25/9/2014
FROM
BEHAVIORISM
According to behaviorism Learning is defined as an immediate change in behavior Only reinforced behaviors will be performed Ignore what is happening in the “black box” Our environment completely control our behaviors
PSY6015 COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES Lecture 3 – Social Learning Theories
FROM
BEHAVIORISM
However, consider the following case:
LEARNING THEORY
Also known as social cognitive theory
Tommy once saw his father ending an argument with his mother by hitting her. One week later, when Tommy is having some arguments with his friends, he tried to solve the issue by hitting his friends. He was immediately punished by the teacher. Even though his hitting behaviors were punished every single time and were never reinforced, he continued hitting people. However, he dared not hit people at home, in which his father would beat him up.
SOCIAL
FROM
In this situation Learning does not result in immediate change in behavior The behavior is never reinforced Our minds play a role in the learning process We do have some control on our behaviors and our environment
PRINCIPLES
People can learn by observing others’ behaviors and the consequences of that result
Learning can occur without an immediate change in behavior
“cognitive” because it takes our cognition into consideration
People never get reinforced/punished for every single behavior on the earth
BEHAVIORISM
Yet, we learn to do/not to do certain behaviors We learn by observing others
Tommy learned hitting people from his father
Tommy did not demonstrate the learned behavior immediately
Cognition plays important role in learning People can have considerable control over their actions and environment
Tommy did not hit people at home, because he knew that he would be beaten up by his father
1
25/9/2014
RECIPROCAL
CAUSATION
RECIPROCAL
CAUSATION
Environment, person, and behavior interact and affect each other
Person
Although the environment does influence us, we (person) also affect our environment Innate tendency: children with ADHD will elicit more punishment from the environment Beliefs: if you belief in “practice makes perfect”, you will likely to work harder
ENVIRONMENTAL
FACTORS
People are innately equipped to imitate others’ behaviors
ENVIRONMENTAL
A teacher praises students for following her in reading a poem
The observer is reinforced by a third person
A little girl gets praise for imitating her sister in dressing herself
People are usually reinforced for imitating others
Generalized imitation Babies get reinforced for imitating parents’ facial expressions
The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FnQIkI1dQts
BANDURA’S
EXPERIMENT
You learn playing music by watching others, and the process of playing music is reinforcing by itself
Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously
FACTORS
The observer is reinforced by the model
Babies imitate adults’ facial expression https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2YdkQ1G5QI
Behavior
Environment
John saw Sam got reinforced for help cleaning the desk, John would be more likely to clean the desk in the future
BANDURA’S
EXPERIMENT
The Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1965)
Three groups of children Group 1: watched a video in which an adult acted aggressively to a doll and then get reinforced Group 2: watched a video in which an adult acted aggressively to a doll and then get punished Group 3: watched a video in which an adult acted aggressively to a doll without consequences
The three groups were then allowed to interact with the doll Later on, the three groups were given incentive for reproducing the aggressive behaviors
2
25/9/2014
BANDURA’S
EXPERIMENT
Implications
COGNITIVE
Children learn aggressive behaviors by observing others Watching aggressive behaviors being reinforced result in increased reproduction of misbehaviors Ignoring aggressive behaviors have same effect as reinforcing misbehaviors Even when the observed aggressive behavior is punished, it is still acquired, just that the learn choose not to demonstrate that
Learning involves a mental (rather than behavioral) change
People can learn a behavior but not performing
FACTORS
e.g., watching the punished-aggressive behaviors
Certain cognitive processes are essential for learning to occur
Paying attention, mentally rehearsing, forming mental representations
A slightly different version
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8
THE COGNITIVE
PROCESSES
COGNITIVE
FACTORS
Learners must be aware of existing responseconsequence contingencies If a learner is not sure which part of the behavior is reinforced, he/she is less likely to learn that behavior Explicitly state what behavior is desirable/undesirable
Learners form expectations for future responseconsequence contingencies Learners perform a behavior when they expect that the behavior will be reinforced If you see others get reinforced for a certain behavior, you also expect yourself to be reinforced for the same behavior
COGNITIVE
FACTORS
Learners also form beliefs about their ability to perform various behaviors Efficacy expectations: beliefs about whether they themselves can execute particular behaviors successfully If you do not think that you can learn playing hockey, you don’t learn that even after you have observed others playing
COGNITIVE
FACTORS
The nonoccurrence of expected consequences is an influential consequence in and of itself If you expect a behavior to be reinforced while it does not, it can be punishing Accompany with strong negative emotions e.g., expecting an A but only getting a B in a course
Outcome and efficacy expectations influence cognitive processes that underlie learning
Recalling the Bobo doll experiment:
Ignoring aggressive behavior is reinforcing!
What is not examined is usually not learned effectively
3
25/9/2014
TYPES OF MODELS
MODELING
How modeling affects behaviors
Teaches new behavior Influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors
Vicarious reinforcement makes behaviors more likely
May encourage previously forbidden behaviors Disinhibition e.g., You know that swearing is a bad behavior. However, when you see people’s swearing behaviors result in good outcomes (getting along well with others), your tendency to swear may increase.
Live model
Symbolic model
Increases the frequency of similar behaviors
An actual person demonstrating a particular behavior
A person or character portrayed in a book, film, TV show, game, etc
Verbal instructions
Descriptions of how to behave only
BEHAVIORS EFFECTIVE MODELS
In order to let learners to learn more effectively, the model would better be
A low-achieving student will be more likely to gain confidence in doing a particular academic task when he/she sees another lowachieving student succeeded in doing You would probably make reference to A grade papers, instead of C grade papers, when doing your assignments
With prestige and power
EXERCISE
“Gregg, Natalie, please wait to be given permission before you speak out in class,” you comment to two of your students as they whisper to each other. They stop, and Christine, who has been looking at you out of the corner of her eye as she whispers to Dawn, also stops. Gregg’s and Natalie’s behavior.
2.Explain
Christine’s behavior.
Children learn how to appropriately interact with others by observation In cases where observational learning is not enough, explicit teaching may be needed
SELF-EFFICACY
Self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy
Self concept
Who am I?
Self-esteem
3.Which
The Bobo doll experiment!
Social skills
1.Explain
Usually through cognitive modeling e.g., thinking aloud
Aggression
Teenagers are more likely model idols than an average adult
CLASSROOM
Academic skills
With high competence
With high perceived similarity
THAT CAN BE LEARNED THROUGH
MODELING
How good am I as a person?
modeling outcome is best illustrated by Christine’s behavior?
4.Suppose
you had said nothing to Gregg and Natalie. What would have been the likely outcome for them, Christine, and the rest of the class?
Self-efficacy
How well can I do such-and-such? More specific, evaluative judgment about oneself
4
25/9/2014
SELF-EFFICACY
Effects of self-efficacy
People with high self-efficacy usually learn better But unrealistically high self-efficacy can be harmful
Whether others believe that you can do it Be both constructive and realistic
Physiological status
SELF-REGULATION
If a similar other has succeeded in a particular task, you will have higher self-efficacy in that task Competent vs. coping model
Social persuasion
Learning and achievement
Previous successes (failure) increases (decreases) self-efficacy However, history without failure may not be good
Vicarious experience
People with higher self-efficacy set higher goals to themselves People with higher self-efficacy pay more effort and are more likely to persist when they encounter obstacles
Anxiety and stress lower self-efficacy
STEPS FOR SELF-REGULATION
Children, through repeated observations of others, build up some internal standards for appropriate vs. inappropriate behaviors
If they can act according to their internal standards, they will gain more control over the course of their lives
Goal setting
Setting a standard for yourself first e.g., I need to lose 10kg in this three months!
Self-instructions
Tell yourself what to do e.g., I need to control my diet and do more exercises
Five steps for teaching children to self-instruct
STEPS FOR SELF-REGULATION
Self-monitoring
e.g., record the calories intake and the duration of exercising, keep track of the body weight, etc
OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Students can learn by simply observing others
Explicitly stating behavior-consequence relationship
Alternative for shaping new behaviors
Importance of role model
The process itself maybe reinforcing
May also observe relevant antecedent/consequences
Self-reinforcement
APPLICATION
Assess whether you are on track
Cognitive modeling overt, external guidance overt selfguidance faded, overt self-guidance covert self-instruction
Observe your own behaviors
OF SELF-EFFICACY
Mastery experience
Effort and persistence
Students who believe that they can run fast will join the athletic team, while those who believe that they can sing well join the choir
Goals
Choices of activities
SOURCES
Reward yourself for your accomplishment
Self-reflection
Think about ways to improve e.g., if you know that you tend to eat a lot when you watch TV, you may considering cutting your TV watching time
5
25/9/2014
APPLICATION
OF SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY
RECAP EXERCISES
Write down 4-5 key concepts covered in this topic (with some elaborations) and share with the friend next to you!
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
APPLICATION
OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Exposure to a variety of models to enhance learning
Self-efficacy is important
Realistic expectation
Self-regulation helps
REFERENCES Eggen, P. D. & Kauchak, D. P. (2014). Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Ormrod, J. E. (2012). Human learning (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
6
