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A Child’s World: How We Discover It Chapter 2
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Entering a Child’s World
PART 1
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Guideposts for Study
1. What purposes do theories serve, and
what are two basic issues on which developmental theorists differ?
2. What are five theoretical perspectives on child development, and what are some theories representative of each?
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Guideposts for Study
3. How do developmental scientists study children, and what are the
advantages and disadvantages of each research method?
4. What ethical problems may arise in research on children?
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Basic Theoretical Issues
Issue 1: Are Children Active or Passive in Their Development?
Mechanistic Model: Passive Locke: children are a clean slate, tabula rasa, upon which society writes People are like machines that react to environmental input Predicts human behavior based upon internal and external forces at work
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Basic Theoretical Issues
Issue 1: Are Children Active or Passive in Their Development?
Organismic Model: Active People initiate events, do not just react to them The impetus for change is internal Environmental influences can speed or slow development
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Basic Theoretical Issues
Issue 2: Is Development Continuous or Does It Occur in Stages?
Mechanistic theorists believe it is continuous
Quantitative
Organismic theorists believe it has distinct stages
Qualitative
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Is development continuous, or does it occur in stages?
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Basic Theoretical Issues
A Shifting Balance
Early theorists favored organismic or stage approaches Today attention is focused on the biological and evolutionary bases of behavior Bidirectional: people change their world as it changes them
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Five Perspectives on Human Development
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Theoretical Perspectives
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual development
Id
Pleasure principle Ego Reality principle Superego Contains the conscience
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Theoretical Perspectives
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual Development Oral stage Anal stage Phallic stage
Oedipus complex/ Penis envy
Latency stage Genital stage Fixation can occur during any stage
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Theoretical Perspectives
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Erik Erikson: Psychosocial development Eight stages across the life span Each stage requires balancing of a positive trait and a corresponding negative one; some of each is necessary Identity crisis
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Theoretical Perspectives
Learning Perspective
Behaviorism Mechanistic theory describing observable behavior and a predictable response Associative learning
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
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Theoretical Perspectives
Learning Perspective
Ivan Pavlov: Classical conditioning Response to a stimulus is evoked after repeated association with a stimulus that normally elicits a different stimulus “Little Albert”
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Theoretical Perspectives
Learning Perspective
B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning
Tendency to repeat a response that has been reinforced by desirable consequences and suppresses a response that has been punished
Reinforcement Punishment Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement “Behavior Modification”
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Theoretical Perspectives
Learning Perspective
Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory
Reciprocal determinism
Impetus for development is bidirectional
Observational learning (modeling) Social Cognitive Theory
Using a combination of observations to synthesize new behaviors Self-Efficacy
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Theoretical Perspectives
Cognitive Perspective
Jean Piaget: Cognitive Stage Theory Inborn ability to adapt to the environment Four qualitatively different stages Range from simple sensory and motor activity to logical, abstract thought
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Theoretical Perspectives
Cognitive Perspective
Jean Piaget: Cognitive Stage Theory
Organization
Adaptation
Schemes
Assimilation Accommodation
Equilibrium
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Theoretical Perspectives
Cognitive Perspective
Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory Stresses children’s active engagement with their environments Collaborative process with social interaction Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Scaffolding
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Theoretical Perspectives
Cognitive Perspective
Information-Processing Approach Analyzes the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information Compares the brain to a computer
Makes inferences Computational models
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Theoretical Perspectives
Cognitive Perspective
Neo-Piagetian Theories Focuses on specific concepts, strategies, and skills Helps account for individual differences in cognitive ability and for uneven development in various domains
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Theoretical Perspectives
Contextual Perspective
Urie Bronfenbrenner: Bioecological Theory Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem
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Model #1 Model #2
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Theoretical Perspectives
E.O. Wilson: Evolutionary/Sociobiological Perspective
Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution Ethology
Study of the distinctive adaptive behaviors of animal species
Evolutionary psychology
Applies Darwinian principles to individual behavior
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Five Perspectives on Human Development
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Research Methods
Quantitative
Based on scientific method 1. Identify a problem 2. Formulate hypotheses 3. Collect data 4. Analyze the data 5. Disseminate findings
Qualitative
Open-ended
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Research Methods
Sampling
Population Sample Random sample
Generalization
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Research Methods
Forms of Data Collection
Self-Reports: diaries, interviews, questionnaires Naturalistic and laboratory observation Behavioral and performance measures Reliability Validity Standardization
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Characteristics of Major Methods of Data Collection
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Research Methods
Forms of Data Collection
Cognitive neuroscience
Social cognitive neuroscience
Bridges brain, mind, and behavior Uses brain imaging to understand neural pathways MRI PET
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Research Methods
Basic Research Designs
Case studies In-depth information Flexible Genie’s study of deprived environment
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Research Methods
Basic Research Designs
Ethnographic studies Describes the pattern of relationships, customs, beliefs, technology, arts, and traditions of a society Can be qualitative, quantitative, or both Participant observation
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Basic Research Designs
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Research Methods
Basic Research Designs
Correlational study
Statistical relationship between variables
Positive Negative No relationship
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Correlational studies may find positive or negative correlations or no correlation
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Research Methods
Basic Research Designs
Experiments Experimental group Control group Double-blind Placebo Independent variable Dependent variable
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Research Methods
Basic Research Designs
Experiments Random assignment Laboratory, Field, and Natural Experiments
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Developmental Research Designs
Cross-Sectional, Longitudinal, and Sequential Studies
Cross-sectional: children of different ages are assessed at one time Longitudinal: same children are studied more than once, sometimes years apart Sequential: a complex strategy to overcome the drawbacks of longitudinal and cross-sectional
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Common developmental designs
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A sequential design
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Collaborative Research
Meta-Analysis
Statistical analysis of multiple studies
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) National Children’s Study
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Ethics of Research
Three Principles of Ethical Dilemmas
Beneficence Respect for autonomy Justice
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Ethics of Research
Right to Informed Consent Avoidance of Deception Right to Self-Esteem Right to Privacy and Confidentiality
