CONTENTS
5 Maps xi Figures xiii Plates xv Preface to the Second Edition xvii Preface to the First Edition xix Acknowledgments xxi Notes to the Reader xxiii
1 Archaic Italy and the Origins of Rome 5
Italy and the Mediterranean World 1 Italy Before the City 4 Greeks and Phoenicians in the Central Mediterranean 5 The Rise of Cities 6 Beginning of Writing 7 Appearance of an Elite 7 Cities and Monumental Architecture 7 Warfare in the Orientalizing and Archaic Periods 9 Social and Economic Organization 9 Greeks and Etruscans 11 The Emergence of Rome 14 The Romans and Their Early History 17 Table 1.1 Dates of Rome’s Kings According to Varro 18 Source 1.1 Romulus Founds Rome (Plutarch) 18 iii
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Politics and Society Under the Kings 19 Rome and the Latins 21
2 Republican Rome and the Conquest of Italy 5
The Early Republic 24 Rome and Its Neighbors in the Fifth Century 26 Struggle of the Orders 27 Fall of Veii and the Sack of Rome 30 The City and Its Institutions in the Fourth Century 32 Officials 32 Senate 34 Assemblies of Citizens 36 Table 2.1 Roman Assemblies 36 The City, Its Gods, and Its Priests 39 Rome and Central Italy 41 Warfare and the Civic Order 41 Rome in Latium and Campania 42 Source 2.1 A Formal Surrender to Rome 42 Samnite Wars 45 Wars in Central and Northern Italy 46 Conquest of the South 47 War and the Roman State 48
3 The Beginnings of a Mediterranean Empire 5
The Nobility and the City of Rome 50 Source 3.1 Triumph of Scipio Africanus (Appian) 53 Wars with Carthage 54 First Punic War (264–241) 55 Second Punic War (218–201) 58 Source 3.2 Rome’s Reaction to Defeat at Cannae (Polybius) 62 A Mediterranean Empire 64 Governors, Provinces, and Empire 64 Spain 66 Greece and Asia Minor 68
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Source 3.3 Popillius Laenas Forestalls Antiochus’ Invasion of Egypt (Polybius) 72 North Africa 72
4 Italy and Empire 5
Senators, Officials, and Citizen Assemblies 74 Italy and the Consequences of Empire 77 Changing Relations Between Rome, Its Municipia, and Allies 77 Roman and Italian Elites 79 Source 4.1 Scipio Africanus’ Army Loots Carthago Nova (Polybius) 80 Demographic and Economic Changes 82 Roman Politics from the Mid-Second Century 84 Scipio Aemilianus 85 Tiberius Gracchus 86 Source 4.2 Tiberius Gracchus Urges Romans to Support his Land-Assignment Scheme (Plutarch) 88 Gaius Gracchus 89
5 Italy Threatened, Enfranchised, Divided 5
Changes in Roman Society 94 War with Jugurtha (112–105) 98 Italy Threatened from the North (113–101) 99 Changes in the Roman Army 100 Marius’ Career in Roman Politics 101 Source 5.1 Marius’ Bid for the Consulship (Sallust) 102 Sixth Consulship of Marius and Second Tribunate of Saturninus (100) 103 Administration of the Provinces 104 Tribunate of Livius Drusus (91) 107 Social War (91–87) 107 Tribunate of Sulpicius Rufus (88) 110 Sulla’s First March on Rome (88) 111 Cinna’s Rule (87–84) 112 Sulla’s Second March on Rome (83–82) 113
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6 The Domination of Sulla and Its Legacy 5
Sulla’s Proscriptions (82–81) 116 Sulla the Dictator and His Program (82–81) 117 Verdicts on Sulla’s Program 118 Lepidus’ Rising and Its Aftermath (78–77) 120 Source 6.1 Cicero’s Defense of Sextus Roscius 120 Challenge from Sertorius in Spain (80–73) 121 Spartacus’ Slave Revolt (73–71) 124 Consulship of Crassus and Pompey (70) 125 Pompey Frees the Mediterranean of Pirates (67) 125 Threat from King Mithridates VI of Pontus and Sulla’s Response (87–85) 126 Campaigns of Lucullus and Pompey Against Mithridates (74–63) 128 Roles of Crassus and Cicero in Rome (65–63) 130 Catiline’s Rising (63–62) 134
7 End of the Republic: Caesar’s Dictatorship 5
Pompey’s Return from the East (62) 136 Pompey and Political Stalemate in Rome 137 Partnership of Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar 139 Caesar’s First Consulship (59) 139 Clodius’ Tribunate (58) 141 Cicero’s Recall and the Renewal of the Triumvirate (57–56) 142 Caesar’s Campaigns in Gaul (58–51) 143 Death of Clodius and Pompey’s Sole Consulship (52) 144 Prospect of Civil War (51–49) 148 Causes and Consequences of Caesar Crossing the Rubicon (January 49) 149 Civil War Campaigns (49–45) 150 Caesar’s Activity as Dictator (49–44) 152 Caesar’s Impact upon the City of Rome 156 Political Prospects for Rome and for Caesar 156
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8 Augustus and the Transformation of the Roman World 5 Reactions to the Assassination of Caesar (44–43) 160 Emergence of a Second Triumvirate (43) 164 Battle of Philippi (42) 165 Perusine War (41–40) 166 Elimination of Sextus Pompey and Lepidus (39–36) 167 Source 8.1 Laudatio Turiae 168 Antony in the East (42 Onwards) 169 Clash Between Antony and Octavian (36–30) 171 Octavian as Sole Ruler (30 Onwards) 172 “The Republic Restored” 173 Second Settlement (23) 175 The Roman Family in the Augustan Period 176 Table 8.1 The Julio-Claudian Family 178 Succession 179 Senate and Equites 181 Army 183 Source 8.2 Oath of Loyalty 185 The Empire and Its Expansion 185 City of Rome 189 Attitudes Outside Rome 191 Augustus: Final Assessment 191
9 The Early Principate ( . . 14–69): The Julio-Claudians, 5 ad
the Civil War of 68–69, and Life in the Early Empire
The Julio-Claudian Emperors: Civil Government and Military Concerns 193 Tiberius (14–37) 194 Gaius (Caligula) (37–41) 195 Claudius (41–54) 196 Nero (54–68) 199 Civil War in 68–69 201 Economic and Social Change: Army 204
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“Beneficial Ideology” 205 Cities and Provinces 206 Diversity: Women, Local Languages, and Culture 207 Religious Practices and Principles 209 Imperial Cult 211
1 0 Military Expansion and Its Limits: The Empire and the 5 Provinces (69–138)
Institutionalization of the Principate 213 Vespasian (69–79) 214 Titus (79–81) 216 Domitian (81–96) 217 A New, Better Era? 217 Nerva (96–98) 219 Trajan (98–117) 220 Table 10.1 The Antonine Family 224 Hadrian (117–138) 225 Source 10.1 Hadrian Inspects Troops at Lambaesis, Numidia 227 Roman Cities and the Empire’s Peoples 228 Theaters and Processions 228 Circuses and Chariot Racing 231 The Amphitheater and Gladiatorial Games 231 Other Urban Amenities and Education 233
1 1 Italy and the Provinces: Civil and Military Affairs (138–235) 5 Antoninus Pius (138–161) 237 Source 11.1 A Greek Provincial Praises Roman Citizenship 239 Marcus Aurelius (161–180) and Lucius Verus (161–169) 239 Commodus (176–192, Sole Augustus after 180) 243 Septimius Severus (193–211) 245 Caracalla (198–217, Sole Augustus After 211) 247
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Macrinus (217–218) 248 Elagabalus (218–222) 248 Table 11.1 The Severan Family 249 Severus Alexander (222–235) 250 Roman Law 251 Roman Citizenship 252 Source 11.2 Grant of Roman Citizenship (Tabula Banasitana) 253 Rome and Christianity 256 Source 11.3 Pliny, Trajan, and Christians 257
1 2 The Third-Century Crisis and the Tetrarchic Restabilization 5
Mid-Third Century 261 Aurelian (270–275) 265 Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (284–305) 266 Dissolution of the Tetrarchy (305–313) and the Rise of Constantine (306–324) 270 Source 12.1 Galerius’ Edict of Toleration 272 Administrative Reorganization Under the Dominate 273
1 3 The Rise of Christianity and the Growth of the Barbarian 5 Threat (324–395)
Constantine: A Christian Emperor 281 The Sons of Constantine (337–361): The Power of Dynasty 285 Table 13.1 The Constantinian Family 286 Julian (361–363): A Test of the Christian Empire 290 Source 13.1 Julian Attempts to Bring Paganism into Line with Christianity 291 Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens (363–378) 291 Gratian, Valentinian II, and Theodosius I (379–395) 293 New Elites for the Empire 296 Paganism and Christianity 298 Source 13.2 The End of Pagan Sacrifice 299
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1 4 The Final Years of the Western Empire and Rome’s Revival 5 in the East
The Theodosian Dynasty Down to the First Sack of Rome (395–410) 302 Table 14.1 The Theodosian Family 303 The Fall of the Western Empire (410–476) 308 Source 14.1 The Gothic King Athaulf’s Shifting Attitude Toward Rome 309 The Growth of a Byzantine Empire in the East (408–491) 311 A Christian Culture 315 Women’s Power in Late Antiquity 319 The “Decline and Fall” of the Roman Empire 320 Timeline 323 Glossary 328 Art Credits 338 Gazetteer 340 Index 344 Color plate follows p. 168
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