+
Wider
choice
of
relative + Narrower choice of relative
pronouns
pronouns who (m)
who (m)
which that
which
φ IV. Premodification & postmodification in comparison: - Greater with post - modifier: E.g: The London trip Pre-mod The trip to London (+ direction)/around London Post-mod * Explicitness varies with different classes of postmodifiers:
30
E.g: The girl:
near the door (+ position) Sitting
near
the
door
(+posture+position) Who's
sitting
near
the
door
(+time+posture+position) IV.2. Other features: a. Permanence & temporariness Pre-modifiers - Temporary:
Post-modifiers - Temporary only:
E.g: the approaching train
Eg: the approaching train at platrform 5
- Permanent: E.g: this surprising news b. Passive & non-passive Pre-modifiers - Passive:
Post-modifiers - Passive only:
E.g: the broken vase
E.g:
the
vase
broken
during the now
- Non-passive: -φ
E.g: a retired teacher IV.3. Pre-modification
and
post-modification
in
combination: Examples: Pre-modification The pretty blackish The interlocking China Her interesting love The English Grammar The beautiful broken
Head Girl Box Novel Book
Post-modification (who) you met on the way here Which you'll see later. About war veterans There which I bought two years
vase
ago On the table which I bought 31
China These ancient
three
two months ago is still there nice Tower In the city centre which you
pentagonal
s
will come across later are of
crumbling church great his significance Exercise: U.G.E Work book (by R.A.Close) 245, 247, 250, 251, 254, 255, 257, 258, 259, 262 (chapter 13, p.p 123 - 131)
32
Chapter III
Verbs and the verb phrase (UGE, chapter 3, pp.26-58)
I. Definition and classification I.1. What is a verb? A verb is a word (or a part of speech) used to denote action or state, or, otherwise help to complete to meaning of the verb phrase. E.g: She goes there twice a week (action) She'll become a doctor (state) They're trying to finish the work I.2. Classification: a. Lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs. - Lexical (or main) verbs are those verbs that denote action or state. E.g: We speak Vietnamese
(action)
They went there last night She looks tired today
(state)
She's my teacher of English - Auxiliary verbs are those that help complete the meaning of the verbs phrase. E.g: You can go there now She did sit there with him We're learning a new lesson 33
b. Auxiliary verbs: primary and modal auxiliaries Auxiliaries Primary Periphrastic
Modal Can, may, must Ought to, dare, need
Perfect
Do Often used in negative interrogative sentences
Progressi Passive ve Have Be 1 Be 2 Use to add the meaning of Used to add the aspect, voice of the verb meaning to the phrase verbs phrase
c. lexical verbs: dynamic and stative verbs: Dynamic verbs Stative verbs * Dynamic verbs are often * Are often verbs that denote verbs that denote action, but state (even transitive verbs): some may denote state:
e.g: She knows me
E.g: They're singing She's feeling tired now *
Can
* Not commonly used in the be
used
inthe progressive tense:
progressive tense
E.g: She's weak
E.g: She learns Russian
He looks tired
She's learning lesson 10 d. Lexical verbs: intensive and extensive verbs
34
Intensive verbs often denote intensive relationship, often between subject and complement. E.g: She's my sister. She looks cheerful today (one entity ins involved here) We're feeling tired now. Extensive verbs are those that extend their meaning to a new entity, of which the presence helps complete the meaning of the action or state. E.g: She knows me. We're learning a new lesson. We elected him president twice Sometimes, extensive verbs are intransitive: E.g: She has come They're living in a new world e. Lexical verbs - their classification in terms of their complementation Verbs Intensive
Intransitive Monotran-
Transitive Ditransitive Complex-
(1)
(2)
(4)
sitive(3)
Be, appear, Come,
transitive(5
) Give, take, Call, elect,
go, Ask,
look,
live,
come answer,
become,
in, go out, get,
give
get, run
give in
turn
up, down 35
inform of
make, put
(SVC/SVA)
(S V)
(S V O)
(S V O O)
(S V O C/ S
V O A) f. Lexical verbs; Classification based on word formation: Verbs Simple Root only:
*
Derived Compound prefix + root: * Phrasal: come in,
redo, go out, give up, turn Ask, give, take, go, return, overdo, mistake down come, work * Root + suffix:
*
Socialise, broaden
depend on, look for *
Prepositional:
Others:
white
-
wash I. Auxiliaries: Syntactic and Semantic Features II.1. Syntactic features of primary auxiliaries: a. Their forms:
Prese nt Past
Periphrastic:
Perfect:
Progressive:
Passive: B
Do Do/does
Have Have/has
Be (be+)
Am/is/are
Had
am/is/are Was/were
Was/were
(+been)
(been
Did
&
being) b. Form of the verbs following them: Do + V lexical
Have + V-ed2 Be + V-ing of Be of
+
V-ed
lexical/auxiliar lexical
lexical/auxiliar y He
does
y like She's
been We're talking 36
This was done
coffee
here
It was being It built
The don't go out
has
been
finished
often c. Used as operator: They
didn't
go She
there
hasn't She isn't coming He
done it
Where
was
it informed
Why did she come What has she going?
How
late?
done?
got? d. Used as proform (pro-verb)
She went there but I Have didn't
you Are
wasn't
was
they Was
finished?
coming?
Yes, I have
I'm sure they Certainly
it
she
chosen? she
are was e. Only "Do" can be used as emphatic auxiliary: E.g: Do come in and sit down He did go there last Sunday II.2. Modal auxiliaries: their syntactic features a. List of items:
can, may, must, shall, will, ought to dare, need.
b. Their own forms: Present:
can, may, shall, will
must, ought to, need,
dare Past:
could, might, should, would
37
* For their present tense form, only one form is use for all persons and numbers, e.g: He/we... can go now c. Form of the verb following them: Modal + V (base) of the lexical/auxiliary verb following it. E.g: You can go They must have gone out She shouldn't be prompted He can't be arriving d. Used as operator: E.g: She can't do it now He couldn't swim What must we do now? Why shouldn't they have taken photographs then? e. Used as pro-form E.g: You must go there but they mustn't (needn't) Note: * "Dare" and "need" are modals when they are used as operator. E.g: She needn't attend the lecture. Dare you go to with him now? * Otherwise, they are lexical verb. E.g: We don't need to take care of him.
II.3. Semantic features of modal verbs:
38
Semantically modal verbs form a sacle of modality when they are use with lexical verbs: Prese E.g: He can speak 3 foreign languages nt a. Ability (mental/physical) (~be able to Past
They can swim across the river E.g: He could play the guitar when he was 3
V) She could talk with them in their native b. Possibility
tongue Theoretic E.g: The roads can be blocked now
(~be possible)
al: Practical: E.g: He knew that the road might be
c. Permission
Formal
blocked then + E.g: May I borrow your car, sir
polite (~be
allowed
E.g: Might I come in, sir?
+to V) d. Obligation: (~be
Casual: Subjective:
E.g: Can I smoke in here E.g: You must keep silent now E.g: She mustn't do it (prohibition)
Objective E.g: E.g: E.g: E.g: E.g: E.g:
E.g: They had to attend 4 lectures She has to be very careful We needn't go there now You should do as you are told She ought to be very cautious Shall we go there with him now? Why shouldn't they ask for permission
obliged+toV) e. Necessity: (~be necessary) f. Advisability: (~be advisable) g. Suggestion:
to go? h. Habituality:
Past
E.g: They would sit there and welcome him home then
39
Present/Fut ure: i. Volition (willingness)
j. Futurity:
E.g: She will always say good bye to him at 4 o'clock
E.g: Water will boil at 900C at this height E.g: there'll be strong wind and cold weather E.g: They'll go there the other day We shall try our best
III. The different forms of lexical verbs: III.1. Five different forms of lexical verbs and their uses: a. A general look at verb forms: There are five verb form judged by their by used in the verb phrase:
E.g:
V (base) Ask
V-s (3rd person) Asks
V-ed (past) Asked
V-ing V-ed2 (participles) Asking Asked
Want
Wants
Wanted
Wanting
Wanted
Cut
Cuts
Cut
Cutting
Cut
Bring
Brings
Brought
Bringing
Brought
Take
Takes
Took
Taking
Taken
Go
Goes
Went
Going
Gone
Be
Am, is, are
Was,
Being
Been
were b. concrete uses of the verb forms: (i) Base form: Infinite VPs * Indicative mood
In no-finite VPs * To - infinitive
Simple Present Tense with
E.g: To help him is my task 40
I/We/you/they/the boys E.g: I
They wanted to keep silent
go there twice They
a week
wanted
there
to
find
better jobs
The boys
* Bare infinitive.
* Imperative mood
E.g: Run a way was all th**
E.g: Take a great care of the could do then children * Subjunctive mood E.g: God save the Queen! He
suggested
that
she
be
there (ii) V-s: used only infinite VPs- Indicative mood, simple Present Tense with 3rd person singular (He/She/It/The boy). E.g: He/she/It/The boy often comes early. (iii). V-ed (past): In finite VPs + In Indicative mood Simple Past Tense with all persons numbers: Eg: I/He.../They asked this question + In subjunctive mood (also called Past Subjunctive) Eg: If he went there, he'd certain see her (iv) V-ing (participle): +
Infinite VPs With verbs in
In no-finite VPs the
progressive tense
E.g: Seeing is believing
E.g: They're coming They enjoyed watching T.V She's been living for 2 years
Having 41
finished
work
they
If he'd been learning for a long home time he'd have known this (v) V-ed2 (participle) with verbs in the Perfect Tenses Infinite VPs + With verbs in the perfect
In no-finite VPs
tenses
E.g; having done all the work
E.g: We've done all the work
they are free now
She'd met him before she went there
+ In the passive voice they
were
asked
a
lot
of
question II.2 Regular verbs with 4 actual verb forms: V,
V-s, V-ed 1
=
V-ed2,
V-ing
/d/ borrowed, drilled onunciation of - ed
/t/ asked, stopped /id/ wanted, needed
E.g
Ask
Asks
Asked
Asking
Want
Wants
Wanted
Wanting
Travelled
Travelled
Travelling
Travel II.3. Irregular verbs Verbs with 3 actual forms:
V = V - ed1 = V-ed2 V-s V-ing Eg: cut Cuts Cutting Ther verbs: bid, bet, burst, cast, cost, forecast, hit, hurt, let, put, set, spread, put, slit, split, upset. 42
Verbs with 4 actual forms (i) V = V-ed V-s V-d E.g: become Becomes Became Other verbs: come, overcome, run, overun
V-ing Becoming
(ii) V V-s V-ed1 = V-ed2 V-ing * with ending -1 (change of root vowel) E.g: bend Bends Bent Bending + bring, build, catch, creep, deal, feel, fight, keep, kneel, lend, leap, leave, lose, mean, rebuild, seek, send, sleep, spend, sweep, think, teach, weep. V V-s * Change of root vowel only
V-ed1=V-ed2
V-ing
E.g: Baby-sit Baby-sits Baby-sat Baby-sitting + bleed, breastfeed, breed, cling, dig, feed find, fling, get, grind, hang, have hear, hold, lay, lead, make, meet, mislead, misunderstand, overhear, pay, repay, rewind, say, shine, sit, slide, speed, spin, stand, stick, sting, strike, swing, tell, understand, unwind, weave, wind, wring. c. Verbs with 5 different forms: V V-s V-ed1 V-ing V-ed2 Eg: arise Arises Arose Arising Arisen + Quake, bear, beat, begin, bite, blow, break, choose, do, draw, drink, drive, eat, fall, fly, forbid, foresee, forget, forgive, freeze, give, go, grow, hide, know, like, mistake, outgrow, overeat, overtake, overthrow, rewrite, ride, rise, see, shake, shrink, sing, sink, speak, steal, swear, swim, tear, tread, undergo, undertake undo, wake, wear, withdraw, write. III.4. Mixed type:
43
E.g: learned - learnt, show - shown
V. the grammatical categories of the english verb V.1. Four categories: tense, aspect, voice, mood (a general look) a. Tense - use of verb form to indicate time of action/state We make clear distinction of two tenses: Present:
V/v-se
Ask/asks
Write/write
Have/has
Past:
V-ed1
Asked
s
Had
Wrote b. Aspect; the aspect denotes the manner in which the action/state is performed (i.e. completion/in-completion of action) There are 4 subcategories of aspect: Simple
V/V-s/V-ed1
E.g: She works here
Perfect
Have+V-ed2
E.g: They're lived there for
Progressive
Be + V-ing
8 years
Perfect
Having been + V- E.g: We were dancing then
Progressive
ing
E.g: She's been learning
English, for a long time c. Voice: Voice denotes the relationship between the subject and the verb. We distinguish two voice: Active:
S - actor (agentive) + V-action (V/V-s...)
E.g: We built this house Passive:
S-affected (recipient) + V - action (Be + V-ed2)
E.g: This house was built last year
44
She was given a booklet d.
Mood:
Mood
indicates
the
speaker's
attitude
to
the
predication (action/state). In his mind, the action may be thought of as: + Factual:
E.g: He went there last night (Indicative)
+ Non - factual: * Desirous:
E.g: Keep silent please (Imperative)
* Unreal: E.g: If he went there tomorrow he would meet her (subjunctive) IV. Tense and aspect a. Tense and aspect are closely related in the formation of the system a tenses
Tense
Simple
Perfect
Progressive
Perfect
s
progressive
Presen V/Vs
(be)
Hav +
t
Ask/as
am
e
ed
k
is
Has
asked Is
Past
V- Am +
V-ing
Hav
bee
Asking
e
n
Has
are
Are
V-ed1
Was Had Was
Was
+ Ving Had
Bee
+Ving
Asked
Wer
Wer
asking
n
asking
+
Were
e
e
v. In any finite verb phrases, we can notice the use of tense, aspect and mood well E.g: He went there last Sunday (tense: past: aspect: simple, mood: indicative)
45
She's been living here since she graduated from the college - Tense: present -
aspect;
- Tense: past
perfect - aspect: simple
progressive
- mood: indicative
- mood: indicative I'd him before I came here - Tense: past
- Tense: past
- aspect: perfect
- aspect: simple
- mood: indicative If you had gone there you'd have met her - Tense: past
- Tense: past
- aspect: perfect
- aspect: perfect
- mood: subjunctive - mood: subjunctive c. In the non-finite verb phrases, time of the action my be indicate by the perfect or progressive auxiliary. E.g: He seems
to know her (simultaneous) To have met her (prior) To
be
attending
the
seminar
(temporally
simultaneous) To have been living here for a longtime VI.3. concrete uses of basic tenses: * The simple present tense a. Forms Affirm: Ask/he asks
(i)
b. Uses Repeated/habitual
I am, He is, You (timeless)
46
action
are eg: We do not
E.g: We often go there. ask
Every morning she does physical exercise
Don't He does not ask
(ii) characteristic action/sate E.g: He speaks Vietnamese
Doesn't
Quest: Does he ask this They are teachers question?
(iii) Action in progress
Where do they often E.g: He understands this now go?
(iv) General statement & universal truth E.g: Two and two makes four The earth rotates around the sun (v) Future - time action E.g: The train leaves tomorrow When she comes she'll tell us the news (vi) Past time action E.g: Famous film star marries exPresident
* The simple past tense a. Forms V-ed1:
b. Uses (i) Past time action
I/we... asked
E.g: He went there yesterday
I/h/she
was
In 1945 two million people diet of
We/you/they
were
(a time)
(starvation)
(ii) habitual past activity: 47
E.g: They drank liquer very often (used to drink) (iii) Succession of past action E.g: He went in, took a chair and sat down (iv) Future action viewed from the pats E.g: He said he would come when he had time * The present perfect tense a. Forms Have + V-ed2:
b. Uses Past action
(i)
I/we/you/they: have done
consequence to present time:
He/she/it: has gone
E.g: He's gone out
eg: We haven't gone
They've just come. A time + already,
They've not done it
recently...)
Quest: Have they finished? Where have you been?
with
(ii)
Action
whose
duration
covers a pen of time up to the present: E.g: We've lived here for ten years She's cried for half an hour and sleeping (iii) Action completed before a for moment.
48
E.g: You won't be allowed to go unless have finished the work * Present progressive tense: a. Forms Be + V-ing
b. Uses (i) Action going on at the
I am doing (I'm cooking)
present
moment
(except
stative verbs):
We are dancing (We're joking)
E.g:
She's working (he's speaking)
We're
having
a
new
lesson.
eg: I'm not joking
She's talking over the phone
We are not sleeping
(ii) continual process:
(aren't)
E.g:
He is not dancing
The
earth's
always
rotating around the sun
(isn't)
(iii). Characteristic action (+
Quest; Are they listening?
emotional colouring).
What's she doing?
E.g: You're always joking (iv) Future time action E.g:
The
train's
leaving
b. Uses Action whose
duration
tomorrow * Present Perfect Progressive Tense: a. Forms Have been + V-ing
(i)
I/se have('ve) been living here.
covers a period of time up to the present moment and is.
He/she has('s) been working Neg.
We
have
not
been
+ Still going on: E.g: We've been living in this
working Haven't
house for ten years (We're still 49
She has not been listening Hasn't
living here) + No longer going on:
Quest: What have they been E.g;
She's
been
crying
for
doing since then? hours and is now sleeping The uses of the Past Perfect, Past Progressive and Past Perfect Progressive tenses are largely dependent on those of the corresponding present tenses. IV.4. Means of expressing future time action: In English there is not a definite future tense with fixed dorms of verb shown in the contrast Present and Past. In fact, futurity, modality a aspect are closely associated in expressing future time action. future action thus can be denoted by: a.
Modal auxiliary: shall/well+V'
E.g: We will go there next Sunday Shall He'll be more patient b. Modal structure: be going to = V E.g: We're going to finish our work. She's going to retire next year c. Be about to/be to + V E.g: They're about to leave the country He's to play against that man this afternoon. d. Present Progressive Tense (be + V-ing) (planned action) E.g: The train's leaving the station tomorrow. e.
Modal
verb
+
Progressive
(expectation): 50
Tense
(will
be
+
V-ing)
E.g: They'll be building a new stadium in this area f. Present Simple (V/V-s) (with verbs of motion and a time/condition) E.g: The coach starts early this evening from K.M. Station If she has time she'll come to see us. g. Present Perfect (have/has+V-ed2) (action completed before a future moment). E.g: You won't be allowed to leave until you have done all the exercises. IV.5. More on Voice and Mood a. Passive Voice with different sentence types: (i) Active:
SVO -> Passive:
E.g: This house was
SVOO-> Oi -> Spass:
E.g: He was given a new
built last year
book Od -? "S":
E.g: A new book was given to him
SVOC -> S + Cs:
E.g:
She's
been
elected
President twice SVOa -> S + A:
E.g: The picture will be hung on
the wall
(ii) Passive voice is used when the agentive is neglected or emphasised: This house was built by my father, not by my brother (iii) The so-called middle voice: E.g: The door opened 51
The dam blew up. S = affected . Vintransitive In this case, according to some grammarians, the verb here is active in form but passive in meaning. b. Mood: the marked forms - Imperative and subjunctive (i) Imperative mood (use of V-base form) + The imperative mood is often used without S (or more exactly, with the understood S - you) to express command, request, or invitation. E.g: Keep silent. Be more patient! Come in, please. + When Subject "you" is present emotional colouring (often anger indignation, etc.) is often attached with change of tone as well. E.g: You there keep silent! You there stop doing that! Don't you there say any more words or I'll put you out + Indefinite pronouns "someone, anyone" can be used as S of imperative sentences in a rather common way. E.g: Someone go out and tell him to go away! Don't anyone saw anything about this! (ii) Subjunctive mood, now considered less important, is used to expressive + A desired action/wish/ often with base form of verb): E.g: God save the Queen ! Far be it from me to contradict you! (formulaic subjunctive)
E.g: He
suggested (that)
everyone be resent at 6.00 a.m 52
Order
(mandative subjunctive)
+ Unreal condition or comparison (with V-ed1 or had + V-ed2) E.g: If were in your shoes, I'd help her. He looks as if he didn't understand me She says this as thought she were my mother! If she had gone there she'd have met him (condition)
( consequence)
V. The structure of the verb phrase V.1. Finite and non-finite verb phrases Finite VPs Non-finite VPs a. finite VPs (V, V-s & V-ed1, Non-finite VPs (to V, V-ing & Vetc)
ed2)
E.g: They go there very often.
Do not have tense and mood.
He goes there twice a week
E.g: They want to go there
(Tense; past, mood: indicative)
then
We (Tense: past, mood: indicative)
She enjoyed watching TV (Can
be
used
either
with
Present or Past tense) With four auxiliaries = lexical verb: ABCD + V-ed2: The students might have been being asked a lot questions. Note: In these complex finite VPs, attention should be paid to the use of the initial auxiliary as operator, the required form of the auxiliary in combination of 2/3/4 auxiliaries and that of the lexical verb.
53
V.4. Complex non-finite VPs: These complex VPs often have one auxiliary (except modal auxiliary) or sometimes two auxiliaries: E.g:
He seemed:
to have met her to
be
following
(perfect) her
exemple
(progressive) They appear
to have been met by a stranger
(perfect+passive) to be being met
(prgr
+
passive) She happened to have been running after a cat
(perf + progr)
Exercises; U.G.E. workbook (by R.A.Close) 17, 24, 266, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43) (Chapter 3, pp, 13-18)
54
chapter IV the complementation of the verb (Ch.12, pp.347 - 374)
I. Classification of verbs in terms of their complementation types:
There are five main groups of verbs in terms of their complementation types and each of these may be further subclassified I.1. Intranstive verbs: with complementation zero (sentence type SV) There are two subclasses of intransitive verbs: a. common Vintransitive:
Simple: E.g: come, go, live, work,
walk, die, fall Derived:
E.g:
return,
retire,
disintegrate b. Phrasal Vintransitive: E.g: com in, go out, blow up, take off, come to, give in. I.2. Intensive verbs: With intensive complementation (sentence types, SVC and SVA). Two subgroups: a. Current intensive: E.g: be, appear, feel, look, smell, remain, keep. b. Resulting intensive: E.g; become, come, get, go, grow, turn, make. I.3. Monotransitive verbs:
55
With monotransitive complementation (sentence types SVO). Four subgroups (the largest ones) a. Simple Vtransitive: E.g: ask, answer, buy, build, speak, write. b. Phrasal: E.g: give up, make up, turn down, switch on, set off c. Prepositional: E.g: depend on, look for, look after, think of d. Phrasal prepositional: E.g: cut down on, look down upon, get on with, catch up with, live up to. I.4. Ditransitive verbs: With ditransitive complementation (sentences type SVOO). Three subgroups: a. Simple Vditrans: E.g: give, get, bring, take, buy, do, lend, find, make, offer, owe, pay. b. Prepositional Vdistrans: E.g: inform of, accuse of, provide with, remind of, compare to. c. Idiomatic Vditrans: E.g: make use of, pay attention to, catch sight, give way to, make fun of, make room for, put an end to, set fire to, take advantage of. I.5. Complex transitive verbs With complex transitive complementation (sentence types SVOC and SVOA) 56
a. With SVOC type: (i) Factual verbs: E.g: feel, find, imagine, knows, suppose, think, like. (ii) Causative verbs: E.g: have, let, make (iii) Verbs of perception; E.g: feel, hear, notice, observe, see, watch (iv) other verbs: E.g: elect, appoint, name, consider (with optional) accept, class, intend, interpret... (always with as)
II. Zero complementation III. 1. Intransitive verbs are often used with complete zero E.g: She's come.
They are dancing
They danced and danced. She came to The plane took off just before lunch time II.3. There may also be place Adjunct which seems to be closely associate with the verbs: E.g: She comes from Leeds We're living in London III. intensive complementation (CS and A) a. subject complement (Cs) (in intensive relation with S) III.1. Cs = a noun phrase (basic or complex):
57
This often comes after such verbs as be, become, turn, make E.g: She is a teacher of Russian They'll soon become engineers in construction. He turned traitor. She'll make a good wife III.2. Cs = adjective or adjectival phrase: E.g: They are good
She's good at grammar.
We're afraid of fierce dogs (Adj + Prepositional) The game isn't worth the candle (Adj = NP) III.3. Adjectival clauses as Cs:
a. Cs = Adjective = to infinitive. There are five subtypes here. Adjectival clause E.g: he's wise to stay at home
Corresponding structure It's wise of him to stay at home
He's slow to react
He reacts slowly
He's glad to see you again
To see you again makes him
He was reluctant to leave
glad
He's hard to deal with
φ
It's hart to deal with him b. Cs = Adjective + V-ing participle E.g: She was busy doing her home work This book is worth reading many times c. Cs = Adjective + Finite clause E.g: I'm sure that he will win the match (that clause)
58
We weren't certain whether he would come or not She wasn't aware who he was
(wh-interrogative
clause) I wasn't clear about whatever he said
(nominal
clause) B. Adverbial (as intensive complementation) III.4. Adverbial expression: a. an adverb: E.g: He was here/upstairs. b. a prepositional phrase: E.g: She was in the car c. a clause: E.g: He's nowhere to be seen They are exactly where they went the other day III.5. Meaning of these adverbials: a. Place (most common) E.g: He was here/in the car They kept off the grass b. Time: E.g: The meeting will be on next Monday c. Manner/Description: E.g: The matter is of great importance He's (a man) of great fame IV. Monotransitive complementation (Od) IV.1. O = a noun phrase E.g: We bought this book This depended on you On the way here we met a man with a very large ear 59
relative
The man who went with you We put off the meeting IV.2. O = a non-finite clause E.g: She wanted to set the house on fire (to V) They enjoyed watching the program
(V-ing
participle
clause) his singing the song IV.3. O = a finite clause: E.g: I know that she didn't go there with him (that clause) We can't make out what he says
(wh-interrogative
clause) He didn't remember whoever had met him first at the station (nominal relative clause) He didn't
say whether he would
come or not (yes/no
interrogative) They cut down on what they had to spend everyday (wh - relative clause)
v. Ditransitive complementation (Oi + Od) V.1. Oi = NP1 = Od = NP2: E.g: We didn't give him any book She informed the boy of the terrifying news V.2. Oi = NP + Od = non-finite clause: E.g: She told the criminal to lay down his gun (to V) They accused him of having stolen the sum of money (v-ing)
60
V.3. Oi = NP - Od - finite clause: E.g: They told us that they had won the match (that clause) She asked him why he hadn't come on her birthday (wh-interrogative clause) He didn't tell her whether he would be able to go there with her (yes/no interrogative) You can accuse me of whatever I have done against you (nominal relative clause) VI. complex transitive complementation (Od + Co) VI.1. Od = Np1 + co - NP2 E.g: We consider him our younger brother They looked upon us as their brother and sisters She regarded us as her enemies VI.2. Od = NP + co = Adj. Phrase/clause E.g: We painted the door red This made her afraid of
these animals
whoever came near VI.3. Od = Np + Co = non-finite clause E.g: We wanted him to finish his work in time (to V) Her story made them laugh all the time (V - bare infinitive) We saws them entering the supermarket (V-ing) They watched the house broken into without doing anything (Ved2) VI.4. Od = NP + Co = finite clause (nominal relative clause) 61
E.g: You can cal me whatever name you like They painted the doors and windows whichever colour they wanted VII. Complex transitive complementation (Od + A) VII.1. Od = NP + A = Adverb E.g: I put my bag here We led them upstairs VII.2. Od = NP + A = prepositional phrase E.g: She hung the pictures on the wall They rowed their boat up the stream The officer marched the soldiers through the yard VII.3. Od = NP + A = as finite clause E.g: You can put it wherever you like She hung it where she had hung the day before VII.4. Od = finite clause + A = prepositional phrase E.g: Don’t put off till tomorrow what you can do to day VIII. some remarkable comparisons
VIII.1.1. Phrasal and Prepositional verbs a.
Phrasal verbs Formation
Prepositional verbs and
subclassification
V + Preposition
V + article (-> adverb)
62
Intransitive
Monotrasitive
Monotrasitive
Ditransitive
Com in, go out Turn on, switch Rely on, depend Inform Come to, take off,
on,
off
Look
of,
charge for,
look With,
after b. Similarity in case of montrasitive verbs:
take
care of
E.g We turned on the lights
We depended on your help
They gave up tobacco smoking
They looked after the children
O = NP c. Differences; in position of O
O = NP
E.g: We turned the lights on
φ
We turned them on
they looked after them
Pronoun VIII.2.
Ditranitive
complementation
pronoun and complex
Transitive complementation: a. Confusion is easily made especially when with (i) Oi = Np + Od = NP
Od = NP + Co = NP
E.g: We gave him a book
We consider him our brother
She told us the news
They called it a spade
(ii) O + NP + O = to V
O = NP + Co = to V
E.g: We told him to close the
We want him to close the door
door
O = NP + A = prep.Phrase
(iii) O = NP + prep + O = NP
She took him off the roar
E.g: We informed her of the news
63
b. Differentiation: (ii). E.g: We gave a book to him
We consider him our brother
She told us the news Him & a book = two entities
It was a spade Him & our = one ent****
Us & the news
brother It & a spade
(ii) by asking questions: E.g: What did you tell him?
What did you want?
We told him that he should close
We wanted that he should
the door
close the
Vditrans + Oi + Od
V monotrans + Od
(iii). E.g: We informed her of it
She took him there
pronou
adverb
n IX. Multiple class verbs IX.1. Verbs can participate in different clause types. Most typically, the verb GET can be - intransitive:
E.g: She got up rather late
- intensive:
E.g: We got tired/pale She got out of the car
- monotransitive: - ditransitive:
(SV) (SVC) (SVA)
E.g: We got a letter this morning
E.g: I got her a chair
(SVO)
(SVOO)
- complex transitive: E.g: They get everything ready
(SVOC)
You’ve got your self into serious trouble IX. Complementation type transformation 64
O + O O + A: We gave him a book We gave a book to him Exercise: 211, 214, 215, 219, 220, 221, 222, 225, 226. 230, 231, 236, 243 (chapter 12, pp, 109-121)
65
chapter V adjectives and adverbs (UGE, chapter 5, pp, 114 – 142)
I. Adjectives I.1. Definition – Characteristic features: a. Definition: An adjective is a word belonging to an open class which generally denotes quality, e.g: good, hot, little, young, fat, etc: colour: black, white, etc. or shape: e.g: square, round. b. Four features characteristic of adjectives: (i) They can freely occur in an attributive position, i.e. They can pre-modify a noun E.g. : the happy children; this good old man (ii). They can freely occur in predicative position, i.e. They can function as Subject complement E.g.: the man seemed old
Object Complement E.g: They painted the door
Milk turns sour;
blue;
He thought the painting ugly (iii). They can be pre-modified b intensifiers: every, quite, rather. E.g: The children are very happy; This is rather difficult (iv). They can take comparative and superlative forms whether inflectional 66
E.g: the children are happier now They are the happiest people (cf. Beautiful – more beautiful – the most beautiful) I.2. Syntactic functions of adjectives: a. Pre-modifier and post-modifier - Adjectives are attributive when they pre-modify nouns E.g: this beautiful painting... The only child.. His main argument... - Sometimes, adjectives can be post-modifier (or postpositive attribute): E.g: Anyone intelligent can do it There’s nothing new... I have a house larger than yours b. Complement – both Cs and Co: Predicative adjectives can be: (i) Cs (in intensive relationship with S): E.g: Your daughter is intelligent. He’s rather careless (ii). Co. (in intensive relationship with O): E.g: I consider him foolish c. Head of a noun phrase: Substantivised adjectives (the + adj) can function as heads of NPs as S, C, O and Cprep): E.g: S:
The poor are causing the nation’s leaders great
concern 67
O:
They will help only the humble poor.
Cprep: There is lack of communication between the young and the old The wise look to the wiser for advice. C:
We are the humble poor who suffer greatly now
d. Supplementive adjective clause: E.g: Nervous, the man opened the letter The man, quietly assertive, spoke to the assembled workers When ripe, the apples are sweet. Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in an argument e. Exclamatory adjective sentences: E.g: How good of you !
How wonderful!
Excellent! I.3. Sub-classification of adjectives: a.
According
to
syntactic
function:
central,
attributive,
predicative. (i). Central adjectives can function both attributively and predicatively. E.g: A hungry man
The man in hungry
(ii). Attributive can be attributive (modifier) only, e.g E.g: An utter fool... The political situation...
68
My former friend... (iii). Predicative adjectives can be predicative (=complement) only. E.g: He’s afraid to do it That’s tantamount to an ultimatum b. Semantic sub-classification.: (i) Stative/dynamic adjectives + Adjectives are characteristically stative, e.g: good, old, beautiful, tall, round, square, etc. + Many adjectives, however, can be seen as dynamic, especially
when
measurement, careless,
they
e.g:
foolish,
are
abusive, friendly,
susceptible ambitious generous,
to
subjective
awkward,
careful,
impatient,
jealous
reasonable, etc. Dynamic adjectives can be used either. - With verb in the progressive tense E.g: He's being careful They're feeling tired (jealous) - With verb in the imperative mood: E.g: Be careful Don't be afraid jealous (ii) Gradable/non-gradable adjectives: + Most adjectives are gradable, i.e. they can be modified by intensifiers and include comparison. E.g: very young, so plain, extremely useful, rather old Young - younger - youngest 69
Useful - more useful - most useful These
include
all
dynamic
adjectives
and
most
stative
adjectives. +
Some
adjective,
principally
technical
adjectives
and
adjectives denoting provenance, are non-gradable. E.g: atomic, hydrocholoric, British I.4. Semantic sets and adjectival order: Semantic sets have been proposed to account for the usual order of adjectives for their - occurrence (often in NPs). (i) Intensifying adjectives; E.g: a real hero, a perfect idiot... (ii) Postdeterminer + limited adjectives: E.g: The fourth student. The only occasion (iii). General adjectives: E.g; careful, naughty, lovely (subjective measure) Wealthy, poor, bat (objective measure) Large, square (size & shape) (iv) Adjectives denoting age, e.g: young, old, new (v) Adjectives denoting colour, e.g: black, red, white... (vi)
Adjectives
denoting
material,
e.g:
woolen,
wooden,
metallic... (vii) Adjectives denoting provenance, e.g: British, Parisian... II. Adverbs: II.1. Definition - Characteristics of adverbs: a. An adverb, also belonging to an open class, is often used as adverbial
70
E.g: They're waiting outside I can now understand it He spoke to me about it briefly Or, otherwise, as modifier: E.g: That was a very funny film. She has a really beautiful face b. Characteristics of the adverb: (i) A great number of adverbs have the derivational suffix - ly: E.g: briefly, really, beautifully, awkwardly, historically, etc. (ii) Two syntactic functions that characterise adverbs are adverbial and modifier of an adjective/adverb. An adverb need have only one of these. E.g: he spoke briefly about it. They're smoking very heavily II.2. More on syntactic functions of adverbs: a. As adverbial: Either
(i) Adjunct: E.g: They're waiting outside. You can now
go out Or
(ii) Disjunct: E.g: Frankly, I', tired, fortunately, no one
complained Or
(iii) conjunct: E.g: We have complained about the
noise, and yet he does nothing about it. They tried to listen. However, they heard nothing
71
b. As modifier: (i) Modifier of adjective: E.g: It is extremely good of you to say this They are very/quite tired now (ii) Modifier of adverb: E.g: They smoked very heavily They left him well behind. They knocked the man right out (iii) Modifier of prepositional phrase: E.g: The nail went right through the wall This deals exactly with the right answer (iv) Modifier of determiner: Eg: About a week is enough for this practice. I paid more than ten pounds for it She gave me almost the largest piece of cake (v) Modifier of noun phrase: E.g:
He told such a funny story
It was rather a mess
He was quite some player
How tall a man he is
c. As complement of preposition (Cprep): (i) Preposition + Adverbs (time)
since Till/until
+ +
Lately, recently, then, today, yesterday Now, tomorrow, tonight, after, afterwards 72
After/by/
+
Then, today, tomorrow
Before/from For + Always, ever, once, afterwards, later (ii) Preposition + Adverbs (place) Long, around, Down,
Above,
from, + here/there
From +
in, Never,
abroad, Below, downstairs,
on
over,
Indoors,
Through,
inside,
under,
Outside,
Up III. comparison and intensification
upstairs..
III.1. Three degrees of comparison Applied to gradable adjectives and adverbs: Adjs:
Absolute Young
Comparative Younger
Superlative Youngest
Advs
Beautiful Hard
More beautiful Harder
Most beautiful Hardest
More easily
Most easily
Easily III.2. Basis of comparison: a. Between two entities: E.g Adjs:
John is
Younger More Stupid Less
John
Intelligent
is Young
73
Than Bob (is)
as stupid
As
Bob
(is) John
is Younger
Of the two boys
the more
Stupid intelligent
Advs:
John
Works harder than bob (does Behaves more politely than his wife
John
Works as hard
As Bob (does)
Behave as politely Of the two boy John behaves the more politely b. Among three or more entities: E.g Adjs:
John
is Younges
:
the
t Most
Of these (three) boys Stupid intelligent
Advs:
John Behaves
the
stupidly
most Of the boys of this group
Works the hardest As we see above, the most common ways of doing this include. - Correlative construction introduced by than (with more/est/er) or by as (correlative to as) - And prepositional phrases with of
74
III.3. Inflection of adverbs and adverbs of comparison a. Adjectives: (i)
Positiv e with You
Adjectives
Comparati
Superlativ
ve Younger
e Youngest
inflectional
Old
Older
Oldest
suffixes - ER + EST + With changes in spelling
Big
Bigger
Biggest
Early
Earlier
Earliest
Braver Simpler
Bravest Simplest
Poorer Better
Poorest Best
Worse
Worst
(ii) Disyllabic adjectives: + with inflected forms: funny + With periphrastic forms (noisy, friendly, hollow, Feeble
Funnier More funny Feebler
Funniest Most funny Feeblest
shallow,
More feeble
Most feeble
handsome, quiet, etc) (iii) Adjectives (polysyllabic Relucta
More
Most
ones) with periphrastic forms nt
reluctant
reluctant
More tiring Comparati
Most tiring Superlativ
e (i) With inflected forms (=- Well
ve Better
e Best
er/-est) + From different stems
Badly
Worse
Worst
Little
Less
Least
+
With
changes
pronunciation +
Formed
from
Brave in Simple
Poor different Good
stems
clever,
bad
gentle, mature,
feeble, common,
b. Adjectives:
Tiring Positiv
75
Much
More
Most
Far
Further
Furthest
+ Those identical in form Early
Farther Earlier
Farthest Earliest
with
Longer
Longest
Long
adjs: early, late, hard, slow, Soon Soonner fast, quick, long & soon Beautiful More (ii) With periphrastic forms ly
III.4.
formulas
of
cases
of
beautifully
comparison:
Soonest Most beautifully
degree
of
comparison: Degree of comparison Examples a. Equal comparison As + Adj (positive) + As long as as
As hard as
As = Adv (positive) + b. Superior/inferior
as Adj
comparison:
than Adv
c.
(comparative)
+ Bigger than More
(comparative)
+ than
than Superlative The + Adj (superlative)
comparison
The
+
(superlative)
of
politely
The youngest of
Adj all The beautifully
most of
them all III.5. Unmarked term in "How" questions and measure phrases: a. common questions:
76
E.g: How efficient is he?
How efficiently does he work?
How beautiful is she?
How old is that man? How long did they dance?
And exclamations: e.g: How beautiful she is!
How beautifully she danced!
b. Adjectives (and adverbs) with the unmarked/marked terms: (Unmarked term in "how" question) U M Deep Shallow
(i) Measure adjectives:
U M Old Young
High Low Long Short
Tall Short Thick Thin Wide Narrow
(ii). Other adjectives:
Big Small
Heavy Light
bright Dim
Large Little
Fat Thin
Strong Weak
Unmarked (iii) Adverbs:
How much did they complain? (often) (quickly)
III.6. Modification of comparatives and superlatives (of adjs & advs): a. Comparatives pre-modified: By intensifiers
or
(that)
By downtoners Rather Better
much
Somewhat
(so) (very) 77
Sooner
(all) the far
Better
A little
More
Sooner
A (little) bit careful
a good bit/a More careful
Less
lot
careful
Less
a
good carefully
deal/a great deal/lots b. Inflectional superlative; modified by very or by far E.g: The very best She put on her very best dress He is funniest by far IV. correspondence between adjectives and adverbs IV.1. Equivalent constructions: E.g He :
liked
considerably He spoke
Mary ~ He to
liked
Mary
to
a
considerable extant John ~ He spoke to John in a sharp
sharply manner Politically, it is a bad ~ From the political point of via it decision
is a bad decision
IV.2. Other regular correspondences: E.g
a
He
loved
her ~ His deep love for her
b
deeply He writes legibly A beautiful dancer
~ His legible writing ~ A dance who is beautiful
78
~ A c
person
who
dances
beautifully ~ He's really an idiot
A real idiot
The main reason ~ It's mainly the reason V. Adjectives, adverbs and other word classes: V.1. Adjective and adverbs with prefix a-: Ablaze,
a- adjectives afloat, alert,
a- adverbs alike, Abroad, around, away
alive, alone, aloof, ashamed, asleep, averse, awake, aware Common uses: E.g: The patient was asleep
E.g: The patient was abroad
The journalist seemed asleep The journalist went abroad V.2. Some other uses of adjectives and adverbs: E.g His loud and clear voice :
~
He spoke loud and clear
They made very long #
Such animals have long had
speeches Still water runs deep
to defend themselves They still can't make up
#
their minds
V.3. Adjectives and nouns: A Adj.-s E.g The attack :
N-s seemed E.g The criminals pleaded guilty
criminal to us Those black boys are
to all charges There was only one black in
very active
my class 79
We admired his noble
The king greeted his nobles
ideas b. Nouns used as pre-modifiers: E.g: August weather; the city council; a love poem V.4. Adjectives and participles: a.
V- His
views
ing b.
surprising V- The man
were seemed
very ~
His surprising views
very
The offended man
ed2 offended Exercises; 67, 68, 70, 72, 74, 77, 78 (Chapter 5, pp, 40-45)
80
chapter Vi preposition and prepositional phrase (UGE, chapter 6, pp, 143 - 165)
I. Definition - classification I.1. What is a preposition? Prepositions are words belonging to closed-system parts of speech which are used to express relationships between two entities, one being prepositional complement. E.g: He went
to London
Prep+Cprep
in
November
prep+Cprep (place & time relationships) (place)
(time)
In accordance with these rules you should be present before 10 a.m Prep + Cprep
prep + Cprep
(manner) I.2. Classification of prepositions: a. According to their composition, prepositions fall under two groups: (i) Simple prepositions: those that consist of one word. They are very small in number (as compared to open class parts of speech); as, by, at, on, in, to, of, of, for, since, with, between, like, against, under, up, down. We may also include here some derived prepositions: during, concerning... (ii). Compound prepositions: These include two subgroups:
81
+ prepositions with two components linked closely: into, onto, behind, below, beneath, underneath, until, within, without, upon. + Prepositions with separate components: - Adv + prep: out of, away from, according to, thanks to, up to. - Prep: + N + Prep: in font of, on top of, at the back of, in spite of, account of, in accordance with, with the exception of, etc.. b. According to the meanings of the prepositional phrases (or meaning preposition for short), we have: Prepositions of place: at, on, in, up, down, off, ect Time: at, on, in, for, since, during, pending... Reason: out of, because of, due to, on account of Manner: like, as, in accordance with.. Concession: in spite of, despite, in defiance of II. prepositional meanings II.1. Place: Prepositions of place may be further classified into: a. Prepositions denoting position: Point:
E.g: at the post office, at the grocer's At the doctor's, off the road
Surface/line: E.g:
on the wall, on a straight line
On the way (to)... Volume:
E.g: in the car, in that house
b. Prepositions denoting destination and direction: E.g: to the post office, to London, to the market Onto the floor, off the road
82
Into the room, out of the car c. Prepositions denoting passage: Eg: Across the street, down the road, up the stream.
See the figure (VI.10 below: Positive Direction Position
Point
To → Line/surfac e Area/volum
Negative Direction Position
At x
•
From
x→
x
x • Off
On (to)
On
Off
↓ In to
• In
↑ Out of
e
away
From
• Out of •
• Fig. VI.1: Place prepositions (Direction and position)
d. Relative position: (i).
Vertically
relative:
above,
over,
on
top
of,
under,
underneath, ... (ii). Horizontally relative: before, in front of, behind, after... A: above D: behind
C: In front of
x B: below 83
Fig. VI.2. Relative position II.2. Time: a. Point
At Christmas , at noon, at night, at dawn, at dusk
(when)
At 12.00 sharp, at 4.30 a.m On Tuesday(s), on holidays, on Sunday morning
b. duration
In simmer, in 1920, in June, i the XIX century For 20 years, since 1979, for another six weeks
c.
Up to that time, during the last war After the war, before 1986
Relationship Between five and six o'clock, from three to five By the end of October, until last year II.3. Manner, cause, purpose and others: a.
Manner Lie a brother to me, as a child/boy...
(means)
By doing so, without saying anything
b. Cause:
With a knife in his hand Because of ill health, on account of your absence
Due to your carelessness... c. Instrument: With that knife d. Purpose: For freedom, for a better life e. Opposition: Against their rule III. Prepositional phrases: III.1. Structure of prepositional phrases:
E.g:
Preposition
Prepositional complement
+ For
Freedom 84
Against
Exploitation and injustice
During
The resistance war
According to These rules III.2. Prepositional complement may be realised by: a.Noun
Basic:
In accordance with the regulations
phrase:
Comple
With his greatest efforts
x:
In his deepest gratitude of his teacher's
help b. V-ing participle clause: by doing so without being accepted at his coming late c. Wh-interrogative clause: on what the Government will decide in why you want to do that d. Yes-no interrogative clause: (aware) of whether our salaries have been increased (dependent) on whether he would win the match or not e. Nominal relative clause: (interested) in whatever he was saying at the time. IV. syntactic functions of prepositional phrases: IV.1. Adverbials: a. Adjunct: (i) Obligatory Adjunct:
85
E.g: - Place: - Time:
They were in the car then The meeting will be on Monday
- Manner: The problem is of great importance. (ii) Optional Adjunct: E.g: - Place: - Time:
In the car they fought fiercely In 1945, two million people died of hunger
- Manner: They went into the room without saying any word - Purpose: We fought heroically for our own liberation - Cause:
He couldn't come on account of getting suddenly
ill b. Disjunct: E.g: - To my surprise, the doctor phoned - In general, this is difficult matter c. Conjunct: E.g: On the other hand, they made no attempt to help the victors In addition, he failed to keep his promise IV.2. Other functions: d. Post modifier in a noun phrase: E.g: The people on the bus were singing This is a problem of great significance e. Comlementation of a verb (also call) E.g: We depend on you (c.f. we depend on you) We're looking for the little boy 86
f. complementation of an adjective E.g: I am sorry for his parents He wasn't conscious of his own strength They weren't interested in what he was saving
Exercise: 79, 80, 85, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 96 (Chapter 6, pp 46-54)
87
Chapter VII The simple sentence (UGE, chapter 7, p, 166-206)
I. Sentence - it's elements and types I.1. Working definition of sentence: A sentence is the combination of words or phrases (often noun phrase and other type and possibly other phrase(s) on the basis of: - Concords between Subject (often a NP) and verb (often a verb phrase) and other type) nouns or pronouns use as S, O, C, etc) - Order of words in the phrase and sentence structure; and this serves to express a complete idea for the purpose of communication. E.g: He's my brother He knows your intention He wants to help (to) complete your thesis (3 sentences) I.2. Five sentence elements: S, V, O, C and A Sentence may be, compound or complex 1. All the three kinds of sentence can be analysed in terms of S, V, O, C and A a. Simple sentence; E.g: He' s S
a teacher of English
V
C
We bought this car 88
two years ago
S
V
O
A (optional)
They hung the picture on the wall S
V
b. Compound sentence: E.g:
O
A
They said this and went away
S
V
O V
1st indep cl
A 2nd indep.cl
She's a teacher but she's very rich S
V
C
S
1st indep cl c. Complex sentences:
V
C
2nd indep.cl
E.g: When
we
came
they
were
watching TV A
S
V
A = clause
S
V
O Main/superordinate clause We know that you're honest S S
V
V
C
O = clause
Superordinate clause I.3. Basic sentence (or clause) types: - These are the possible arrangements of sentence elements in the language In English there are seven sentence types a. S + V intransitive: E.g: The bird sang. She's come 89
S
V
S
V
They were dancing. They talked and talked S
V
S
V
V
b. S + Vintensive + C: E.g: He's my student. They look tired S V
C
S
V
C
They'll become teachers of English S
V
C
c. S + V intensive + A E.g: They were here, too. S
V
A
She got off the bus
(A) S
V
c. S + V monotrans + O: E.g: My sister bought this car last year S
V
O
(A)
They gave up drug addiction S
V
O
We depended much on your help S
V
(A)
O
e. S + Vditrans + O + O E.g: They gave him this book S
V
O
O
We informed them of the news S
V
O
O
They took great care of the children S
V
O
O 90
A
f. S + Vcomplextrans + O + C E.g: We elected him president of the company S
V
O
C
They left the house empty S
V
O
C
g. S + Vcomplextrans + O + A E.g: She led them upstairs S
V
O
A
We hung these pictures on the wall S
V
O
A
I.4. Decisive factor on sentence types determination: the Verb Five different groups of verbs and seven sentences types Verb
Transitive( 1)
Intensive( 12)
Transitive
Monotransiti ve
Simpl e
Phras al Go out
Curre nt be
Resuiti ng becom e
Simpl e buy
Phras al Give up
Ditransitive( 4)
Complex transitive (5)
Prep Simpl Prep Percept Causat Depend e Infrom of See, hear Make, put on give
(for more, see chapter IV) 91
II. Syntactic features and semantic roles (of S, O, C and A) II.1. Syntactic features of S, O, C and A: Elem ents S
Expression NP
Basic
Complex (simple sentence) NCl Non-finite (to
V-
+
completely before
determin
Medial
-
S
(after S-Vcone
Operator)
Ssingular+V
- in questions
(V-****)
- in case of subject - Splur + V
finite That
operator in version -
clause
in
(V
emphatic
sentence
Wh-clause
(with
stressed O, C or A)
If/what cl (complex
+
Final:
with
introductory "it"
sentence) Example for illustration: is
n
+ initial
+
Ving)
My brother
Identificatio
Position
a teacher of English.
They
are
teachers S = basic NP Where does
(Vsing)
Splur
your poor old mother
Operator S = complex NP It is may task to help him.
Vplur
live?
(V-ing) It is said that he's still single
S = to infinitive clause
S = that clause
Only by so doing can we help him successfully 92
Operator S Here comes the winner V-ing S = basic NP
O
NP
Basic
(bot
Complex h Od (simple sentence) Non-finite and NCl Oi)
(to
V-
+ after V transitive
O
(monotrasitive,
assumes
ditrans and complex The status of transitive)
in
Ving) finite That w-,
+
cl (complex
Initial
with
the
wh-
question on O -
I
emphatic
sentences
sentence) E.g: We know this man
She asked
S
+ After another O (in passive sentence case of Oi + Od)
If/whether
Vmonotran
easily
----> This man we know
O = basic NP
O
her brother
some
questions Oi = basic NP Od = complex NP
93
interesting
We want to ask him a lot of questions Od \= to infinitive clause We all know
that he's telling the truth Od - that clause
We can't make out what he's dealing with Od = wh-interrogative clause
C
NP
(bot h Cs and Co)
Adj.P
Basic
+
Complex
intensitive
Adj
verb
+ initial position non-
finite Adj + finite. (complex sentence)
E.g; He is
in
co-
referential
passive
(that, V O Co)
wh-cl) Adj +
is
(sentence relation with S (denoting the type S V Cs) entity) + after Od (sentence type S - Not involve
Adj + Prep.P (simple sentence) NCl Non-finite Finite
after -C
+in wh-question
transformatio n
on C -in
emphatic
sentence
my brother
Our task was to help him 94
Cs = basic NP They were
Cs = to V
expert at grammar Cs = adjectival phrase
Our plan was
becoming a teacher Cs = V-ing clause
We found him innocent of all charges Co = adjectival phrase I'm
sure that they will succeed Adjectival phrase (Adj + that c.)
A
Adv.
-
Prep.P
sentence
optional in ***
structure
structure
- initial
-
Non-
- medial
obligatory
finite
- final
(simple sentences) Finite Clause
mobile
Verbless (complex sentences) E.g: He went there yesterday
in -
A
is
****
A
is
sentence ***** and S V O She's
now
upstairs Aplace
A time = adv
They were in the car then
A
A Where
you go? 95
did
A = Prep.P
A
He's nowhere to be seen
You
can
hang
it
where you like A = adv. Clause (non-finite)
A
=
finite clause When in Rome do
as Rome does
A = verbless clause A = finite clause II.2. Semantic roles of S, O and C: S, O and C often play the following semantic roles in the sentences (of which the one(s) listed first being the most common: a.S E.g:
- agentive
She opened the door
- instrumental
This key can open the door
- affected
The door opened (with Vintrans)
- recipient
She has a new skirt
- locative
This room accommodates 20 people
- temporal
Tomorrow will be fine
- eventive
The meeting ended success fully
- empty IT
It's (very) wonderful to meet you
b. Object E.g: Od - affected:
We opened the door
- effected:
He did the exercises
- locative: Oi - recipient:
They entered the room We bought him a new house
96
- affected: c. Complement: attribute E.g: Cs - current atr:
We paid him a visit She looks cheerful today
- resulting attr: - current attr:
They became teachers We found the room empty
- resulting attr: She left the house empty * A: locative/temporal/conditional/concessive, etc (types) III. concord between sentence elements Concord is the agreement between sentence elements III.1. Different types: + S - V concord: It
He/she agrees
I/we agree
doesn't agree They don't agree
+ Pronominal concord:
She looked at herself in the mirror.
They're teachers of English III.2. S - V concord:
The most important type
a. Grammatical concord (formal): most obviously distinctive with third person S singular = V singular (V-s/was) E.g: The boy (he) likes football S plural + V plural (V/were) E.g: The boys (they):
like football
Were there yesterday b. Notional concord (-meaning) (i) S = nominal relative clause +Vsingular V plur E.g: What he says isn't true 97
(= The thing he says...) What they like best are tea and coffee (= The things they like best...) (ii) S = collective + Vplural (~ members of collectively) E.g: The government are having a rest + V singular (~ whole collectively) E.g: The government has approved of his plan (iii). S = co-ordinated NPs
+ Vplur (non-positional)
+ V-ing (appositional) E.g: His brother and his secretary were there with him (two different entities) His brother and (at the same time) his secretary was there with him. (same entity) (iv) S = none
+ ing
(non-count N)
+ Vplur
(plural count N)
c. concord by proximity: (S - word that stands immediately next to V determines S - V concord (i) In set phrases E.g: One in ten take drugs None of them agree to go (ii) In existential sentence with there: E.g: there are two chairs and a desk there There is a desk and two chairs there 98
(iii) With either...or... E.g: Either your brakes or your eyesight was at fault Either your eyesight or your brakes were at fault III.3. Pronominal concord: a. S - O (with reflexive & emphasising pronoun) E.g: She saw herself in the mirror We can do it ourselves b. S - C: E.g: He is a teacher of English They're teachers c. O - C: E.g: We elected him our chairman (sing) Them our representatives (plur) IV. Sentence process: negation E.g: We all like football We all don't like football
Do you like football? Don't you like it? Why don't you like it?
Someone go there with him Don't anyone go there with him?
IV. 2. Assertives and non-assertives: a. List of items: 99
Assertives
Non-assertives
+ Indefinite
Some + N
Any + N
(Determiners) + Pronouns
Some + N-s Some one
Any + N-s Anybody
Something + Adverbs:
+ Prep.P:
Anything
Somewhere Too
Anywhere
Already
Either
In some way
Yet
To
some
In any way
extent
At all
b. Uses: + in affirmative sentence
+ in negative + interrogative
E.g: I met someone on they sentences way here
E.g: We didn't see anything
+ in negative sentence
+ two (more) non-assertives
E.g: I didn't give the book to used in the same sentence: some students.
E.g: I haven't seen anyone yet
(scope of negation: narrowed)
+ for negative intensification
+ in questions
E.g: I didn't go out at all
Eg:
Did
someone
call
last I met no one at all
night? (positive orientation) IV.3. Scope and focus of negation: a. Scope of negation = stretch of language within which the negative meaning operates normally extending from negative word to the clause and. 100
E.g: I don't know him
Scope of negation She didn't definitely know the answer A Scope of negation * An Adverbial may be inside or out side the scope of negation E.g: She definitely didn't know him A Scope of negation b. Focus of negation: - Emphatic stress on certain on word of the sentence, covering different shades of meaning E.g: My sister didn't like the show Emphatic stress may be on 'show, 'like, 'sister, 'my Scope includes the focus We didn't give the book to some of the student
* Extended scope to include subordinate clause (rise + fall) I didn't leave home because I s afraid of my father
V. 4. Negation of modal verbs (scope & focus of negation): AUXILIARY NEGATION Ability
MAIN VERB NEGATION * mustn't + V \ = negation 101
Can't + V
permission
E.g: You mustn't
smoke in
here
Possibility E.g: The road can't be blocked now
(= you're obliged not to smoke in here) *
(= It's not possible that...)
Won't
+
V
=
futurity,
prediction, etc
* May not = V: permission e.g: You may not/can't use my
E.g: Oil won't floats on petrol * May not + V = possibility
car
E.g: The road may not be blocked now
* needn't + V; necessity E.g: She needn't attend the
( It's possible that the road isn't blocked)
lecture
* Shouldn't + V = advisability E.g:
* (don't/doesn't have to + V) E.g: You don't have to go there now
You
shouldn't
do
that
again (=you're advised not to do that again) * Oughtn't to + V
She oughtn't to go there again V. Different kinds of sentences (a communicative classification): In accordance with the purpose of the utterances, sentences in general (either simple or complex) can be classified in to: Statement (or declarative sentences): Question (or interrogative sentences): you? 102
E.g: I'm ill Who
are
Commands (or imperative sentences):
Keep silent!
Exclamations (or exclamatory sentences):
What
a
mess! V.1. Statements: These are sentences in which the subject is always present and generally precedes the verb. Positive: E.g: John will speak to the boss today He thinks that he can win the match Negative: E.g: We won't be able to go out on that day They didn't think they were winning the battle V.2. Questions: - These often involve subject-operator inversion together with rising intonation, or placement of wh-element in the initial position (cf. Concrete questions later) - Questions fall under three major classes: yes/no, wh-and alternative. a. Yes-no questions (interrogation on the whole sentence): These are the questions which require the answer of "yes" or "no" and can be subdivided into. (i). General yes-no questions: Formed by pacing operator before subject (plus a rising intonation more often). Eg: Has the boat left? Can we stop it now? Are you signalling? * Yes-no questions with positive orientation: E.g: Did someone call last night? Has the boat left already? * Yes-no questions with negative orientation:
103
E.g: Can't you give us any hope of success? Does no one believe me? (ii). Tag questions: These consist of two components - the first being a statement and the second - a tag, often of an opposite verb from to the statement (positive >< negative or vice versa). Semantically, they are composed of assumption and expectation which are largely dependent on the tone used by the speaker. Rising tone
Assumption: positive/negative + expectation:
neutral
E.g: He can do these, cant he? Yes, he can. No, he can't The boat hasn't arrived, has it? Yes, it ha/ No, it hasn't Falling tone:
Positive assumption + Positive expectation
E.g: You know him, don't you? Yes, I do Negative assumption + Negative expectation E.g: They haven't finished it, have they? No, they haven't (iii). Declarative questions: This exceptional type of yes no question is identical in form to a statement, except of the final rising tone: E.g: You've got the losive? He didn't finish the race? You realise what the risks are? (complex sent) (iv). Exclamatory questions:
104
The exclammatory question is a question in form, but is functionally ke an exclamation. These are marked by falling instead of rising tone. E.g: - Negative yes-no questions: (most typical)
Hasn't grown!
Wasn't a marvelous concert!
- Positive yes - no questions:
Am I hungry!
Did he look annoyed! b. Wh -questions (interrogation on part of the sentence): These are questions on elements of the sentence which fall under two subgroups, with wh-word or Q - word placed initially: (i) Wh-questions with wh-word pronouns: who, whom, which, what, and whose. These are questions on S, Od, Oi, Cs, and on modifier of NP. E.g: Who went there with her? (wh-word = S) Who(m) did he talk with/ (wh-word = Cprep) Which books have you lent him (wh-word=Premodifier) Whose beautiful antiques are these? (wh-whose=Determiner & Q-element=Cs) Who did you lend the book to? (wh-word= Oi) (ii). Wh-questions with wh-word adverbs: when, where, how, why and how-adj/adv. These are questions of Adverbial, or sometimes on Cs CO (with how + adj). E.g: When will you come back? Where shall I put these glasses? place)
105
(Q-word = Atime) (Q-word
=
A
Why are they always complaining?
(Q-word
=
A
reason) How did you mend it?
(Q-word = A manner)
How long has she been waiting?
(Q-words
=
A
time dur) How often did he visit London?
(Q-words
=
A
frequency) How much does he care?
(Q-words = Cs)
How wide did they make the book-case? (Q-words = Co) * These questions are often uttered with falling tone. But when the speaker shows interest of great care in what he/she is asking, the rising tone can be used. c. Alternative questions: These are questions that make use of co-ordinator "or" and can be divide into three subclasses. (i) Common alternative questions, often with rising tone before "or' and falling tone at the end, which require selection of one of the two given alternative on the questioned E.g: A: Did you come by train or by bus? B: We came by bus? A: Can we go there by bicycle or (can we) walk there? B: Oh, you can walk there. It isn't quite far away (ii). Alternative plus yes-no questions, often with the final rising tone, which require either choice of the given options (often with initial yes) or supplement of proper element (when saying initially No).
106
E.g: did you come by train or by bus? Yes, I came by train? No, I came by motorbike (iii). Alternative plus wh-question, often with wh-word at the beginning and or for the suggested options, and falling tune, e.g. E.g: A: How did you come/ By bus or by train? B: Oh I came by bus (but it really took a long time) A: Where did you go; to Leeds or to Birmingham? B: I went to Birmingham V.3. Commands: Commands are sentences that make use of the imperative mood in the main, or sometimes of questions with the initial modal - particularly with invitations or requests. There are three kinds of commands. a. Commands without a subject These have imperative finite verbs as the main element. (+) Positive:
E.g: Jump.(V) be reasonable (VC) Do come in and sit down (emphatic command) Put it on the table (V O A) Please eat up your dinner (V O) (please = marker of politeness)
(+) Negative: E.g:
Don't make such a noise!
Don't be impatient! b. Commands with a subject (which can be subdivide into two subgroups)
107
(i) "you" as S + With adomonitouriness in tone (+ strong irritation) E.g: You there be quiet! You mind your own business, and leave this to me! + To single out two or more distinct addressees; E.g: You come here, Jack, and you go over there, Mary. + As requests or invitations: (verb phrase is not an imperative) E.g: Will you come in and sit down? (ii). With indefinite pronoun S: + Positive: E.g:
Somebody open this door! Everybody shut their eyes!
+ Negative: E.g:
Don't anyone say anything!
c. Commands with LET: First person imperatives can be formed by proposing the verb followed by a subject in the objective case. (i) Positive:
E.g: Let us all work harder! Let's go out! Let me have a look Let each man decide for himself If anyone disagrees let him speak louder
(ii). Negative: E.g:
Let's not open the door
Don't let's open the door (informal BrE) Don't let him lose heart. V.4. Exclamations:
108
Attention
here
is
restricted
to
exclamatory
utterances
introduced by what or how. a. Full exclamations: What + NP + ... E.g: What an enormous crowd came! (SV) What a time we've had today! (Od S V A) How + Adj/Adv: Eg: How delightful her manners are (cs S V) How fast he drove his car (A S VO) b. Short exclamations (exclamations with ellipted S + V) What + NP:
E.g: What a book!
How + Adj.
E.g: How beautiful How difficult!
Adj.only
E.g: Wonderful!
What a mess!
Fantastic!
V.5. Minor types: Formulae a. Certain question can be used in special cases: (i)
As a greeting: E.g: How do you do? Or a consolation
E.g: Why get so upset? Why not enjoy
yours elf? (~ Take it easy)
(~
cheerful) b. A number of exclamatory types: E.g: if only I'd listened to my parents! To think I was once a millionaire! Now for some fun! c. Sentences with formulaic. Subjunctives: E.g: Far be it from me to contradict you! God save the Queen! Long live our friendship 109
Be
more
VI. Block language This special use of language appears in such functions as labels, titles, headings, notices and advertisement. 1. Simple block language messages: a. Noun or noun phrases: E.g: Entrance Exit Purlemon juice
English department A grammar of contemporary English
b. Adjective phrases; or equivalent: E.g: Where to go in London How to win friends and influence people! 2. In newspaper headlines, abbreviated clause structures can be used. E.g: film - star Marries Ex-Priest Election: A. Landslide of socialists
(S V Od) (S Cs)
Clinton to Meet Asian Premiers than Ever Share Prices Now Higher than Ever
(S A Cs)
Exercies; 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107 109, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 120 (chapter 7, pp, 56-66)
110
(S V Od)
chapter VIII adjuncts, disjuncts and conjuncts (UGE, chapter 8, pp, 207-250) I. Generalities Adverbials - either Adjuncts, Disjuncts or Conjuncts - share the following characteristic feature: a. Expression (or realisation): (i) By an adverb; E.g: He went there yesterday (adjuncts) Frankly, I don't like his manner (disjunct) (ii) By a prepositional phrase: E.g: Peter was playing with great skill (adjunct) Like his brother, he's an author (disjunct) (iii). By a noun phrase (less common): E.g: He went to London last week (adjunct) They praised Tom many times (adjunct) By a noun phrase (less common): E.g.: He went to London last week . (adjunct) They praised Tom many times (adjunct) (iv). by a non-finite verb clause: E.g: to tell the truth, he failed the driving test (disjunct) Making a lot of noise they praised tom (adjunct) Caught red handed they couldn't deny their mistake (adjunct) (v) By a finite verb clause: e.g: Peter was playing although he was very tired (adjunct) What's more important he won the decisive match (conjuncts) 111
(vi). by a verbless clause: E.g: When in London he sent me a lot of letters (adjunct) Grateful for his help they praised Tom (adjunct) b. Position: Most adverbials are mobile: they can be placed initially, medially or or initially: E.g: Like his brother he's an author. (-> He is like his brother, an author -> He's an author, like his brother) c. Identity: They are in most cases, optional in clause structure, except the cases where A stands after an intensive verb (clause type SVA) or after O (clause type SVOA). I.2. Distinctive features of the three subgroups: Adjunctis, disjunctis or conjuncts: Adverbials Adjuncts (most common) Disjuncts
conjuncts
non-connective connective Status: Integrated in clause Peripheral in clause structure structure Criteria: (i) cannot appear initially in a (i) They can appear initially negative declarative clause
before a negative clause in
(ii) can be contrasted with most cases. another adverbial
E.g: Probably, he'll be there in
an
interrogation
(as
alternative tomorrow
clause interrogation)
focus
of
(disjunct)
won't
There fore, he couldn't come 112
e.g: does he write to them on time (conjunct) because
he
wants
to
or (ii) They cannot be contrasted
because he needs money?
with
another
adverbial
in
(iii) Can be contrasted with alternative interrogation. another
adverbial
in (iii). they can not be focus of alternative negation (as focus clause negation. of clause negation): E.g: We didn't go there on Monday. But on Tuesday. * Distinctive criterion of Disjuncts + Conjuncts (iv) disjuncts can serve as Conjuncts cannot serve
as
response
no
to
a
yes
-
no response
to
a
yes
-
question.
question
E.g: A: Will he be there?
E.g: He'll therefore be there
B: Yes, probably
tomorrow
or No, obviously II. Adjuncts: II.1. Syntactic features of Adjuncts: a.
Adjuncts
can
come
within
the
scope
the
of
clause
interrogation and can be the focus of the question (of I.2.b (ii) above) b. They can come within the scope of clause negation and can be the focus of the negation (of I.2 (iii) above) c. They can come within the scope of predication pro-forms or predication ellipsis. E.g: John greatly admires Bob, and so does Mary
113
Peter will pay back the loan when he has money but George won't. d. They can be the focus additive adverbials (also) or, of a cleft sentence. E.g: They will also meet if they have time It was when we were in Paris that we first saw John. f. Besides, Adverbs as Adjuncts can have these additional features: (i). Can be focus of clause comparison: E.g: John writes as frequently as his brother does John writes more frequently than his brother does (ii) Can be premodified by "forever" or "how" E.g: However strongly you feel about it, you should be careful what you say How cautiously he drives! (iii) Can be premodified by "so" E.g: so monotonously did he speak that every left. I.2. Sub classification of Adjuncts: a. Place Adjuncts: - Most place adjuncts are prepositional phrases or clauses: E.g: He jumped over the fence and ran across the road Stay where you are.
He's nowhere to be seen
- Adverbs that are place adjuncts make up a rather long list aboard, about, abroad, across, ahead, alongside, anywhere, ashore, away, back, behind, below, down, downhill, downstairs, east, eastwards, elsewhere, far, here, hereabouts, home, in, 114
indoors, inside, locally, near, north (ward), nowhere, off, on, opposite,
out,
outdoors,
outside,
overhead,
overseas,
somewhere, thorough (out), under, underfoot, underneath, up, upstream, west, within. They may be used for both position and direction (like other place adjuncts); E.g: He was upstairsHe went up stairs - A few Np can be used as place adjuncts (position or direction) E.g: He lives along way from here. He threw it (about) ten yards - Position and direction adjuncts can be used together in the same clause: E.g: The children are running around upstairs He was thrown overboard near the shore. b. time Adjuncts: - Time adjuncts are often clause (finite and non-finite) or prepositional phrases: E.g: We'll go there when we have time. having finished work they went home. She'll go there in December. - Adverbs as time adjuncts are a relatively closed, though, fairly large class. They can be divided into 4 semantic classes: (i) When; today, tomorrow, afterwards, again, eventually, formerly (ii) Duration: (not) very long, permanently, briefly, (ever) since, lately (iii). Frequently; frequently, rarely, monthly, annually, usually, ever, once 115
(iv). Relationship: already, afterwards, before, subsequently, then, yet... E.g: They went to see him again yesterday at 8 o'clock (time when) His studies haven't been improving lately (duration) His studies haven't been improving since (duration) They often watch T.V. at night but seldom do so during the day They often watch T.V. at night but frequently) do so during the day - A few already left by the time they arrived (relationship) E.g: next Sunday, I'll go there (time when) I shall be in my office every other day (time frequency) c. Process Adjuncts: Process adjuncts can be divided into 3 semantic sub classes: (i) Manner adjuncts: E.g: They sprayed tear gas indiscriminately on the protesters She replied to questions with great courtesy He spoke in a way that reminded me of his father You should write as I tell you (ii) Mean adjuncts: E.g; He decided to treat the patient surgically We often go to school by bus (iii) Instrument adjuncts: E.g: He examined the specimen microscopically He can cut the bread with that knife 116
d. Focusing Adjuncts; Two sub classes (i) Limited adjuncts (what is being communicated is limited to the part that is focused). These include: lone, just, merely, only, simply, chiefly, especially, in particular. E.g: John only phoned Mary today You can get a B grade just/simply for that answer (ii) Additive adjuncts (the focused part is an addition): also, either, even, neither, nor, too, as well, in addition. e.g: We too/as well will do what we can for you they won't help him, but they won't harm him either e. Intensifiers: There are three subclasses: (i) Emphasizers; actually, certainly, definitely, indeed, really, literally, frankly, honestly, for sure, of course. E.g: I honestly don't know what he wants They literally tore his arguments to pieces They didn't know what to do, of course.
(ii).
Amplifiers:
absolutely,
completely,
entirely,
quite,
thoroughly, in all respects, by far, to some extent. E.g: We absolutely refuse to listen to your grumbling. I entirely agree with you (iii).
downtoners:
kind
of,
sort
of,
quite,
rather,
partly,
somewhat. E.g: The incident somewhat influenced his actions in later life We didn't it in the least/at all
117
+ Oher adjuncts: purpose, cause/reason, etc (i). Purpose; E.g: We fought heroically for our own liberation (ii). Reason/cause: E.g: He was absent because he was ill The figure below shows different classes of adjuncts Adjuncts Place (1)
Time (2)
Process(3
Focusing(
Intensifier
Others (6)
Point
) Manner
4) Limited
(5) Emphasise
Purpose
Destinatio Duration
Means
Additive
amplifier
Reason
n
Frequenc
Instrumen
Downtoner
etc.
y
t
Position
Relations hip
III. Disjuncts: There are two main classes: style and attitudinal disjuncts III.1. Style disjuncts: When using style disjuncts, the speaker/writer implies his own comment on the speaking/writing style: seriously, personally. E.g: Seriously, do you intend to resign? Strictly speaking, nobody is allowed in here If I may say so, the dress doesn't suit you III.2. Attitudinal disjuncts: These convey the speaker/writer's comment on the content of what he is saying E.g: Obviously, nobody expected us to be here today. They arrived, to our surprise, before we did. To be sure, we have heard many such promises before 118
Even more important, he has control over the party's finances IV. conjuncts: Most conjuncts are adverb phrases or prepositional phrases. The most commonly used conjuncts are: 1. Enumerative: first (ly), second(ly) for one thing, for a start, to begin with, to start with, in the second place 2. Reinforcing: also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more 3. Equate: equally, like wise, in the same way 4. Transitional: incidentally, by the way 5. Apposition (al); namely, in other words, for example 6. Result (active); consequently, hence, therefore, as a result E.g: I'd like you to do two things form. First, phone the office and tell him from me that I'm going to tell him that myself. Secondly, post this letter. What's your name? Are you married, by the way? Exercises: 121, 122, 124, 126, 128, 137, 139, 143, 144, 146.
119
Chapter IX co-ordination and apposition (UGE, chapter 9, pp, 251-283)
I. CO-ORDINATION I.1. What is co-ordination? Co-ordination is the combination of two or more equal units, namely, phrases or clauses. E.g: My friend and I went there together. We went there and returned immediately I told him this, but he didn't believe me. I.2. Syndetic and asyndetic co-ordination: a. Syndetic co-ordination - with presence of co-ordinators: E.g: Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards his victim. I.3. co-ordinators and correlatives. a. Co-ordinators and their meanings: (i) Syntactic features of co-ordinators - Restricted to initial position in the clause or phrase. E.g: John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano - Fixed position of clauses beginning with co-ordinator. E.g: They are living in England or they are spending a vacation there. - Impossibly preceded by other conjunction. - Allowing ellipsis of S of the clause it introduces (to avoid repetition): 120
E.g: I may see you tomorrow or (I) may phone later in the day "And" and "or" can link subordinate clauses. E.g: I asked him who he was and why he had come. I wonder whether you should speak to him personally or whether it is better to write to him. (ii). Semantic implication of "AND" - Addition of consequence or result: E.g: He heard an explosion and (he therefore) phoned the police. - Addition of choronological sequence: E.g: She washed the dished and (then she) dried them. - Contrast: E.g; Robert is secretive and (in contrast) David is candid - Second clause being a comment on the first: E.g: They disliked John - and that's not surprising. - First clause being a condition of the second: E.g: Give me some money and (then) I'll help escape. - Second clause making a point similar to the first: E.g: A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange could be arranged. (iii). Semantic implication of "OR" - Exclusive choice: E.g: You can go there by car or you can walk there - Inclusive choice:
121
E.g: You can boil an egg, or you can make some cheese sandwiches, or you can do both. - Restatement or correction of previously - mentioned idea. E.g: he began his educational career, or, in other words, he started to attend the local kindergarten. - Negative condition. E.g: Give me some money or I'll shoot. Let go of me or I'll scream. (iv). Semantic implication of "BUT - Unexpected contrast: e.g: John is poor, but he's happy. He didn't want their help, but he had to accept it. - Contrast being restatement (negative >< affirmative) E.g: John didn't waste his time in the week before the exam, but studied hard every evening. b. correlatives: (i) Common correlatives with anticipated addition (both ... and), alternation (either...or) and additional negation (neither...nor): E.g He
I
both either neither
has long hair
both knit
and
eith
or
sew
can er
122
and or nor
wears jeans
She
both
cigars
and
cigarettes
smoked neither nor Unlike "both", "either" and "neither" can be placed before the lexical verb even when the scope does not include the whole of the predication. E.g: He either
smoked
and
cigarettes
cigars neithe
nor
r You
either
can
write
or
elegantly neithe
nor
clearly
r Other correlatives - nor/neither - correlated with actual or implied negative in the previous clause. E.g : He did not want to ask them for help; (but) nor could he do without their help. We owe no money, (and) neither do they. - not only ... but (also) E.g: They not only broke into his office and stole his book, but they (also) tore up his manuscripts. (Not only did they break into... but they also tore up...) I.4. Phrasal and clausal co-ordination: a. Phrasal co-ordination (co-ordination of phrases of equal status) 123
+ Co-ordinated noun phrases (in different syntactic functions) E.g: Peter and John were there. I write articles on current affairs for newspapers and magazines We were 3 afraid of poisonous snakes and fierce animals + Other phrases (as modifier): e.g: I like teaching a studious or hard - working undergraduate (apposition co-ordination) He has workers from Ireland and from France (Prep.P) The attacks in June failed (Prep.P) + Co-ordinated adverbials (adv, and other units (non-finite/finite clause) E.g: They sang beautifully and passionately (adv + Adv) She waited patiently but in vain (adv + prep.phrase) You can wash it manually or by using a machine (adv + V-ing) They can call this week or whenever they wish (NP = Adverbial + Finite clause) b. Clausal co-ordination (co-ordination of clause of equal status) -Co-ordinated independent clauses E.g: he has long hair and he wears jeans. They disliked John, and that's not surprising He began his educational career, or, in other words, he started to attend this local kindergarten. She didn't want their help, but he had to accept it Davie neither loves Joan nor wants to marry her You can either knit or sew 124
- Co-ordinated subordinate clauses: E.g: If you can find the letter and (if) you are interested in it I'll let you have it. I'm prepared to meet them when (they like) and where they like. I want to know for whom it was ordered and by whom (it was ordered) She desired to know where he had gone but not why he had gone. Tell me both why he went away and how (he went away) II. Ellipsis II.1. Ellipsis in co-ordinated clauses: a. Ellipsis of subject: Identical subjects of co-ordinated clauses are ellipted: E.g: Peter ate a cheese sandwich and (Peter/he) drank a glass of beer. Sometimes, ellipsis of both S and auxiliary occurs: E.g: Mary has washed the dishes, (she has) fried them, and (she has) put them in the cupboard. b. Ellipsis of auxiliary only: when subjects are different E.g: John should clean the shed and Peter (should) move the lawn. John must have been playing football and Mary (must have been) doing her homework. c. Ellipsis of Predicate or Predication: (i). Ellipsis of V or lexical verb only:
125
E.g: Yesterday John was given a railway set, and Sue (was given) a doll. I work in a factory and my wife (works) on a farm. Nam will work today and (he) may (work) the day after tomorrow. (ii). Ellipsis of V + Cs (and possibly of S as well) E.g: John was the winner in 1971 and Bob (was the winner) 10 years later. The milk turned sour not only today but yesterday too (iii) Ellipsis of V + Od (possibly only lexical verb + Od) E.g: Peter plays football for his school and Paul (plays football) for his club. Joan will cook the meals today and Barbara may (cook the meals) tomorrow. (iv) Ellipsis of required form of lexical verb or predication: E.g: We met last year, but we haven't (met) since. I saw your parents last week, but I haven't (seen your parents) since John could have been (watching television), but (he) wasn't watching television. They can (pay the full fee) and (they) should pay the full fee, but (they) won't (pay the full fee). d. Ellipsis of Od or Cs only: (i) Od;
E.g: John likes (Mary), and Peter hates, Mary.
George opened (the door), but Mary closed, the door
126
(ii) Cs:
E.g: Bob seemed angry, and George certainly was
(angry) John has recently become (a very hard - working student) and his brother always was, a very hard - working student) e. Ellipsis of A: E.g: to my surprise, they didn't appoint him, and they (to my surprise) didn't even interview him. Theoretically, I have no objections to his proposal and (theoretically) neither have any of my colleagues. In our school, students and teachers get on well together, but (in our school) this harmony is comparatively temporary. f. Ellipsis of head noun or of C prep: E.g: We wanted fried fish, but they gave us boiled (fish) She wore the black dress, but the blue (dress) suits her better. bob is bored with (music), but Peter enjoys music II.2. Semantic effect of ellipsis: Sometimes, the effect of ellipsis is to indicate that there is a combined process rather than two separate processes: E.g; Did Peter tell lies, and did he hurt his friends? Where Peter's telling lies and his hurting his friends are regarded as two separate processes, hence two separate questions. III. APPOSITION III.1. What is apposition? Apposition resembles co-ordination in linking units having grammatical affinity (referring to the same entity). 127
E.g: A neighbour, Freed Smith, is on the telephone. Mr.Campbell, the lawyer, was here last night. III.2. Indicators of apposition: A number of expressions, which commonly mark the same or similar relationship being grouped together, explicitly indicate apposition. They can be inserted between appositives. These include: that is today, that is, i.e, namely, viz., in other words, or, or rather, and, as follows, for example, for instance, e.g, say, including, such, as, particularly, chiefly, mainly, mostly: E.g; the passenger plane of the 1980s, namely the supersonic jet, have some what transformed relations between people of the world. The President of the USA, in other words Bill Clinton, was on television last night. I didn't meet any people, including my sister. III.3. Restrictive and non-restrictive apposition: a. Restrictive apposition: Strict restrictive apposition of noun phrases can take three forms, of which the first one is the most common. (i) The first apposition is the more general expression preceded by a definite determiner (and possibly pre-modifier) E.g; That famous critic Paul Jones came here last night. The novel Great Expectation was the best seller last week. I haven't seen my good friend bob for a forthright. (ii) The second appositive is preceded by a determiner and is more general than the first.
128
E.g: Paul Jones the critic didn't attend the last seminar. Bill Clinton the president of the U.S.A ended his working visit to Japan. (iii). This type is like (i) but with omission of the determiner. E.g: Critic Paul ones was completely against the plan. They talked with Democratic leader Robison for half an hour. Restrictive apposition is common with such NPs as the fact, the idea, the view, the question, etc... E.g: I don't agree with the view that there is no advantage in being patient the questions whether to confess or not troubled him. b. Non-restrictive apposition: Apposition is typically exemplified by noun phrases in nonrestrictive apposition. Semantically, the appositives may be of. (i) Equivalence: These may be appellation (namely, who/which + BE), designation (who/which + BE), identification (namely) or reformulation (or) - Appellation: E.g: the company commander, (who was) captain Madison, assembled his men and announced their mission. He told them the good news: taxes are to be reduced + Designation: E.g: Captain Madison, (that is to say) the company commander, took the lead (2nd appositive being less specific than the first). + Identification: E.g: A literary critic, Mr. Paul Jones wrote this article, 129
(2nd appositive being more specific) We - (that is to say) John and I - intend to resign. + Reformulation: E.g: He drew a pentagonal, or five-sided, figure. (2nd appositive being reworded) We are studying sound units of the language, technically phonemes. (ii)
Attribution:
This
involves
predication
rather
than
equivalence. The second appositive is commonly an indefinite NP E.g; The house, an imposing building, dominated the street. But it can be definite or non-articled E.g: Many soldiers, the cream of the battalion, died in the attack. Robinson, leader of the Democratic group on the committee, refused to answer questions. (iii). Inclusion: In this type, the first appositive includes the second (but not identical with it). E.g: His excuses, say the break down of his car, never seemed plausible. The children liked the animals, particularly the monkeys. The two men, one a Dane, were awarded medals. III. 4. Realisation of apposition: The first appositive is often a noun phrase while the second can be a noun phrase, a non-finite or a finite clause. E.g: His novel Great Expectations is truly thrilling (NPs) 130
The soldiers, some of them being natives, are friendly (V-ing Cl) His hope, to become a doctor, was realised at last (to V Cl) This strongly supports his argument that things are getting worse than before (that clause) He didn't answer my question, why he hadn't come to the meeting (wh-interrogative clause). His account of what he had done that year did not satisfy his colleague. Exercises: 148, 152, 153, 155, 156,. 158 (chapter 9, pp, 80-85)
131
CHAPTER X SUBORDINATION: COMPLEX SENTENCES (UGE, chapter 11, pp. 309 - 345) I. CO-ORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION I.1. General distinction: Co-ordination and subordination are the two techniques of combining simple sentences into compound and complex sentences* respectively. Given two (or more) simple sentences Tom saw Mary (1). He ran away (2) We may form compound sentences such as: Tom saw Mary and he ran away
(different in meanings)
Tom ran away and he saw Mary (We use here the technique called co-ordination) otherwise, we may form complex sentences When Tom saw Mary he ran away While running away Tom saw Mary. (We use here the technique called subordination) I.2. Specific features: Compound a. Components:
Complex * Clauses:
* Clauses: finite clauses (which + Main clause + subordinate use finite verb phrases)
clause finite (Vmain) - finite
These clauses are structurally (Vsub) *
In R.fQuirk et al's book, the term "complex' sentences is used for both. However, in manyother garmmar books, the term compound sentences is also used. Many grammarians use the term "composite sentences"
132
and semantically independent
clause:
- non-finite - verbless
clause +
subordinate
clauses
are
structurally and semantically dependent
on
main
clause,
functioning as S, O, C or A of the main clause b. Joining words: Co-ordinators
Subordinators
Simple
correlatives
Simple
Compou
Correlativ
and, but, or
both... and
if, as,
nd
es
not only... but
that,
as if, as
so... that
when,
though,
more..tha
while
so that
n
either...or
hardly.. when
c. Concrete analysis of these sentences in terms of s, v, O, C and A
133
Tom saw Mary and he ran When Tom saw Mary he ran away S
away V
O
S
1st indep.cl He
saw
V
A
A
it
V
but
(he)
S
V
A
(dep)
didn't (Vphrasal)
O
S
V
I know that you're honest
2rd indep.cl
S
Did you come by car or by S bus?
v
V
C
O - dep.cl (sub)
Why he didn't go is still a V A
A
1st indep.cl
secret 2rd
indep.cl(ellipsis)
A
S
V
S = sub.cl
Not only did he failed the exam (dep) A
S
V
O
O
A
C
does
but he lost the game as well V
V
When in Rome do as Rome
1st indep.cl
S
O
main clause
1st indep.cl
S
V
2rd indep.cl
interfere S
S
A
A
a
A = sub.cl
A
S
V
V A - sub.cl
2nd indep.cl (verbless) (finite) I.3. Co-ordination and subordination in combination: In many case these two procedures are combined to make very complex sentences (also called compound complex sentences, etc..) E.g: He said (that) he would come but he didn't (1st clause = complex sentence)
134
I contemplated the stones a few feet away and saw that several of them were flat up against our wall. (2nd indep. clause = complex sentence) One bright morning when I was nineteen(1), I packed (2) all I had (30 on my back, left (40 my native village and walked up(5) to London looking (60 for gold and glory. (6 clauses: 2nd, 4th, 5th cl; independent clauses;) 1st cl = A time; 3rd clause = relative clause modifying pronoun "all' functioning as O; 6th clause: V-ing participle cl = A purpose) II. SUBORDINATION; GENERALITIES II.1. Indicators of subordination: a.
Formal
indicators:
In
the
sentence,
we
can
notice
subordinator(s) which may be subclassified in the following diagram: Subordinators Simple
Compound
Correlatives
as, because, if,
as if, as though, so
so...that,
since,
as,
more...than,
that, when, while,
so that, in order
such...that,
etc..
that
no sooner..than,
hardly...when E.g: We have lived here since we graduated from the college They went there so that they could earn their living
135
Hardly had they started the race when they heard a loud explosion b. Use of wh-words: wh-words Pronouns (S, O, C in sub.cl,)
Adverbs (=A in sub.cl.)
who, which, what
Where, when, how, why...
E.g: What he says isn't true
I'll go where you go
Who'll go there hasn't been Why he hadn't come was still decided...
troubling her then
c. Optional use of subordinator: + In finite clause:
E.g: I knew (that) he did he didn't like
joking + In non-finite clause;
E.g: (While) running away, Tom saw
Mary. (After) having finished the work, they went home. d. Absence of subordinator: + In non-finite clauses acting as S, O or C E.g: We went him to stop talking Watching these films was not to my liking + In contingent adjectival clauses: E.g: They went home tired/happy. + In case of subject - operator inversion: Had you gone there you would have met her. I.2. Subclasses of subordinate clauses: 136
Structural classification: (i) Finite clauses: - That clauses: E.g: It's obvious that he's honest - Wh-interrogative clauses; E.g: I don't know who he is - Adverbial clauses: E.g; The man who went there didn't know this (ii) Non-finite clauses: - Infinitive:
to V : E.g: V
-Participles:
: E.g:
To elp him is my task
Run away was all we could do
-ing : E.g:
It's no use crying over the spilt
milk V-ed2: E.g:
Badly injured he couldn't escape
(iii). Verbless clauses: - With adjective: E.g: Tired of the lecture he fell fast asleep. - With when, while, if. E.g: When in Rome do as Rome does b. Functional classification (depending on syntactic functions of subordinate clauses) (i) Nominal clauses: These clauses often function as S, O, C in the main cl.. (cf. Section III below) (ii). Adverbial clauses: These clauses often function as Adjuncts (of different kinds), Disjunct and Conjunct (cf. Section IV below) (iv). comment clauses; These often function as main clause, Adjunct, Disjunct, or Conjunct (cf. Section VI below) Here below is the diagram showing a and b in combination.
137
Subordinate clauses Nominal
clauses
(1)
Adverbial clauses (20
as
Adjuncts and
(S,O,C)
Comment
clauses (3) clauses(4)
(functioning as
(functioning
Relative
Disjuncts)
as
(functioning
Postmodifi
Adjunct
er
Disjunct
as
&
Conjunct) Finite
non-
finite
nonfinit
verble
(only
finit
non-finite
(-that cl.
finite
(as, if,
e
ss
finite cl.)
e
(to V,
-wh-cl.
(to V
while,
(to V,
(adj.
-
V
etc)
V-ing,
if/whe
if/wheth
V-ing)
V-ed20
n
er
V-ing)
+ A)
clauses)
Fig. Subordinate clauses; general classification In the following sections we are going to deal with these four groups of subordinate clauses respectively. III. NOMINAL CLAUSES III.1. Subclassification of nominal clauses: There are two subgroups, each of which comprises a set of minor types: a. Finite nominal clauses including: + That clauses
E.g: That he knows me is obvious
+ Wh-interrogative clauses:
E.g: Where he has gone is still
not known + Yes/no-interrogative clauses: knew it
138
E.g: He asked whether you
+ Nominal relative clauses:
E.g: What causes the fire was only
a cigarette end. b. Non-finite clauses including: + to-infinitive clause (to V)
E.g: It's my task to help him
+ Bare infinitive clause (V)
E.g: All we had to do was repeat
what he said + V-ing participle clauses (V-ing)
E.g:
We
all
enjoyed
watching TV III.2. Possible functions of nominal clauses: Like noun phrases, nominal clauses can be used in eight different syntactic functions, namely subject, direct object, subject Complement, appositive, prepositional Complement, object Complement, adjectival complement and indirect Object. However, not all the above - mentioned types can perform all these junctions. There are in fact: major (or common) functions that all of them can perform and minor functions that are restricted to a certain type only. + Major functions: S, Cs, Od, App + Minor functions: Cprep, Co, Cadj + Oi V. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES In this section we are largely concerned with the main type of Adverbial clauses - Adjuncts, either finite or non-finite, or verbless clauses. There exists another Adverbial
clauses:
in
terms
of
way of classifying.
meaning
(or
semantic
classification of these. For more, see chapter VIII, section II). To make it more convenient let us deal here with the finite
139
Adverbial clauses, the most commonly used, at first and then with other types. V.1. Finite Adverbial clauses: Table: Finite Adverbial clauses - semantic sub-classfication: Subclassifi
Subordinators
-cation
joining words
a. Clauses after, of time
+ Examples
before, + When I last saw you, you lived in New
since,
York
until, when,
+ Buy your tickets as soon as your
while, soon/long,
as reach the station as, + Our hostess, once everyone had
when ever b.
arrived, was full of good humour
Clause where/wherever
of place
+ They went wherever they could find work + Where the fire had been we saw nothing but blackened ruins
c. Clauses if,
unless,
of
condition
condition
provided
on * Real conditions: that, + He must be lying if he told you that
(providing), that, as long as, so, so long as
+ Unless the strike has been called off, there will be no trains tomorrow + Provided that no objection is raised, we shall hold the meeting here * Unreal condition + if he came now, I'd see him + If she had gone there, she'd have met him
140
d. Clauses although, though, + No goal were scored, thought it was of
even
if,
concession though,
even an exciting game. while, + Whereas John seems rather stupid,
whereas
his brother is clever.
Conditiona
whether ... or,
+ Whether they beat us or we beat
l
wherever
them, we'll celebrate tonight.
concessive whatever, clauses
+ She looks pretty whatever she wears
whoever,
no + Nom matter how hard I try can never
matter
catch up with him
how e. Clauses as, of
because, + I lent him the money because he
reason since
badly needed it.
(or cause)
+ As Jane was the eldest she looked after the others
f.
Clauses because,
of
since, +
Seeing
that
the
weather
has
now, that, seeing improved, we shall enjoy our game
circumstan that
+ We'll try to enrich ourselves now that
ce
the state has permitted us to do so
g. Clauses exactly of manner
as,
just + Please do it (exactly) as I instructed
as
+ Just as a moth is attracted by a light , (so) he was fascinated by her
h. Clauses (more).. than
+ he's younger than I am
of
+ She drove more carefully than her
as if, as though
compariso
father did
n
+ he treated me as if he had never met me.
i. Clause of so (that) result
in
order
+ We planted many shrubs, so (that) that the garden soon looked beautiful
(purpose)
141
f.
Clauses as ... (so)
+ As he grew disheartened, (so) his
proportion
the
work deteriorated
and
more/less...the
+ The harder he worked, the happiest
preference
more/less
he felt
IV. 2. Non-finite Adverbial clauses a. To-infinitive clauses
(to V): often introduced by (in order)/
(for+N) to, so as to, Infinitives thus used often function as A purpose: E.g: I left early (so as) to catch the train They left the door open in order for me to her the baby Sometimes, to infinitive can act as A result E.g; The ceiling is too high for me to reach She woke up to find the whole house on fire b. V-ing participle clauses
- ing participle clauses
are very
common with subordinator: while, without, when, etc, in the following. - A time; E.g; He wrote his greatest novel while working on a freighter Nearing the entrance I shook hands with my acquaintances -A circumstance: E.g; The weather having improved, we enjoyed the rest of the game - A manner: e.g: She entered the room without greeting anyone inside - A reason: E.g: Being very suspicious she hesitated to open the door. 142
Being a man of ingenuity, he soon repaired the car - A preference: E.g: Rather than sitting quietly a home he preferred to visit his friends - A condition + concession: E.g: Whether living in London or not, John enjoyed himself c. V-ed 2 participle clauses: - A time: E.g: Once published the book caused a remarkable stir - A place E.g: where (ver) known, such facts have been reported - A condition: E.g; These books will caused great harms to young students unless forbidden. d. Bare infinitive clause: - A preference E.g: Rather than go their by air. I'd take the slowest train IV.3. Verbless adverbial clauses: Verbless adverbial clauses include a. Adjectival contingent clauses (without our with subordinator) E.g: They went home dead tired (A circumstance) John, sad at the news, went to Mexico (A reason) Though very poor they are extremely generous (A concession) If necessary I'll do that again (A condition) 143
When ripe the oranges are picked and sorted b. Other clauses (often with subordinator) E.g: When in Rome do as Rome does While in London he enjoyed himself greatly He'll do his best to help her if requested by the boss These verbless clauses are often considered as reduced finite clauses with ellipted Subject + Verb V. RELATIVE CLAUSES In some grammarians'points of view, relative clauses are not considered as part of complex sentences. In r. quirk et al's books (both'A Grammar of Contemporary English) and 'A University Grammar of English) relative clauses are treated in the chapter dealing with the complex noun phrases (of chapter II above) However, to most grammarians' frame of mind, they may be classified among the complex sentences. There are in fact different kind of relative clauses that do not merely function as post-modifier in noun phrases as follows: V.1. Relative clauses functioning as post-modifier in NPs: There are two subtypes: a. Restrictive relative clauses (also called defining relative clauses) E.g; The man who went there with him is my brother in law I tried to discuss this problem with the professor who wrote this book. b Non-restrictive relative (or non-defining) clauses:
144
E.g; We met Mr Jones, who was expert at nuclear physics This book, which was written fifteen years ago was again revises and published (for more see chapter II, section) V.2. Sentential Relative clauses: This has been mentioned in subsection dealing with nonrestrictive relative clauses. However this group differ from them in that they have antecedents as the whole previous main clause. E.g: He came to see her too often, which annoyed her mother They failed the final exam, which surprised us all V.3. Nominal relative clauses: These are clauses that are very close to the noun phrase status in that they can perform seven (out of eight) different functions of noun phrases. They can act (as S. Cs.Od, Co, App. Cprep and Oi (cf, Subsections III.3 and III.4). They differ from the other two subgroups in that they can be paraphrased by nominal element plus relative clauses. E.g: What caused the fire was only a cigarette end. (=The thing that caused the fire...) We remember when we first came here (= the time when we first came here) We gave whoever went there a brochure (= anyone who went there) VI. COMMENT CLAUSES
145
Comment clauses are some what loosely related to a super ordinate clause and may be classed as disjuncts or conjuncts, which may occur initially, finally or medially. Comment clauses very in form and syntactic functions as follow: 1. Like a main clauses: E.g: At that time, I believe, labour was cheap You know, I think you're wrong 2. Like and adverbial clause (functioning as Adjunct): E.g: I'm a pacifist, as you know As far as grammar is concerned the sentence is the largest unit 3. Like a nominal relative clause as conjunct; E.g: What's more, we lost all our belongings 4. Non-finite clauses as style disjunct a. to V: E.g I'm mot sure what to do, to be honest b. V-ing: E.g: I doubt, speaking, as a layman, whether television is the right medium. c. V: E.g: Stated bluntly, he has no chance of winning the game. VIII., DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH 1. Direct things, there are two ways: a. Using Direct Speech E.g: He said "I'm very hungry" (1a) "How are you today?" asked her friend Here, the reporting clause may be classed as comment clause b. Using Indirect Speech
146
E.g: He said that he was very hungry (1b) Her friend asked (her) how she was that day (2b) Obviously, the reporting clause is, in this case, the superordinate clause and the reported, a subordinate clause. Beside the change in the clause status there are other changes that are noteworthy. We are going to deal with them in the following subsections. 2. Changes in clauses status: DIRECT SPEECH --------------- INDIRECT SPEECH that clause Generally, independent clauses are changed into subordinate clauses. a. Statement E.g: "I'm very hungry, he said
That clause -> He said that he was very
hungry "We didn't go there because -> My we "were ill" said my friend
friend
said
that
they
hadn't gone there because they
had been ill. b. Question (wh-question) Wh-interrogative clause E.g: "Who are you" asked her -> Her mother asked him who he mother was "Why didn't you attend the -> They asked him why he hadn't meeting?" they asked him c. Questions: Yes/no
attended the meeting + Yes/no interrogative
cls
alternative qs. (if/whether) E.g: "Have you finished the -> He asked her if/whether) she work?" he asked had finished the work "Did you come by train or by -> She asked whether I had bus?" she asked me
come by train or by bus 147
d. Commands To-infinitive clause E.g: "Come in and sit down -> The monitor told them to please!" the monitor said to come in and sit down them "Will you participate in this -> My colleague invited me to meeting?" said my colleague. participate in the meeting saying "It will be of great interest". that it would be of great interest e. Exclamations That clause/wh-clause E.g; "What a hero you are!" -> Margaret told him what a hero Margaret told him.
he was that he was a real hero
3. Change of the verb forms: When the reporting verbs is in the present tense, there is not any change in the subordinate clause in Indirect Speech as compared to the independent clause in Direct Speech in terms of tense and aspect forms - When the reporting verb is in the past tense (said/thought/wonder), there is the so called backshift change in the tense form of the subordinate verbs as follows. Direct Speech ------------------ Indirect Speech Simple Present (V/V-s) Simple Past (V-ed1) Present
Perfect
(have/has
+ Past perfect (had + V-ed2)
Ved2)
Past progressive (was/were +
Present Progressive (am/is/are + Ving) Ving)
Past perfect (had + V-ed2) 148
Present
Perf.
Prog.
(have/has Unchanged
been+ Ving)
Past Pref. Progr. (had been
Simple Past (V-ed)
+Ving)
Past perfect (had + Ved2)
Unchanged
Past Perf. Progr. (had been+ would Ving)
+ V
might
will
be + Ving
+V
may be + Ving 4. Change of pronouns and pointer word: Pronouns and pointer word: Pronouns in indirect speech should be changed in accordance with the relationship between them and those of the reporting clause subject. - Subject: E.g: he said: "I'm very tired" -> He said that he was very tired "We didn't agree with him", she said to him. -> She told him that they hadn't agreed with that man - Adverbials of time and place and determiners should also be changed as follows. Dr.Sp
--------
In.Sp
Dr.Sp
>
--------
In.Sp
>
today
that
this
that
now
day
my
his/her
here
then
our
their
there 149
yesterd
the day before
ay tomorr
the day after
ow
following day
the
day
your
his/her
next day after tomorrow after
two days
later E.g: "Why didn't you go there yesterday?" she asked -> She asked me why I hadn't gone there the previous day. "The day after tomorrow I'll come here again", said the man -> The man told them that he would go there two days later Exercises: 172, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 185, 187, 188, 190, 191, 201, 203, 206, 208, 209 (chapter 11, pp, 94-108)
150
Terminology Adverbial Absolute/positive Additional additive Adjectival phrase Adjective clause Adjunct Adjunct of duration Adjunct of frequency Adjunct of relationship Adjunct - When Adverbial Affected Agentive Amplifier Appositive Article Article usage Aspect Assertive Attribute Attributive Basic Noun phrase Cardinal Case Category Causative Cause Central Characteristic Classification Clause Clause coordination Closed system
tr¹ng ng÷ nguyªn/®¬n phô thªm céng thªm côm tÝnh tõ mÖnh ®Ò tÝnh ng÷ phô ng÷ phô ng÷ chØ thêi ®o¹n/diÔn biÕn phô ng÷ chØ tÇn xuÊt phô ng÷ chØ quan hÖ thêi ®iÓm tr¹ng ng÷ bÞ/chÞu t¸c ®éng t¸c nh©n t¨ng cêng ®ång vÞ ng÷/nghÜa ®onßg vÞ qu¸n ng÷ viÖc sö dông qu¸n tõ thÓ x¸c nhËn ®Þnh tè ®Þnh ng÷ côm danh tõ c¬ b¶n sè ®Õm c¸ch ph¹m trï khiªn ®éng nguyªn nh©n trung t©m ®Æc trng ph©n lo¹i mÖnh ®Ò (có) liªn kÕt mÖnh ®Ò 151
Coherence Cohesion Common Comparative Complement Complement of preposition (Cprep) Complementation Complementation type Complete Complex Complex finite VP Complex NP Compound Concept Conjunction Conjunct Coordinator Correspondence Criterion Current Decisive factor Definite article Degree of comparison Demonstrative Denominal Dependent clause Derivational suffix Determiners Discourse analysis Descriptive Disjunct Ditransitive Double genitive Downtoner
hÖ thèng ®ãng sù m¹ch l¹c liªn kÕt chung so s¸nh t¬ng ®èi bæ ng÷ bæ ng÷ giíi tõ bæ tè kiÓu bæ tè hoµn chØnh phøc côm ®éng tõ biÕn vÞ phøc côm danh tõ ghÐp kh¸i niÖm liªn tõ liªn ng÷ liªn tõ ®¼ng lËp sù t¬ng ®¬ng tiªu chÝ hiÖn tr¹ng, hiÖn cã nh©n tè quyÕt ®Þnh qu¸n tõ x¸c ®Þnh møc ®é so s¸nh chØ ®Þnh, tõ chØ ®Þnh ¸ danh mÖnh ®Ò phô thuéc hËu tè ph¸t sinh c¸c tõ x¸c ®Þnh ph©n tÝch diÔn ng«n m« t¶ biÖt ng÷ ngo¹i híng kÐp thuéc c¸ch së h÷u kÐp tõ gi¶m nghÜa, uyÓn thanh
152
Duration Dynamic Effected Emphasizer Empty Equal comparison Essential Eventive Exclamatory Explicitness Expression Extensive Feminine Finite clause Finite VP Focus Focusing Fraction Gender General Genitive Gradable Grammatical meaning Inclusive Incomplete Indefinite Indefinite article Independent clause Indicator Inferior Instrument Instrumental Integrated Intensifier Intensive
thêi ®o¹n ®éng, n¨ng ®éng ®îc thµnh t¹o tõ nhÊn m¹nh kh«ngm ang ý nghÜa g× so s¸nh ngang b»ng träng yÕu chØ sù kiÖn c¶m th¸n ®é hiÓu ng«n, sù râ rµng c¸ch diÔn ®¹t më réng gièng c¸i mÖnh ®Ò biÕn vÞ côm ®éng tõ biÕn vÞ tiªu ®iÓm träng t©m ®Þnh híng ph©n sè gièng chung thuéc c¸ch së h÷u ph©n chia møc ®é nghÜa ng÷ ph¸p tõ gép kh«ng hoµn chØnh tõ phiÕm chØ qu¸n tõ kh«ng x¸c ®Þnh mÖnh ®Ò ®éc lËp dÊu hiÖu kÐm h¬n c«ng cô cã tÝnh c«ng cô hoµ kÕt tõ t¨ng cêng (vÒ tÝnh chÊt, møc ®é)
153
Interjection Interrogation Interrogative Intransitive Lexical meaning Limiter adjective Locative Main Main clause Major Manner Marked Masculine Means Minor Modified modifiers Modifier Mood Multiple Multiple heads Multiplier Negative Neuter Nominal relative Non-assertive Non-finite verb phrase Non-gradable Non-restrictive Noun Numeral Numerical Object (O) Objective Obligatory Open class
quan hÖ s©u th¸n tõ sù nghi vÊn nghi vÊn néi, híng néi nghÜa tõ vùng tÝnh tõ h¹n chÕ ®Þnh vÞ chÝnh mÖnh ®Ò chÝnh chÝnh, thêng thÊy ph¬ng thøc cã dÊu hiÖu gièng ®ùc ph¬ng tiÖn Ýt thÊy ®Þnh ng÷ ®îc bæ nghÜa tõ bæ nghÜa thøc ®a thµnh tè nhiÒu tõ chÝnh tõ chØ béi sè phñ ®Þnh gièng trung mÖnh ®Ò quan hÖ danh tÝnh phi x¸c nhËn mÖnh ®Ò kh«ng biÕn vÞ kh«ng ph©n møc ®é kh«ng h¹n ®Þnh danh tõ sè tõ thuéc sè häc t©n ng÷ thuéc t©n ng÷ b¾t buéc
154
Operator Optional Ordinal Particle Partitive Passivity Perceptive Peripheral, periphrastic Permanent Personal Phrasal coordination Phrasal verb Possessive Postdeterminer Postmodifier Postpositive Posture Predeterminer Predicate Predicative Premodification Prepositional verb Principal Process adjunct Proform Progressive tense Pronominally Pronoun Provenance Quantifier Recipient Reciprocal Reflexive Relative Replacive
líp më tõ ®iÒu phèi tuú ý, kh«ng b¾t buéc sè thø tù tiÓu tõ chØ bé phËn ý nghÜa bÞ ®éng chØ c¶m gi¸c, c¶m qu¸n ngo¹i biªn, ngo¹i diªn thêng trùc nh©n xng liªn kÕt côm tõ ®¼ng lËp ®éng tõ cã tiÓu tõ së h÷u, së thuéc tõ ®øng sau tõ x¸c ®Þnh ®Þnh ng÷ ®øng sau ®øng sau t thÕ tõ ®øng tríc tõ x¸c ®Þnh vÞ ng÷ biÓu ng÷ phÐp sö dông ®Þnh ng÷ ®øng tríc ®éng tõ cã giíi tõ chÝnh phô ng÷ chØ tiÕn tr×nh tõ thay thÕ thêi tiÕp diÔn nh ®¹i tõ ®¹i danh tõ xuÊt xø tõ chØ ®Þnh (sè) lîng ®èi tîng, ngêi nhËn. qua l¹i ph¶n th©n
155
Restrictive Resulting Subject (S) Scope Secondary Segmental phoneme Semantic role Sentence structure Sentence Sequence Stative Subclassification Subjective Subjunctive mood Subordinate clause Subordinator Substantivised adjective Subtype Superior Superlative Superordinate clause Supplementive Suprasegmental Syntactic functions Temporal Temporary Tense Unacceptable Unique reference Universal Unmarked V intensive V complex transitive V ditransitive V intransitive
quan hÖ thay thÕ h¹n ®Þnh kÕt qu¶ chñ ng÷ ph¹m vi thø yÕu ©m vÞ ®o¹n tÝnh vai trß ng÷ nghÜa, ý nghÜa cÊu tróc c©u c©u thø tù, tr×nh tù tÜnh t¹i ph©n lo¹i s©u h¬n thuéc chñ ng÷ gi¶ ®Þnh thøc mÖnh ®Ò phô (thuéc) liªn tõ chÝnh phô tÝnh tõ ®îc danh tõ ho¸ tiÓu nhãm cao h¬n so s¸nh cao nhÊt mÖnh ®Ò chÝnh chi phèi bæ sung, thªm nghÜa siªu ®o¹n tÝnh chøc n¨ng có ph¸p thêi gian nhÊt thêi thêi, th× kh«ng thÓ chÊp nhËn ®îc quy chiÕu, ý nghÜa ®¬n nhÊt phæ qu¸t trung tÝnh, kh«ng mang dÊu hiÖu ®éng tõ quan hÖ
156
V monotransitive Verbless Volume
ngo¹i ®éng tõ phøc ngo¹i ®éng tõ kÐp néi ®éng tõ ngo¹i ®éng tõ ®¬n kh«ng cã ®éng tõ khèi lîng
157
