ERNWACA Research Grants Programme Edition 2009/ 2010 edition

Survey on the Influence of Hawking on Girl Education in Ibadan, Oyo State Nigeria

Researchers • • • • •

Team Coordinator Team Member Team Member Team Member Team Member

BABALOLA Folaranmi Dapo FOLORUNSO Lateef Akinwumi KASSIM Olayemi Rashidat BELLO Olusola Sunday OLADOKUN Yetunde Olasimbo Mary

Project Mentor : Dr. Grace A. ADEJUWON, Lecturer and Researcher at the Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Country: Nigeria ---------------------------------------------------------Research financed by Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA) With project support from UEMOA regional Centre of Excellence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The incidence of school-age girls engaging in hawking is on the increase. Due to the economic situations of many low income earning households, girls now find themselves contributing to main source of household income. Unfortunately, this income generating activity that the girls undertake is not given adequate recognition as paid work and impacts on future education of the girls are not given appropriate attention. The project therefore aimed at determining the influence of hawking on the schooling of girls in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. A total of 540 girls were conveniently selected in Primary School (PS), Junior Secondary Schools (JSS) and Senior Secondary Schools (SSS) (that is 30 girls each in 18 schools) out of which 323 girls (59.8%) indicated that they engaged in hawking. For the survey, questionnaires were then administered to only the girls that engaged in hawking activities. Questionnaires were also administered to 120 market women and 180 girl hawkers (different from the girls sampled in schools) in 6 markets to obtain their opinion on the impacts of hawking on schooling of girls. The mean age of the sampled girl hawkers on the streets and in markets was 13.3 years while that of girl hawkers in PS, JSS and SSS were 11.4 years, 13.4 years and 16.1 years respectively. More than 82% of all the sampled girls lived with their parents. For the girls that indicated that they lived with their relation/guardian, the main reason was because their parents asked them to do so. About 35% of the girls did not know the educational status of the person they are living with. All the girls (100%) in PS and JSS, 90.7% in SSS and 63.8% of girl hawkers on the streets and in the markets indicated that they like hawking. Reasons why the girls like hawking was that it was to assist their family financially and training for the future. Flogging (physical beating) ranked topmost of the punishment the girls were subjected to for refusing to hawk. More than 80% of all the girls indicated that their mother collects the money realized from hawking. Hawking money was used by majority of the girls’ households to buy household basic needs and send them to school. In contrary to the response of majority of the girls that hawking did not ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun• Congo • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée • Mali • Mauritanie • Niger • Nigeria • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org

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affect their schooling, the market women informed that hawking affected their schooling when they were carrying out the activities below 18 years. Also, the results of correlation on frequency of hawking per week by the girls indicated that hawking affects the girls by making them tired; not do their homework; prevent them from reading; occupy their time; discourage them from going to school; and make the girls hungry. It was deduced from this results that due to their level of understanding and little experience in life, the girls may not immediately understand the impacts of hawking on their schooling and education unlike the women. Many of the women did not complete their education (drop out of school), while those that completed did not have good result and could not proceed. Some that completed the primary education with good grade could not proceed due to the challenges of household poverty level and the issue of parents having preference for sending the boys to school instead of girls. Some of the women informed that they were asked to hawk while the money used to send the male child to school. If these observations as informed by the women are not checked in the girls, this will have negative impacts on their schooling and their future. Government should implement the policy of “free and compulsory” education as stipulated in the Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Nigeria. There is need for advocacy campaigns on the dangers of street hawking to the children. Parents should be reoriented towards accepting their responsibilities in terms of taking care of their children. Due to the increasing issue of poverty, there should be a planned literacy/vocational programme in which the girl hawkers would be afforded the opportunity to attain some literacy level and at the same time earn a living and empowerment for self-reliance.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The research was conducted with the Awaard of 6th Small Grant Programme of Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA) for Education Research 2010. We are also grateful to UEMOA regional Centre of Excellence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands for providing the fund.

We are equally grateful to the Team of ERNWACA National Coordination in Nigeria for the Administration of the fund, and for the review of the Proposal that led to the Award and Research Report.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages Cover Page.. ..

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Executive Summary..

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Acknowledgement .. ..

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Table of Contents

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List of Tables ..

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List of Figures ..

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List of Plates ..

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Acronyms

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1.1. Contextual Elements

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1.2. Definition Of Terms

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1.3. Problem statement ..

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1.4. Conceptual Framework.. ..

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1.5. Aim of the study ..

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1.6. Justification for the study ..

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2.1. Domestic Child Labour ..

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2.2. Some findings on child labour.. ..

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CHAPTER ONE 1.0. Introduction

CHAPTER TWO 2.0. Literature Review..

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2.3. Child welfare as development indicator ..

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2.4. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme in Nigeria 22 2.5. Education and Nigerian children ..

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CHAPTER THREE 3.0. Methodology

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3.1. Study Area..

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3.2. Target population ..

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3.3. Data collection

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4.1. Girl Hawkers In-School, on the Streets and In-Markets ..

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4.2. Response Of Market Women On Hawking

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3.4. Limitation of the study

CHAPTER FOUR

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4.3. Response Of School Administrators On Hawking By Girls

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CHAPTER FIVE 5.0. Conclusion and Recommendations..

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5.1. Conclusion..

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5.2. Recommendations ..

REFERENCES

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ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun• Congo • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée • Mali • Mauritanie • Niger • Nigeria • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org

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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Information on selected Primary School, and Junior and Secondary Schools in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria..

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Table 2: Age distribution of the sampled girl hawkers in selected Primary and Secondary Schools, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

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Table 3: Summary of age of the girl hawkers in Ibadan Table 4: Demographic information of the sampled girl

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hawkers in selected Primary and Secondary Schools, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria .. .. .. .. .. ..

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Table 6: Occupation of person the girl child hawkers is living with .. Table 7: Occupation of person the girl child hawkers is living with .. Table 8: Daily activities of girl child after closing from school ..

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Table 9: Top Ten Commodities Hawked by Girls in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.. .. .. .. .. ..

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Table 10: Daily Amount Generated by Girls from Hawking .. .. Table 11: Summary of Daily Amount Generated by Girl Hawkers ..

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Table 12: Frequency table showing rate of and reason for hawking by girls in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria..

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Table 13: Person that collects the money generated by girl hawkers .. Table 14: Effects of hawking on schooling and education of the girls..

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Table 15: Punishment subjected girl child to for not hawking in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria .. .. .. ..

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Table 16: Correlation of Frequency of Hawking and Effect of Hawking on Schooling of Girl Hawkers.. .. ..

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Table 5: Occupation and education of person(s) the girl hawkers on Streets and in Markets is living with.. .. ..

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Table 17: Frequency of Hawking per week and Influence of ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun• Congo • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée • Mali • Mauritanie • Niger • Nigeria • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org

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Hawking on Schooling of Girl Hawkers on Streets and in Markets in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria .. .. ..

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Table 18: Response of market women on influence of hawking on their schooling .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

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Table 19: Perception of market women toward hawking by girl child..

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ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun• Congo • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée • Mali • Mauritanie • Niger • Nigeria • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org

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LIST OF FIGURES Pages Fig. 1: Response on if the girls are the only female in household.. ..

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LIST OF PLATES Plate 1 (a) to (i): Cross section of girl child hawkers on the street and in markets Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria .. ..

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Plate 2: Girls of the same parents hawking in a local market, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

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Plate 3: School-age girl discussing with her mother at the a market selling yam

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Plates 4: School-age girls hawking cooked food with their mother on a street..

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ACRONYMS

ECCDE:

Early Childhood Care Development and Education

EFA:

Education for All

HHC:

Household chores

ILO:

International Labour Organisation

JSS:

Junior Secondary School

MGD:

Millennium Development Goals

PS:

Primary Schools

SSS:

Senior Secondary Schools

UBE:

Universal Basic Education

UNICEF:

United Nations International Children‟s Emergency Fund

UPE:

Universal Primary Education

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The International Labour Organization estimates there are 246 million working children aged between 5 and 17 worldwide (Anti-slavery International, 2002). The Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest proportion with almost 1/3 under 14 years old children carrying out an economic occupation. ILO (2006) also reported that 111 million children under 15 are in hazardous work and should be immediately withdrawn from this work. The number of children aged between 5 and 14 who are working full time in the world, is at least 120 million and the large majority of them are in developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. The phenomenon of child labour in the world remains worrying (Baland and Robinson, 2000; Arat, 2002; Okpukpara and Odurukwe, 2006). Child labour are exploitative and hazardous forms of work which not only compromise their health, education, safety, dignity and morals, but also deny them the right to grow, develop and enjoy their childhood (Suda, 2001; Dessy, and Pallage, 2002).

Hawking in its simplest form is a form of child labour; it is the selling of things on the street, in the markets, and from one place to the other. Hawking by children is a global problem with regional, sub-regional, national and local variations. In Nigeria this is done almost in all the cities and at all the time by young children both males and females (Charles and Charles, 2004). Those burdened with hawking are overwhelmingly on girls and often interferes with their schooling and education (ANPPCAN, 1998). Despite of this, data on the prevalence and magnitude of hawking are inadequate. Ensuring that all children go to school and that their education is of good quality are keys to preventing child labour.

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1.1. CONTEXTUAL ELEMENTS 1.1.1. Girl hawkers and market women For the survey of the girls that engaged in street and market hawking, six major markets were selected in Ibadan; these include Bere / Oja-Oba, Bodija, Gate, Molete, Ogunpa and Oje markets. Thirty girl hawkers were randomly selected in each of the six markets making a total of 180 girls. To assess the perception of adults on involvement of girls in hawking activities, 20 market women (making a total of 120 market women) were randomly selected in each of the six markets used to sample the girl hawkers. Structured questionnaires were administered to both the girl hawkers and market women. Plate 1 present cross section of girl child hawkers on the streets and in markets, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.

1.1.2. Girls in primary and secondary schools Convenient sampling was adopted for the survey of the girls in selected schools. Twenty girls who agreed and were willing to participate in the study were selected in each of the classes. The school administrators granted permission to condut the survey in each of schools involved in the study. The class teacher was also present as observer in the selection process. A total of 540 girls were conveniently selected in Primary Schools (PS), Junior Secondary Schools (JSS) and Senior Secondary Schools (SSS) (that is 30 girls each in 18 schools) out of which 323 girls (59.8% of all the sampled girls) indicated that they engaged in hawking. Questionnaires were then administered to only the girls that engaged in hawking activities in the selected schools. The research objectives were first explained to the girls, then the questions were read one-on-one to the girls with care not to affect their responses. 1.1.3. School administrators ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 20 21 16 12, Fax: (223) 20 21 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun• Congo • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée • Mali • Mauritanie • Niger • Nigeria • Sénégal • Sierra Leone • République Centrafricaine • Togo www.rocare.org/ www.ernwaca.org

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A set of questionnaire was designed and administered to administrators in each of the visited twelve schools to obtain demographic information of the school, assess the view and opinion of the administrators on the impacts of hawking on girls and type of support available in the schools for girls to assist them in their education. The questionnaire generate information on the schools like year of establishment, ratio of girl pupils to boys, number of pupils and teachers. Fifteen out of 18 school administrators completed and return the administered open ended questionnaires giving a response rate of 83.3%. Quantitative information on the selected schools are summarized and presented in Table 1.

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Plate 1: Cross section of girl child hawkers on the streets and in markets, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

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Table 1: Information on selected Primary School, and Junior and Secondary Schools in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria S/N

School Name

1

Ayodele Samuel Memorial Pry Sch, Molete, Ibadan Methodist Pry Sch 1, Bodija, Ibadan St Lukes Demonstration Pry Sch 1, Molete, Ibadan C&S New Eden Model Pry School 1, Mokola, Ibadan St Micheals Basic School 6, Apata, Ibadan C&S New Eden Model Pry School 2, Mokola, Ibadan Adifase High School (Jnr) 1, Apata, Ibadan St Lukes College (Jnr) School 2, Molete, Ibadan St Lukes College (Jnr) School 3, Molete, Ibadan St Gabriel Commercial Secondary School (Jnr), Sabo, Ibadan Ikolaba Grammar School

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Local Government Area

Year established

Population of Male staff

Population of female staff

Population of boys

Population of girls

Number of sampled girls

No of girl that engaged in hawking

Ibadan South East Ibadan North

1954

03

19

200

192

30

28

1955

04

33

206

318

30

15

Ibadan South East Ibadan North

1948

02

16

200

249

30

17

1958

04

39

300

350

30

15

Ibadan South West Ibadan North

2009

04

18

92

82

30

17

1958

04

39

300

350

30

13

Ibadan South West Ibadan South East Ibadan South East Ibadan North

1980

03

21

279

203

30

18

2003

10

07

NA

NA

30

21

2003

NA

NA

NA

NA

30

16

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

30

22

Ibadan North

2004

06

16

134

450

30

21

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12 13 14 15 16

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(Jnr)1, Agodi, Ibadan Oba Akinbiyi Secondary School 2 (Jnr), Mokola, Ibadan Adifase High School (Snr), Apata,Ibadan St Lukes Senior School 2, Molete, Ibadan St Lukes Senior School 1, Molete, Ibadan St Gabriel Commercial Secondary School (Snr), Sabo, Ibadan Oba Akinbiyi Secondary School 2 (Jnr), Mokola, Ibadan Ikolaba Grammar School (Jnr)1, Agodi, Ibadan

Ibadan North

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

30

13

Ibadan South West Ibadan South East Ibadan South East Ibadan North

1980

07

18

291

238

30

28

2006

10

08

238

155

30

14

1980

12

12

NA

NA

30

17

1980

14

11

616

425

30

17

Ibadan North

1980

15

13

292

272

30

14

Ibadan North

1980

18

23

620

830

30

17

540

323

Total

NA = Not available

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1.2. DEFINITION OF TERMS Basic Education: as that level, type and form of learning needed to build firm roots for literacy and numeracy, to inculcate basic life skills and more importantly, to consolidate the skills of learning how to learn. Child labour: work situations where children are compelled to work on a regular basis to earn a living for themselves and their families, and as a result are disadvantaged educationally and socially; where children work in conditions that are exploitative and damaging to their health and to their physical and mental development; where children are separated from their families, often deprived of educational and training opportunities; where children are forced to lead prematurely adult lives Child: internationally defined as any person aged between 5 and 15 years while Nigeria define a child as any person between the age of 5 and 17 years. Education: imparting and acquiring of knowledge through teaching and learning, especially at a school or similar institution Girl: a human female from birth until the age at which she is considered an adult. Girl hawkers: Girls below 18 years that engage in hawking activities Hawking: Hawking is a process of displaying wares for sale from one point to another by the sellers; these wares could be pushed around in wheel barrows or carts, and or carried in flat trays or pans on heads by the sellers. Hawking in its simplest form is a form of child labour. Hosehold chores: all forms of domestic works or tasks that has to be done regularly. Market: a gathering in a public place for buying and selling merchandise or farm products, especially one held regularly Schooling: act of going to school to acquire Street child: any child who may have parents or guardians in the locality or elsewhere but are living and working in the street. Streets: a public road, especially in a town or city, usually lined with buildings

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1.3. PROBLEM STATEMENT According to the International Labour Organization, the number of working children under the age of 14 in Nigeria is estimated at 15 million. However, experts are worried at the increasing rate of tedious jobs that children execute in dangerous circumstances. They include street vendors, beggars, car washers, apprentice mechanics, hairdressers and bus conductors while a large number work as domestic servants and farm hands. The pain is that they do these jobs without education and skills. Research has also shown that children who combine these jobs with studies display poor educational achievements. They also suffer from fatigue, irregular attendance at school, lack of comprehension and motivation, improper socialization, exposure to risk of sexual abuse and likelihood of being involved in crime.

The incidence of school-age girls engaging in hawking is a common phenomenon in Ibadan. School-age girls are observed during school hours to engage in street and market hawking. Meanwhile, studies have shown that due to the economic situations of many low income earning households, children now find themselves contributing to main source of household income (Duraisamy, 2002; Duryea and Arends-Kuenning 2003). Critically, engaging in hawking should be considered negative whereby it is affecting the girl child, most importantly their schooling and educational performance, health, safety, morals and dignity. Long hours spent by the girl child on hawking may affect the hours she ought to have spent on homework and other academic activities, while trekking of long distances during hawking may eventually lead to tiredness, stress and exposure to abuse. Such a child falls asleep while trying to do the academic work at home. Cumulatively, the situation may eventually affect academic performance in school and success in life.

1.4.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1.4.1. Social Support Theory This involves exchange of assistance through social relationships. Social support served as a “protective” factor to people’s vulnerability on the effects of daily hassles or stressful life events. Social Support is associated with how networking helps people cope with stressful events. Besides it can enhance psychological well-being. Social support distinguishes between four types of support (House, 1981). Emotional support is associated with sharing life experiences. It 18

involves the provision of empathy, love, trust and caring. Instrumental support involves the provision of tangible aid and services that directly assist a person in need. Informational support involves the provision of advice, suggestions, and information that a person can use to address problems. Appraisal support involves the provision of information that is useful for selfevaluation purposes: constructive feedback, affirmation and social comparison. A child may perceive care givers to be in difficult financial situation and offer to support the family income through hawking. 1.4.2. Economic Theory The economic theory of child labour justifies child labour in relation to the struggle of poor families to survive and make ends meet. The harsh economic situation in the country predisposes parents to send their children out to work. According to Hindman (2002), parents motivations to send their children to work in America were identified with poverty (low family income),custom, habit, tradition and the absence of schooling. 1.4.3. Social Learning Theory Learning theorists believe that attitude formation results from our experiences, not our genetic inheritance. Through socialization, individuals learn the attitudes, values and behaviour of their culture. Important influences in the process include parents, peers, schools and mass media. When children are young, parents exert a major influence on their attitude towards object or situations; but later peers and the mass media have a greater impact. Bandura (1977) who believes in the learning theory principles, focused on observational learning, otherwise known as social learning theory. This is a process whereby people learn and model the behaviour of others by observing them. In essence, observational learning occurs when we watch what people do and then “model” or imitate that behaviour. Furthermore, market women who hawked wares for their parents as children would also encourage their own children to hawk as well. Such women would not see anything wrong with hawking for their children. Unfortunately a child can learn all sorts of undesired behaviour while hawking, especially if the child spends a larger part of his/her life outside the home. Such children may fail in school, drop out of school and finally end up in the market like their mothers. Market women may also copy what their fellow market women are doing and also decide to engage their own children in hawking merely because their friends are doing so. 19

1.5.

AIM AND OBJCETIVES OF THE STUDY

1.5.1. Aim of the study The aim of the project is to determine the influence of hawking on the schooling of girls in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. 1.5.2. Specific objectives of the study 1. To determine the influence of street and market hawking on schooling of a girl hawkers; 2. To assess the attitude of girls that engage in street and market hawking towards schooling; and 3. To assess the impacts of socio-economic variables of parent/guardian on involvement of girls in hawking.

1.6.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

Children are regarded as the future of any society. Therefore, their welfare is the key to the social and economic development of that society, yet they are the most vulnerable in the society. This is because they are defenseless and depend on the adult to cope with life. This also explains why their affairs must be monitored, more so, as a child’s contribution to the society in adulthood is determined to a large extent by their up-bringing.

Experts express concern over child labour which occurs when children are exposed to long hours of work in dangerous environment, or are entrusted with so much responsibility which affects their psychological balance. Such activities are carried out at the expense of schooling, thereby making them not adequately prepared for the future. Child labour has been known to be mentally, physically, socially and morally dangerous to children and deprives them of opportunities for schooling and development. Many argue that Nigerian children are vulnerable to hawking, due to widespread poverty, large family size and rapid urbanization with deteriorating public service delivery, breakdown in extended family affiliations, marital instability, family disorganization, early marriage for girls, low literacy level, high school dropout rates and lack of enforcement of legal instruments meant to protect children (Champion Newspaper, 2010).

20

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW The International Labour Organization defines child labour as "work situations where children are compelled to work on a regular basis to earn a living for themselves and their families, and as a result are disadvantaged educationally and socially; where children work in conditions that are exploitative and damaging to their health and to their physical and mental development; where children are separated from their families, often deprived of educational and training opportunities; where children are forced to lead prematurely adult lives" (United Nations General Assembly, 1989). The worst forms of child labour are those situations where children work more than nine hours in a day; earn less than a minimum wage or no wages at all; work in hazardous conditions for health and safety; have no access to education; and, work outside of their family's home. World Education and its partners are reaching those children in the worst forms of child labour, including those exploited for the commercial sex industry and other forms of bonded labour in Africa and Asia (Osemwegie 1998; ILO, 2009; World Education, 2011).

2.1. Domestic child workers According to Suda (2001), there are two broad categories of female domestic child workers. One category of girls in domestic service are those who are living with their own families and helping with household chores. Many of them have dropped out of school and others have never enrolled primarily because of poverty, but also as a result of cultural prejudices and institutional arrangements, which underlie gender inequality. Many girls in this category are relatively young compared to those who come to take up jobs in the domestic sector for non-family members. The other category of female child workers are those who are brought in from the rural areas or the urban slums for domestic work. Although the working and living conditions of both categories of child workers may be different, both are involved in dead-end jobs and experience varying forms of abuse and exploitation, including the denial of educational and training opportunities, which could hold the key to their future.

21

The number of domestic child workers and children working in the informal sector are much more difficult to estimate because child labour in these two sectors is largely invisible (Suda, 2001). This invisibility is mainly attributed to the privacy of the domestic sector, the ineffectiveness of legislation, inadequate capacity on the part of the labour inspection unit, paucity of data, cultural values and perceptions as well as lack of public awareness. The problem is compounded by the fact that no legal minimum age of employment has been set in either the informal or the domestic sector (Grootaert, and Patrinos, 1999; Ilahi, 2001). Difficulties experienced by child workers in domestic settings include inadequate food and clothing, lack of a proper place to sleep, inadequate medical care, lack of opportunity for quality education, verbal abuse and sexual harassment (in the case of girls). Such abusive and exploitative working conditions are harmful to the children’s health, safety, morals and dignity. But due to their age, vulnerability and invisibility, domestic child workers are unable to organize themselves to demand better working conditions and therefore continue to suffer sexual, social and economic exploitation and other forms of abuse in the privacy of their employer’s homes and houses.

2.2. Some findings on child labour Information released by OneWorld UK (2010) revealed that there were 215 million children (almost 14% of all the world’s children under 18) working illegally in the eyes of international law in 2008. This includes 115 million children under that age engaged in "hazardous work" which could threaten their safety or health; such as handling chemicals, heavy loads or enduring for long hours. The remaining 100 million child labourers are those aged under 15 - the international minimum age for legal employment – whose tasks are not hazardous but are more substantial than “permitted light work.” Almost all child labour occurs in developing countries, with about 60% engaged in agriculture. Other occupations include domestic service, factory production and backstreet workshops. Over 25% of children in Sub-Saharan Africa and 13% in Asia remain trapped within the cycle of poverty of which child labour is part. The worst forms of child labour according to OneWorld report include those children caught up in criminal activities such as prostitution, military enrolment, slavery (such as bonded labour), or trafficking (which involves the removal of a child from its home, often involving deception and payment, for a wide range of exploitative purposes). 22

The literature on child schooling (Grootaert and Patrinos, 1999; Dreze and Geeta, 2001; Kochar, 2001; Duraisamy, 2002) reveals the following stylised facts. Firstly, parental education has a strong positive influence on schooling outcomes and in particular for the girl child. The impact of mother’s education is more pronounced for the girl child than for boys. Secondly, the economic well being of the household as measured by income or wealth indicators affects the likelihood of going to school. Poorer households are prone to income shocks and unable to insure themselves. Credit constraints prevent them from borrowing. They are less likely to send their children to school and more likely to pull the children out of school in the event of an adverse shock. Hence, there is also a link between the occupation of the household head and the likelihood of going to school. Thirdly, sibling rivalry too is important. Girls are likely to be pulled out of school in order to help with household chores. Fourthly, school availability and school quality are important determinants of school enrolment and attendance.

Baland and Robinson (2000) and Ranjan (2001) link the phenomenon of working children to imperfect capital markets; children may end up going to work in part because their families are unable to borrow against future earnings to finance schooling. Dessy and Pallage (2001) trace child labor to the absence of coordination between parental decisions to invest in their children’s human capital and firms’ decisions to invest in skill intensive technologies. Dessy and Pallage (2002) discovered that parents recognize the harm the Worst Forms can do to their children, but may send their children into Worst-Forms jobs anyway if they view the higher wage paid by those jobs as compensating for the harm. Particularly in the context of extreme poverty, the compensating differential for the harm done by the Worst-Forms of Child Labor may be enough to make that harm preferable to the harm that might be done by accepting a lower paid job and suffering a dismally low material standard of living. 2.3. Child welfare as development indicator Children are regarded as the most vulnerable in society, therefore, their welfare in a society is an index of social and economic development of that society (Okpukpara et al., 2006). The more important reason why child welfare has to be monitored is because child contribution to the society in adulthood is determined to a large extent by their treatment in their childhood (Ray, 1998). Crucial as this matter is, child welfare is included in the Millennium Development Goals 23

(MGD) (UNESCO, 2004).Girl’s education has been considered as one of the best investments in international development (Thomas, 2002). An association exists between improvements in national development indicators and an increase in the number of girls receiving formal schooling, independent of improvements in academic quality (Rugh, 2000). Educated women are more likely to lead productive lives, support their families, take good care of their children, and practice healthy behaviors than women with little or no education. Because of these benefits, strong interest exists in girls’ education programs, specifically within the global reproductive health sector. Reproductive health programs identified the importance of educating young girls before their sexual debut through participatory, community-based approaches. Repeat grades due to the difficult curriculum or having to perform household chores in lieu of schoolwork was one of the identified reasons why girl child drop out of school. In addition, parents place a low value on girls’ education, which contributes to their increased drop out rate. Girls who cannot overcome these barriers are often denied the chance to enjoy healthy and productive adult lives (USAID, 1998).

2.4. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme in Nigeria The national policy on education in Nigeria presents Basic Education as an ambitious educational program aimed to eradicate illiteracy, ignorance and poverty (Adesina, 2000; Babalola, 2000; Adepoju and Fabiyi, 2007). It is in the real sense directed to stimulate and accelerate national development, political consciousness and national integration (Pai, 2000). The Federal Government and people of Nigeria tend to achieve this aim by providing free universal basic education for every Nigerian child of school-going age, out-of-school children, adolescents, and adults (age 15 and above), with quest for relevance and quality of numeracy, literacy, communication and life skills, as well as ethical, moral and civic values (Nigeria, 2000; Ango et al. 2003). The UBE Programme objectives include: •

Ensuring an uninterrupted access to 9-year formal education by providing FREE, and COMPULSORY basic education for every child of school-going age under. a. Six years of Primary Education

24

b. Three years of Junior Secondary Education Providing Early Childhood Care Development and Education (ECCDE) •

Reducing school drop-out and improving relevance, quality and efficiency; and

•

Acquisition of literacy, numeracy, life skills and values for lifelong education and useful living.

2.5. Education and Nigerian children As revealed by UNICEF (2010), 40% of Nigerian children aged 6-11 do not attend any primary school with the Northern region recording the lowest school attendance rate in the country, particularly for girls. Despite a significant increase in net enrollment rates in recent years, it is estimated that about 4.7 million children of primary school age are still not in school. Another challenge in Nigeria is the issue of girls’ education. In the North particularly, the gender gap remains particularly wide and the proportion of girls to boys in school ranges from 1 girl to 2 boys to 1 to 3 in some States. Many children in many parts of the country do not attend school because their labour is needed to either help at home or to bring additional income into the family. Many families cannot afford the associated costs of sending their children to school such as uniforms and textbooks. Even when children enrol in schools, many do not complete the primary cycle. Thirty percent of pupils drop out of primary school and only 54% transit to Junior Secondary Schools. Reasons for this low completion rate include child labour, economic hardship and early marriage for girls.

25

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1. Study Area 3.1.1. Oyo State Ibadan is the state capital of Oyo state, the largest truly indigenous urban centre in Africa South of the Sahara and dominated by Yoruba people (the largest cultural group in Africa) (Udo, 1994). Ibadan was the centre of administration of the old Western Region, Nigeria in the days of the British colonial rule, and main commercial centre of the rich cocoa belt of South-West Nigeria (Wikipedia, 2010). The city hosts the first university in Nigeria among other academic and research institutions. According to the information provided on the website of Oyo state government, aside the private schools, there are 2,105 Public Primary Schools (Regular and Special), 57 Nomadic and Migrant Farmers’ school, 548 Junior Secondary Schools, and 432 Senior Secondary Schools in Oyo state (Oyo State Government, 2010). Many of the people in the core of Ibadan live below poverty line, send their children to public schools, and engage many of the household members in activities that could ease their economic situations. It is therefore a common phenomenon to observe girl child (as well as the boys) engaging in different child labour activities in homes and on the streets. Due to the concentration of public schools mixed with child labour activities, it is pertinent to determine the influence of increasing hawking and household chores on the educational performance of the girl child in Ibadan.

3.2. Target population The targeted populations for the study were girls (below the age 18 years) that engage in street or market hawking in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The Nigeria education system consists of six years of primary school, three years of junior secondary school, three years of senior secondary school, and four years of university education leading to a bachelor’s degree (popularly known as 6-3-3-4 system). Focus for this study was the first three levels of education. The girls were therefore sampled in selected Primary School (PS), Junior Secondary Schools (JSS) and Senior Secondary Schools (SSS). Also, the girls were sampled in selected streets and markets in the 26

city. In addition, Market Women and Administrators of the selected schools were sampled to obtain their opinion on the impacts of hawking on schooling of the school-age girls.

3.3. Data collection Primary data for the study was generated through the use of structured questionnaire while secondary data involved review of past studies on child labour and hawking activities. Four sets of questionnaire were designed for each of the three focused level of education and the last questionnaire for the school administrator.

3.4.

Training of Team Members and Research Assistants

The research team members were trained on the research methodologies and data collection techniques by project mentor and the team leader. The questions were discussed among the team members and research assistants, and several interpretations were made to avoid misunderstandings. The training exercise was conducted between 16th – 23rd July, 2010. Preliminary survey was conducted on selected girls, the field observations and responses were discussed and amendment made prior to actual data collection.

3.5.

Limitation of the study

There was an industrial strike that paralysed the whole activities in public primary and secondary schools in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. This lasted for three months and put a halt to our data collection process. The research team continued data collection as soon as normal activities were restored.

27

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. GIRL HAWKERS IN-SCHOOL, ON THE STREETS AND IN MARKETS 4.1.1. Demographic information of the girls As shown in Table 2, minimum age of the sampled girls on the selected streets and in markets was 6 years while that of junior and senior secondary schools was 7 years each. The ages with highest frequency for the girls in PS, JSS, SSS, and on the streets and markets were 10 years (28.6%), 13 years (25.2%), 16 years (23.4%) and 14 years (23.9%) respectively. The mean age of the sampled girl hawkers on the streets and in markets was 13.3 years while the mean ages of girl hawkers in PS, JSS and SSS were 11.4 years, 13.4 years and 16.1 years respectively (Table 3). It was discovered that a higher concentration of the girl hawkers were in late primary school and early junior secondary school classes than in early primary school and late senior secondary school classes.

As shown in Fig. 1, many of the girls in the PS (88.6%), JSS (90.1%), SSS (88.8%), and on the streets and in local markets (73.9%) indicated that they were not the only girls in their household. It means that other girls were in the households with likelihood of engaging in hawking and household chores. Plate 2 shows girls of the same parents hawking in a local market in Ibadan. Household size for the girl hawkers in PS (54.3%), JSS (54.1), SSS (53.3%), and on Streets and in Markets (64.4%) were between 4 – 6 individuals (Table 4). Contrary to general believe that child hawkers are from large households (Lungwangwa and Macwan’gi, 1996), this study discovered that majority of the girl hawkers in Ibadan did not come from large household size. Girls from small or medium household size also engaged in hawking. Sixty one percent of household of girls in PS, 59.8% of those in SSS and 64.4% of those on streets and in markets practiced Islam while 52.4% of girls in SSS practiced Christianity (Table 4). On who the girls are living with, more than 82% of all the sampled girls lived with their parents. None of the girls indicated that they were living with employer. For the girls that indicated that 28

they lived with their relation/guardian (around 15%), the main reason was because their parents asked them to do so (Table 4). Some of the girls that indicated that they stayed with their parents did not actually live with the biological parent(s). In line with the culture of the study area, any woman who the child is living with and old enough to be the child’s mother is fondly call “mummy” confusing this as their biological mother. The child too accepts this and says it to outsiders. Some of the relations/guardian were elderly people and grand parents of which the girls were to stay with in other to take care, run errand as well as assist in doing household chores. Other social issues that were found to be responsible for children engaging in child domestic labour include death in the family, giving rise to orphanhood (Oyaide, 2000). Large number of orphans were found to be working in private homes, as either paid or unpaid domestics, and most of them are girls. Table 2: Age distribution of the sampled girl hawkers in selected Primary and Secondary Schools, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria Age of the girls 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Total

Primary School Freq 1 3 4 30 17 27 12 7 2 1 0 1 105

% 1.0 2.9 3.8 28.6 16.2 25.7 11.4 6.7 1.9 1.0 0 1.0 100.0

Junior Secondary School Freq % 7 6.3 27 24.3 28 25.2 22 19.8 21 18.9 5 4.5 0 0 1 0.9 111 100.0

Senior Secondary School Freq % 2 1.9 2 1.9 11 10.3 24 22.4 25 23.4 19 17.7 24 22.4 107 100

Girls in Markets and on Streets Freq %

2 1 1 3 14 11 19 37 43 24 13 10 2

1.1 0.6 0.6 1.7 7.8 6.1 10.6 20.6 23.9 13.3 7.2 5.6 1.1

180

100

See appendix for details on the ages of the girls

29

Table 3: Summary of age of the girl hawkers in Ibadan Sources of girls 1 2 3 4

Markets and Streets Primary School Junior Secondary Schools Senior Secondary Schools

Minimum age (Years) 6 7

Maximum age (Years) 18 18

Mean age (Years) 13.3 11.4

Std. Deviation 2.169 1.7

11.0 12.0

18.0 19.0

13.4 16.1

1.4 1.56

Fig. 1: Response on if the girls are the only female in household

30

Plate 2: Girls of the same parents hawking in a local market, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

31

Table 4: Demographic information of the sampled girl hawkers in selected Primary and Secondary Schools, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria S/N

Demographic variables

1

Household size 1–3 4–6 7–9 > 10 Household religion - Christianity - Islam - Traditional Person living with - Parent - Relation/Guardian - Employer - Alone Reason(s) for living with relation/guardian - Parents are dead - Parents asked me to live with Relation/Guardian - Others - Do not leave with Relation

2

3

4

Primary Schools (PS) Freq % n = 105

Junior Secondary Schools (JSS) Freq % n = 111

Senior Secondary Schools (SSS) Freq % n = 107

Streets and Local Markets Freq % n = 180

7 57 33 8

6.7 54.3 31.4 7.6

7 60 32 12

6.3 54.1 28.8 10.8

21 57 23 6

19.6 53.3 21.5 5.6

37 116 20 7

20.6 64.4 11.1 3.9

41 64 0

39.0 61.0 0

58 53 0

52.3 47.7 0

43 64 0

40.2 59.8 0

67 112 1

37.2 62.2 0.6

87 18 0 0

82.9 17.1 0 0

95 16 0 0

85.6 14.4 0 0

95 12 0 0

88.8 11.2 0 0

148 32 0 0

82.2 17.8 0 0

2 15

1.9 14.3

2 11

1.8 9.9

2 15

1.9 14.0

5 23

16.1 74.2

4 84

3.8 80.0

2 96

1.8 86.5

1 89

0.9 83.2

3 0

9.7 0

32

4.1.2 Occupation and Education of the person the girls are living with On the occupation of the person(s) that the girl hawkers on streets and in markets were living with (Table 5), majority of their fathers (52.9%), mothers (90.7), guardian/relation (100%) were marketers. Plates 3 shows a girl hawker staying with her mother at a local market selling food commodities while Plate 4 shows girls hawing cooked food with their mother along a street. Living with guardian has to do with the culture of the people in the study area. For instance, it’s a way of taking care of the elderly by allowing the grandchildren to stay with such an elderly people. Due to inability of the grandparents to generate enough income for their sustainability, the girls are exposed to street and market hawking to augment the family income. Some of the girls said that the person living with just displayed the wares along the road since the government has destroyed their shop or kiosk because it was too close to the road or they do not have enough money to rent one. Joining the parent or guardian in the marketing activities has a great influence on the attitude of the girls toward schooling.

Table 5: Occupation and education of person(s) the girl hawkers on Streets and in Markets is living with Variables Father Mother Relation/guardian Freq % Freq % Freq % Occupation 22 16.2 5 3.1 0 0 • Civil Servant 72 52.9 147 90.7 19 100 • Marketers • Others Sub-total Education • No formal education • Primary • Secondary • Tertiary • Do not know Sub-total

42 136

30.9 100.0

10 162

6.2 100.0

0 19

0 100.0

10 21 56 7 42 136

7.4 15.4 41.2 5.2 30.9 100.0

14 40 43 7 58 162

8.6 24.7 26.5 4.3 35.8 100.0

4 6 4 0 6 20

20.0 30 20 0 30 100.0

About 35% of the girls did not know the educational status of the person they are living with (Table 5). For those that knew the educational status of the person living with, secondary education was ranked highest for father (41.2) and mother (26.5%), and primary for guardian / relation. Also, for the girl child hawkers sampled in the three categories of schools, the 33

occupation of majority of their father, mother and relation/guardian they were living with was marketing (Table 6). As revealed in Table 7, many of the girls sampled in the both PS and JSS did not know the educational status of their parents and guardian. For the girls sampled in senior secondary schools, 34.6% and 46.7% indicated that their father and mother had secondary education respectively. Parental education and family income significantly increase the probability of children’s school attendance and reduce the likelihood of children participating in work. It was discovered that majority of the girls did not know the educational status of their parents and/or guardian they are living with. It could be deduced that majority of the girls lack education motivational factor at the home front and this is believed to have emanated from the educational status of the person the girl was living with. Mother’s education exerts a much stronger effect of increasing school enrollment and reducing child labour. Findings of the CIET (1997) first cycle, gender in primary education, undertaken in Balochistan Province, Pakistan from December 1996 to May 1997 as part of Government of Pakistan-UNICEF country programme of cooperation 1996-1998 showed that a child in a household where the mother has a say in education is twice as likely to be enrolled in school compared to a child in a household where the mother has no say. This effect is even greater when the father’s opinion is against the girl’s education. A girl whose the mother has a say is then three times more likely to be currently enrolled in school compared with the girl whose mother has no say. Mother’s education is another key factor of better enrollment of girls in schools. The great majority of mothers (96%) in rural areas have no education (76% in urban areas). A girl whose mother has received education is three times more likely to be enrolled as compared to a child whose mother has no education. This effect is greater on the girls living in low income areas. A girl with an educated mother is then six times more likely to be enrolled in schools than girls whose mother has no education. If those mothers not educated at all were to receive education through adult literacy programmes, the enrollment rate of their daughters would increased by 33% (rural areas) and 23% (urban areas). A young rural girl whose mother is not in favour of sending her to school, perhaps because she would do fewer chores and would not be able to use her education after her marriage, is twice as likely not to enroll in the school as compared to a child whose mother is in favour (CIET, 1997). 34

This was illustrated in an interview conducted by Tilley-Gyado (2009) on the impacts of girl child hawking in Nigeria. Ramota, 7 year old, helps her mother in the boli (roasted plantain) trade. She does not go to school. Her mother, fondly called ‘Mama Ramota', withdrew Ramota from primary school after a term, saying that it was a waste of time and money. "Wetin dem go teach am?" Mama Ramota asks. "She fit sidon here, help me sell boli. That way, she go dey learn busi-ness." (What will they teach her there? She can sit down next to me selling boli and learn how to run her own business). Ramota's mother's logic is this: at age 7, Ramota already has sound arithmetic skills. She knows exactly how many pieces of roasted plantain a hundred naira note can buy. She can give the right balance for any number of roasted peanuts that you may care to purchase. The sad thing is that, as far as her arithmetic goes, this is probably as good as it will get. When asked if she enjoys selling boli, Ramota stays silent. Her mother prompts her; half cajoling, half threatening."I like it," Ramota replies meekly in Yoruba. Ramota's story is experienced by millions of other children in Nigeria.

35

Table 6: Occupation of person the girl child hawkers is living with Primary Schools (PS)

Junior Secondary Schools (JSS)

Senior Secondary Schools (SSS)

Occupation Father

Mother

i.

Civil servant

Freq 12

% 11.4

Freq 0

% 0

Relation/ guardian Freq % 1 1.0

Father

Mother

ii.

Marketer

34

32.4

86

81.9

6

5.7

60

54.1

86

77.5

6

5.4

59

55.1

89

83.2

7

6.5

iii.

Others

51

48.6

11

10.5

1

1.0

3

2.7

1

0.9

0

0

15

14.0

3

2.8

0

0

iv.

No response

8

7.6

8

7.6

97

92.4

10

9.0

14

12.6

103

92.8

9

8.4

8

7.5

99

92.5

Freq 38

% 34.2

Freq 10

% 9.0

Relation/ guardian Freq % 2 1.8

Father

Mother

Freq 24

% 22.4

Freq 7

% 6.5

Relation/ guardian Freq % 1 0.9

Table 7: Occupation of person the girl child hawkers is living with

Freq 0

Primary Schools (PS) Mother Relation/ guardian % Freq % Freq % 0 2 1.9 2 1.9

Junior Secondary Schools (JSS) Father Mother Relation/ guardian Freq % Freq % Freq % 0 0 0 0 2 1.8

Freq 2

Senior Secondary Schools (SSS) Mother Relation/ guardian % Freq % Freq % 1.9 1 0.9 0

6

5.7

11

10.5

1

1.0

5

4.5

12

10.8

1

0.9

13

12.1

13

12.1

1

0.9

Secondary

26

24.8

28

26.7

3

2.9

30

27.0

30

27.0

2

1.8

37

34.6

50

46.7

6

5.6

iv.

Tertiary

18

17.1

10

9.5

1

1.0

27

24.3

21

18.9

3

2.7

25

23.4

16

15.0

1

0.9

v.

Do not know

47

44.8

45

42.9

1

1.0

40

36.0

34

30.6

0

0

20

18.7

18

16.8

1

0.9

vi.

No response

8

7.6

9

8.6

97

92.4

9

8.1

14

12.6

103

92.8

10

9.3

9

8.4

98

91.6

S/N

Level of Education

i. ii.

No formal education Primary

iii.

Father

Father

36

Plate 3: School-age girl discussing with her mother at the a market selling yam

Plates 4: School-age girls hawking cooked food with their mother on a street 37

4.1.3. Daily activities that girl hawkers do after closing from school To find out what the sampled girls that indicated that they carry out hawking normally do after closing from school every day, a question was pose to them to that effect and their responses presented in Table 8. It was discovered that more than half of the girls (50.5%) sampled in PS carry out hawking activities immediately after closing from school; 24.8% join their mother or guardian in the market before hawking later in the day; while only 9.5% go for private leson. For girls in JSS, 31.5% join their mother and/or guardian/relation in the market before hawking later in the day; 19.8% go for private lesson; while 18.0% carry out hawking activities immediately after closing from school. For girls in SSS, 36.4% go for private lesson immediately after closing from school; 32.7% join their mother or guardian in the market before hawking later in the day; while 15.9% engaged in hawking immediately after closing from school (Table 8). Table 8: Daily activities of girl child after closing from school S/N

Activities

1 2 3

Carry out hawking activities Go for private lesson/coaching Join my mother or guardian in the market Care for my younger ones Prepare meals for the family Others

4 5 6

Primary School (PS) Freq % n = 105 53 50.5 10 9.5 26 24.8 1 2 13

1.0 1.9 12.4

Junior Secondary School (JSS) Freq % n = 111 20 18.0 22 19.8 35 31.5 18 4 12

16.2 3.6 10.8

Senior Secondary School (SSS) Freq % n = 107 17 15.9 39 36.4 35

32.7

7 4 5

6.5 3.7 4.7

4.1.4. Goods Hawked by the Girl Child Top of the commodities hawked by the girl child on the selected streets and markets in Ibadan was sachet water (20.1%). Majority of the girls in PS hawked food stuff (17.4%); JSS (24.3%) and SSS (25.2%) hawked provisions (Table 9).

38

Table 9: Top Ten Commodities Hawked by Girls in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

S/N

Market and Street Girls Hawkers

1 2

Commodities Pure water Food stuff

Freq 36 23

3

Cooked food

21

% 20.11 12.84

Girls Hawkers in Primary Schools

Girls Hawkers in Junior Secondary Schools

Girls Hawkers in Senior Secondary Schools

Commodities Food stuff Soup ingredients Cooked food

Commodities Provision Foodstuff

Freq 27 19

% 25.2 17.8

Bread

7

6.5

Clothes

6

5.6

Drinks Drugs Kerosene Fruits

5 5 5 5

4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7

Hair dressing

4

3.7

Puff-puff

3

2.8

Pepper Vegetable

2 2

1.9 1.9

Freq 17 12

% 17.4 11.5

Commodities Provision Food stuff

Freq 27 25

11

10.7

7

4

22.52

8 7 5 5

7.7 6.7 4.8 4.8

Soup ingredients Clothes, shoes and bags Cooked food Bread Fish Pure water

4

3.9

Fruits

11.73 4

Soup ingredients

18

5 6 7 8

Snacks Soft drinks Fruits Bread

17 10 9 8

9

Provision

6

Kerosene 10.05 9.50 5.58 5.028 4.47 3.35

10 11 12

Fish (Smoked, iced, fried) Sanitary pad Kerosene

6 4 3

3.35 2.23 1.67

Provision Bread Pure water Clothes, shoes and bag Soap and detergent Biscuits Plantain Coconut

% 24.32

9

8.6

6.31 7 5 4 4 4

6.31 4.50 3.60 3.60 3.60 3.60

4 4 2

3.8 3.8 1.9

Snacks Medicine Soft drink

3 3 3

2.70 2.70 2.70

39

Table 10: Daily Amount Generated by Girls from Hawking Market and Street Girls Hawkers

Girls Hawkers in Primary Schools

Girls Hawkers in Junior Secondary Schools

Amounts (N) 200 500 300 400 100 250 150 600 2000 350 2500 1000

Amounts (N) 600.00 500.00 200.00 100.00 1500.00 400.00 1000.00 300.00 350.00 750.00 800.00 900.00

Amounts (N) 1000.00 500.00 5000.00 1500.00 2500.00 200.00 2000.00 250.00 300.00 1200.00 3000.00 600.00

Girls Hawkers in Senior Secondary Schools

S/N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Freq 21 19 13 11 10 9 8 8 8 7 6 5

% 11.7 10.6 7.2 6.1 5.6 5.0 4.4 4.4 4.4 3.9 3.3 2.8

Freq 14 10 9 7 7 5 5 4 3 3 3 3

% 13.3 9.5 8.6 6.7 6.7 4.8 4.8 3.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.9

Freq 21 17 15 8 8 6 5 3 3 3 3 2

% 18.9 15.3 13.5 7.2 7.2 5.4 4.5 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 1.8

Amounts (N) 5000.00 1000.00 200.00 2500.00 3000.00 500.00 1500.00 100.00 2000.00 300.00 6000.00 150.00

Freq 19 12 9 9 9 8 8 5 5 3 3 2

% 17.8 11.2 8.4 8.4 8.4 7.5 7.5 4.7 4.7 2.8 2.8 1.9

Table 11: Summary of Daily Amount Generated by Girl Hawkers Girls hawkers Streets and Local Markets Primary Schools Junior Secondary Schools Senior Secondary Schools

Currency Naira (N) USD Naira (N) USD Naira (N) USD Naira (N) USD

Minimum 50 0.3 100.0 0.7 200.0 1.32 50.0 0.3

Maximum 3,000 19.7 10,000.0 65.8 10,000.0 65.8 17,000.0 111.8

Mean 608.2 4.0 995.7 6.5 2,025.1 13.3 2,300.2 15.1

Std. Deviation 675.3 4.4 1,318.2 8.7 2,072.9 13.7 2,327.1 15.3

N1 = USD 152 40

4.1.5. Daily amount generated by Girl Child Hawkers The frequency of the amount generated daily by the sampled girls are presented in Table 10. Many of the girls on the streets and in markets (11.7%) indicated that that they generated N200 on daily basis, 13.3% of the girls in PS indicated N600, 18.9% of the girls in JSS indicated N1,000, while 17.8% of the girls in SSS indicated N5,000. The minimum amount generated daily by the girl child hawkers on the streets and in markets in Ibadan was N50 while the maximum amount was N3,000 with an average of N608.3 (±675) (approx. US$4.0 (±4.4) daily (Table 10). A girl child hawker in PS generated minimum amount of N100 from hawking, maximum amount of N10,000 and daily on the average realized N995.7(±1,318.2) (approx. US$6.5(±8.7). The average amount realized daily by girl child hawker sampled in JSS was N2,025.1 (±2,072.9) USD$13.3(±13.7) and that of SSS was N2,300 (±2,327.1) (approx. USD$15.1(±15.3) with a maximum amounts of N10,000 and N17,000 respectively (Table 11). 4.1.6. Hawking by the girls Table 12 shows that about 63.8% of the girl hawkers on the streets and in the markets indicated that they like hawking and top of the reasons for 78.3% of them was that the activity was to assist their family financially. Some of the girls indicated that it is fun and interesting when carrying out hawking (5.4%) while 4.7% said it is training for the future. Seventy nine percent (79%) of the girls hawked after closing from school and 70.6% hawked daily. About 11.4% hawked during industrial strike action and/or during holiday period. For the girl hawkers in schools, 100%, 100% and 90.7% in PS, JSS and SSS indicated that they like hawking respectively. Top on the reasons why the girls in PS (81.0%) and JSS (48.6%) like was that it was to assist their family financially, while 41.1% in SSS indicated that hawking is training for the future. More than 70% of all the sampled girls hawked after school hours and on daily basis (Table12). As reported by Okonko and Charles (2004), child hawking as a variant of child labour is a product of the circumstance that emanate from economic hardships since the last quarter of the twentieth century. The daily monetary contributions of the girl child in homes cannot be underestimated. In line with the social support theory, the child hawkers perceived that their mothers/guardian are in difficult financial situation and offered to support the family income from the proceeds generated through hawking. The child hawkers thus provide instrumental 41

support for their parents or caregivers. Even though the support may be at a cost to the child, it is difficult for the child to make informed decision because of the young age or see to the future that school work may suffer untold damage leading to dropping out of school finally. Due to the harsh economic conditions in Nigeria, household are forced to engage their children in child labour – hawking in this case. This fact has been proven in the economic theory that “child labour is in relation to the struggle of poor families to survive and make ends meet”. As discovered by Oyaide (2000), the fundamental reason why children were working was parental poverty, with 81% of the child workers said that they were working because their parents could not provide basic needs of the family. As a result, many children are working in order to contribute to the family budget. An instance of this was informed by a girl hawker thus: My parents are both University graduates and are working with Oyo State Government as secondary school teachers. I started hawking when Oyo State government refuse to pay my parents salary for several months and there is nothing to feed on at home. I decided on my own to help them financially by hawking. Here is a recount of a petty trader at Oja-Oba in Ibadan concerning the economic situation in her household and financial assistance of her daughter by hawking: “My children are engaged in street hawking because I am a widow with 3 children. My first child is a girl and 11 years old. She hawks and also joins me in the market to sell. If my daughter does not assist me in selling, the family would not have sufficient money for food, let alone school fees for her and her younger siblings. Hawking is now affecting the academic performance of my daughter.” Child domestic labour is therefore one of the ways by which families cope with poverty. Family poverty however is an outcrop of societal pobverty. The poor economic condition of the country is resulting in many children having to work instead of schooling or those in school combining selling activities with schooling. Children were also dropping out or unable to enroll in school, and engaging in child labour as alternative activity to schooling because of the inability of parents to pay the PTA or buy school materials like uniform, books and other writing materials. Such adverse effects include the elimination of children from poor families from education.

42

Table 12: Frequency table showing rate of and reason for hawking by girls in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria S/N

Period

1

Do you like hawking? - Yes - No Sub-total Reasons for hawking - To assist my family financially - It is training for the future - It is fun and interesting when carrying out - Others - No response Sub-total When do you hawk? - Before school - Sometimes during school - After school - Before and after school - Strike / Holiday period - Weekend only - Stopped going to school Sub-total How many times do you hawk per week? - Daily - Once a week - Twice a week - Thrice a week - Weekend only - Strike / Holiday period Sub-total

2

3

4

Girl hawkers on Streets and Markets Freq %

Girls in Primary School Freq %

Girls in Junior Secondary Schools Freq %

Girls in Senior Secondary Schools Freq %

115 65 180

63.8 36.2 100.0

105 0 105

100 0 100

111 0 111

100 0 100

97 10 107

90.7 9.3 100

101 6 7 15 0 129

78.3 4.7 5.4 11.6 0 100

85 3 4 2 11 105

81.0 2.9 3.8 1.9 10.5 100

54 35 3 0 19 111

48.6 31.5 2.7 0 17.1 100

24 44 10 3 26 107

22.4 41.1 9.3 2.8 24.3 100

0 0 139 6 20 9 2 176

0 0 79.0 3.4 11.4 5.1 1.1 100.0

1 0 99 5 0 0 0 105

1.0 0 94.3 4.8 0 0 0 100

0 1 108 2 0 0 0 111

0 0.9 97.3 1.8 0 0 0 100

2 3 95 7 0 0 0 107

1.9 2.8 88.8 6.5 0 0 0 100

127 2 2 10 19 20 180

70.6 1.1 1.1 5.6 10.5 11.1 100.0

87 2 6 5 5 0 105

82.9 1.9 5.7 4.8 4.8 0 100

59 7 11 5 29 0 111

53.1 6.3 9.9 4.5 26.1 0 100

64 7 3 6 27 0 107

59.8 6.5 2.8 5.6 25.2 0 100

43

4.1.7. Household dependence on the money generated by girl child hawkers As presented in Table 13, more than 80% of all the girls indicated that their mother collects the money realized from hawking. Only 10.0% of the girl hawkers on the streets and in the markets, and 8.4% in SSS indicated that they spent the money themselves.

Apart from 52.3% of the girls in SSS that indicated that their family did not depend totally on the money realized from hawking, more than 70% of the girls on the streets and in markets, and those in PS and junior SSS indicated that their families depended on the money. Majority of the girls indicated that they hawking money was used to buy household basic needs like food, cloth, etc. some also indicated that the money was used to send them to school (Table 13).

44

Table 13: Person that collects the money generated by girl child hawkers Girl hawkers on Streets and Markets Freq % n = 180

Freq n = 105

%

Persons that collect the money generated through hawking from girl child - Mother - Father - Sister - I spent it myself - Guardian Sub-total

152 1 2 18 7 180

84.4 0.6 1.1 10.0 3.9 100.0

88 0 6 3 8 105

Does household depend on the money generated from hawking by girl child? - Yes - No Sub-total

148 32 180

82.3 17.8 100.0

What the money is used for by the household - Buy household basic needs (food, cloth, etc) - Pay house rent - Send me to school - Others - No response Sub-total

124 4 25 12 15 180

68.9 2.2 13.9 6.7 8.3 100.0

Variables

1

2

3

Girls in Primary School

Girls in Junior Secondary Schools Freq % n = 111

Girls in Senior Secondary Schools Freq n = 107

%

83.8 0 5.7 2.9 7.6 100

102 1 2 3 3 111

91.9 0.9 1.8 2.7 2.7 100

87 8 1 9 2 107

81.3 7.5 0.9 8.4 1.8 100

101 4 105

96.2 3.8 100

79 32 111

71.2 28.8 100

51 56 107

47.7 52.3 100

78 0 15 10 2 105

74.3 0 14.3 9.5 1.9 100

36 2 40 3 30 111

32.4 1.8 36.0 2.7 27.0 100

31 0 26 6 44 107

29.0 0 24.3 5.6 41.1 100

45

4.1.8. Effects of Hawking on Schooling of the Girls 4.1.8.1. Schooling of girl hawkers on streets and in markets Many of the girl hawkers sampled on the streets and in the markets (96.7%) were attending schools, while the remaining 3.3% that were not attending school stopped going mainly due to lack of money (Table 14). Fifty-three percent of the girls indicated that hawking did not affect their schooling while 46.7% confirmed that hawking negatively affected their schooling. Table 14: Effects of hawking on schooling and education of the girls S/N Variables Freq % 1 Do you attend school while you hawk? - Yes 174 96.7 - No 6 3.3 Sub-total 180 100.0 2 If not attending school, did you stopped or never attend? - Stopped going to school 6 100 - Never attend school 0 0 Sub-total 6 100.0 3 Reasons for not attending school - No money 6 100 - Parents or guardian refuse to send 0 0 - I have no interest 0 0 Sub-total 6 100.0 4 Do you think hawking is affecting your schooling? - Yes 84 46.7 - No 96 53.3 Sub-total 180 100.0

4.1.8.2. Effects of hawking on schooling of girls sampled in schools About 53.3% of girls on the streets and in the markets indicated that hawking never prevent them from doing homework but 25.6% said hawking sometimes prevent that from doing homework. For girls in the three levels of schools, more than 60% indicated that hawking never prevent them from doing their homeworks. More than 50% (more than 90% in some cases) of the responses obtained from all the girls both in schools and on the streets and in markets indicated that hawking never make them fail at school; never make them tired; never prevent them from 46

reading; never occupy their time; never make them sleepy; never discourage them from going to school; and never make them hungry.

4.1.9. Punishment for not hawking More than half (52.2%) of the sampled girl hawkers on the streets and in markets in Ibadan indicated that they are punished for not hawking. Ranking on top of the punishment that the girl child was subjected to was flogging (63.8%); this was followed by abusive words / scolding from parents or guardian/relation leaving with (Table 15). Table 15: Punishment subjected girl child to for not hawking in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria S/N 1

2

Variables Do you get punished for not hawking? - Yes - No Sub-total Type of punishments - Not pay my school levy (PTA, etc) - Not give me money to school - Flogging - Abusive words / Scolding Sub-total

Freq

%

94 86 180

52.2 47.8 100.0

10 14 60 15 94

5.3 14.9 63.8 15.9 100.0

4.1.10. Correlation of frequency of hawking per week and effect of hawking on schooling of girl hawkers The result of correlation (Table 16) on frequency of hawking per week by the girls was significant with effect of hawking on schooling of the girl hawkers. This means that engaging in hawking activities by the girls in Ibadan actually affected their schooling and by extension their overall education. Table 16: Correlation of Frequency of Hawking and Effect of Hawking on Schooling of Girl Hawkers Variables Effect of hawking on schooling When the child normally hawk Pearson Correlation 0.181* (Before, during or after school Sig. (2-tailed) 0.015 hours) N 180 * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 47

The correlation results (as presented in Table 17) reveals that the frequency of hawking of girl hawkers on the streets and in markets in Ibadan was significantly dependent on a girl getting tired from hawking (t = 1.770; p = 0.000); significantly dependent on prevention of the girls from reading (t = 0.208; p = 0.005); significantly dependent on occupying of girl’s time (t = 0.248; p = 001); and significantly dependent on making of the girls hungry (t = 0.172; p = 0.021). Table 17: Frequency of Hawking per week and Influence of Hawking on Schooling of Girl Hawkers on Streets and in Markets in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria S/N Independent Variables Correlation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Hawking prevents me from doing my homework Hawking makes me fail at school Hawking makes me tired Hawking prevents me from reading Hawking occupies my time Hawking makes me sleepy in class Hawking discourages me from going to school Hawking makes me hungry

Pearson

Sig.

0.124 0.131 0.265 0.208 0.248 0.134 0.118 0.172

0.097 ns 0.080 ns 0.000** 0.005** 0.001** 0.073 ns 0.116 ns 0.021*

Correlation is significant at **0.01 level; *0.05 level; ns Not significant Dependent Variable: Frequency of hawking per week [(a) Daily; (b) Once a week; (c) Twice a week; (d) Thrice a week; (e) Weekend only]

Even though many of the girls indicated that hawking did not have any impact on their schooling, further enquiries show that the girls use the opportunity of hawking to play with their friends and did not consider it as a negative impact on their schooling. The results of regression analysis showed that frequency of hawking per week of the girls actually made them tired and prevented them from reading. Also, hawking made the girls hungry which has greatest impacts on their listening and concentration in class. However, majority of the girls said that hawking does not affect their education. This may be that the girls are too young to know the negative consequences hawking may have on their educational career in the future. Little emphasis is placed on going to school while more emphasis in placed on reducing immediate financial burden on the family through hawking. 48

Bequele and Myers (1995) suggest that children differ from adults because they are still growing up and the process of normal development can be damaged by negative conditions. The concept of work hazard must therefore be child centred in that beyond the immediate jeopardy, lie negative impacts on emotional development, cognitive development such as lack of schooling, social and moral development. Responses of the market women on their past involvement in hawking were used to deduce impacts of hawking on the future of girl child hawkers presently in school. Almost all the women (99.2%) combined hawking with schooling when they were below 18 years. Also, more than 81.7% of the market women hawked every day of the week including weekends. This is the same trend of hawking as the sampled girl hawkers. Unlike the girls, since the women now know the value of education, majority of them agreed that hawking affected their schooling and overall education having reflected on their past and their present condition. One of the ways by which hawking affected the women was by making them tired. Lots of the energy was expended on hawking therefore lead to tiredness and prevented them from reading and doing homework. Hawking also made the women hungry, sleepy in class, miss classes and discouraged them from going to school. All these cumulatively lead to poor performance in their education. These results are the same with the outcome of the regression analysis for the girls. Many of the women did not complete their education (drop out of school), while those that completed did not have good result and could not proceed. Some that completed the primary education with good grade could not proceed due to the challenges of household poverty level and the issue of parents having preference for sending the boys to school instead of girls. Some of the women informed that they were asked to hawk while the money they realized was used to send the male child to school. Women were believed to end up as full housewives which need no formal education. The fear is that if these observations in the women are not checked in the girls, many of the girls in primary schools will terminate their education at that level, if they manage to complete, without proceeding to secondary school. Those in secondary schools will either drop out of school or end up as petty traders due to poor performance resulting from negative impacts of hawking and household chores.

49

4.1.11. Dangers that the Girls are Exposed to while Hawking The Girl Child faces multiple dangers whenever she goes outside her home to hawk, some as identified by Farlex (2009) are listed as follows: i. The young girl is open to sexual abuse in form of rape, harassment and molestation in the

course of which she most probably looses her dignity to shameless men who take advantage of her. As if that is not enough, such a girl, now becomes street wise and most often goes after men with outrageous passion into commercial sex, thereby learning anti social and criminal behaviour. The men of course compensate the young girl generously for such services and in that way hawking is only a front. ii. The young girl hawker forfeits education for hawking. She looses the opportunity to attend

schools and thereby loosing all the benefits of education. Not surprising that she grows up into an ignorant, raw and barbaric young lady in principles and attitudes. iii. The girl hawkers learns many societal vices on the streets and is exposed to deviant

behaviour while street hawking which turns her into juvenile delinquent at a very early age. iv. Street hawking also exposes the girls to dangers posed by fraudsters and ritual murderers

because of her vulnerability and odd hawking hours. She falls easily into personal jeopardy, harsh and hazardous conditions such as becoming an easy target to occult predators (ritual killers). v. Because of the dangerous life street hawking poses to the girl, she is vulnerable to the

deadly diseases such as HIV--AIDS and or lesser dangerous sexually transmitted diseases through coercive sex.

The girls were asked to inform on their experiences while hawking. A girl said that she use to come across ritual offerings at crossroads during hawking; the believe is that there is negative repercussions on anybody who come across such things. One of the girls sampled on the street also relayed her nasty experience with a mad-man thus: “I once met a mad-man on a deserted road and I walked pass him. As I was going, the next thing I felt was a smack on my buttocks, when I looked back, it was the mad man that smacked me. What I did was to pick a stone and threw at him. I think he will attack me but he just laughed and walked away.” Another girl stated her experience of two men stealing her ware thus 50

Two men called me with intention to buy the kerosene I was hawking. They bought a bottle of kerosene and gave me N200. A bottle cost N70 and I have no change on me by then so they asked me to leave my ware and look for change around. But before I came back the remaining twelve bottles of kerosene (worth N840) and the men had vanished. These revelations corroborate some of the dangers identified by Farlex (2009) listed above. 4.2. RESPONSE OF MARKET WOMEN ON HAWKING 4.2.1. Demographic information of the market women The minimum age of the sampled market women was 20 years; the maximum age was 66 years, while their mean age is 42.3 years. About 10.8% of the market women were 45 years old, 95.0% were married while 74.2% had primary education. Almost half of all the women 48.4% of the women engaged in petty trading and 44.2% engaged in retail trading. 4.2.2. Hawking by the market women About 99.2% of the market women hawked while they were young and below the age of 18 years. Also, 99.2% of them combined hawking with schooling. From these results, it could be deduced that many of the women that engaged in trading activities in local markets at Ibadan hawked while they were young and carried out the hawking alongside their schooling. 4.2.3. Information about hawking while schooling by market women Since many of the many women indicated that they combined hawking activities with schooling when they were below 18 years of age, further questions were asked to find out when the hawking was carried out. More than half (55.8%) of the women indicated that they never hawked in the morning before going to school, and 61.7% indicated that they did not engage in hawking during school hours. Moreover, more than 82.5% of the women engaged in hawking all the time after school hours; more than 30.0% hawked only on weekends; and more than 81.7% hawked every day of the week including weekends.

51

4.2.4. Effect of hawking on schooling of market women About 95.0% of the market women responded that hawking affected their schooling. Although, 54% of the women responded that hawking sometimes prevents them from reading, yet 43.3% of the women indicated that hawking rarely make them fail in school. More than 45% of the women indicated that hawking sometimes make them tired while more than 35% indicated that hawking makes them to be tired all the time (Table 18). More than 57% of the women indicated that hawking occupied their time all the time while more than 50% indicated that hawking sometimes make them sleepy in class. More than half of the women indicated that hawking never discouraged them from going to school and/or made them miss classes. More than 63.5% agree that hawking sometimes make them hungry. The women indicated that hawking sometimes prevent them from doing their school homework (71.7%), this is due to the fact that many of them spent many hours hawking after closing from school and sometimes return home lately.

Table 18: Response of market women on influence of hawking on their schooling S/N Options n = All the Sometim Rarely Never Undecided 120 time e i. Prevents me from Freq 10 86 7 17 0 doing my homework % 8.3 71.7 5.8 14.2 0 ii. Makes me fail at Freq 2 32 52 34 0 school % 1.7 26.7 43.3 28.3 0 iii. Makes me tired Freq 43 55 7 15 0 % 35.8 45.8 5.8 12.5 0 iv. Prevents me from Freq 28 65 17 10 0 reading % 23.3 54.2 14.2 8.3 0 v. Occupies my time Freq 69 32 9 10 0 % 57.5 26.7 7.5 8.3 0 vi. Makes me sleepy in Freq 5 61 30 24 0 class % 4.2 50.8 25.0 20.0 0 vii. Discourages me from Freq 3 23 43 51 0 going to school % 2.5 19.2 35.8 42.5 0 viii. Make me hungry Freq 3 75 10 32 0 % 2.5 63.5 8.3 26.7 0 ix. Makes me miss classes Freq 3 40 41 36 0 % 2.5 33.3 34.2 30.0 0 x. Makes me stopped Freq 7 9 27 71 6 going to school % 5.8 7.5 22.5 59.2 5.0

52

4.2.5. Perception of market women toward hawking by girls About 61% of the market women agree that girls should hawk to support the family. Majority of the women (63.3%) agree that children should hawk to support their parents financially due to the economic condition of the country; therefore, 62.5% of the women agree that a girl child should hawk because it reduces the financial burden on parents. Despite this 52.5% of the women also agree that a girl child that is bringing in money for parents will disrespect the parents. Furthermore, 55.0% agree that hawking as a girl to help in family is good training, but 63.3% of the women disagree that girls should do any kind of work that will bring in money to support the family.

On the issue of engaging school age girls in hawking, 57.5% of the women agree that hawking will not affect the school performance of girl child while 56.7% disagree that hawking to earn money negatively affects the educational performance of the child. Half of all the women agree that child should hawk for a specific period each day; and also support that a girl child should go to school during the week and hawk to earn money during weekends.

More than half of the women (64.2%) agree that hawking makes a girl child wise and know a lot about life but 68.5% disagree that hawking is a way of keeping the child busy. Only half of all the sampled women (50.0%) support that a girl child is young and should therefore not hawk, but on the contrary, 58.3% agree that hawking is not a strenuous job and 61.7% also agree that physically healthy child will not have problems while hawking. Lastly, 53.3% of the market women disagree that hawking as a girl child makes her independent.

53

Table 19: Perception of market women toward hawking by girl child S/N

Perception

n = Agre 120 e i. Children should hawk to support Freq 73 the family % 60.8 ii. Children should hawk to support Freq 76 their parents financially due to the % 63.3 economic condition of the country iii. Children should do any kind of Freq 43 work that will bring in money to % 35.8 support the family iv. A child should hawk because it Freq 75 reduces the financial burden on % 62.5 parents v. A child that is bringing in money Freq 63 for parents will disrespect the % 52.5 parents vi. Hawking as a child to help in Freq 66 family is good training. % 55.0 vii. Hawking will not affect the school Freq 69 performance of girl child % 57.5 viii. A child should hawk for a specific Freq 61 period each day % 50.8 ix. A child should go to school during Freq 60 the week and hawk to earn money % 50.0 during weekends x. Hawking to earn money negatively Freq 51 affects the educational performance % 42.5 of the child xii. Hawking makes a child wise and Freq 77 know a lot about life % 64.2 xiii. Hawking is a way of keeping the Freq 39 child busy % 32.5 xiv. A child is young and should Freq 60 therefore not hawk % 50.0 xv. A physically healthy child will not Freq 74 have problems while hawking. % 61.7 xvi. Hawking is not a strenuous job Freq 47 % 39.2 xvii. A child should hawk but not all the Freq 63 time % 52.5 xviii. Hawking as a child makes you Freq 54 independent % 45.0

Disagree

Undecided

46 38.3 42 35.0

1 0.8 2 1.7

76 63.3

1 0.8

43 35.8

2 1.7

49 40.8

8 6.7

53 44.2 49 40.8 57 47.5 59 49.2

1 0.8 2 1.7 2 1.7 1 0.8

68 56.7

1 0.8

36 30.0 79 65.8 59 49.2 42 35.0 70 58.3 56 46.7 64 53.3

7 5.8 2 1.7 1 0.8 3 2.5 3 2.5 1 0.8 2 1.7 54

4.3. RESPONSE OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS ON HAWKING BY GIRLS This section presents opinion and views of school administrators on impacts of hawking and household chores on schooling and education of school age girls in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. 4.3.1. Observation on the trend of enrolment of girls to boys in the school within the past five years In some schools the enrollment of girls is higher than the boys while in some the number of boys is higher than girls. Reasonable number of boys and girls are registered and they equally compete favourably in the class.

4.3.2. Opinion on hawking among school age girls The administrators informed that parents sent their girl child to hawk due to poor economic situation in the State. Among the negative impacts that hawking predispose the school age girls to are sexual abuse, rape, kidnap, impregnation, armed robbery, among others. They recommended that hawking should be discouraged and stopped by the government while adequate provision is made for peoples’ welfare.

4.3.3. Ways hawking affect schooling and education of girl child On the ways by which hawking affect schooling and education of the girls, the administrators responded that the school age girl that engages in hawking will not concentrate on her studies. Also, the girls are unnecessarily exposed to making money early in life and this will make them think all that glitters is gold, some even misbehave due to consciousness that they have some money kept somewhere. Hawking also take much of the time supposed to be used for studies by the girls and most of the affected girls do not perform well in school. At times, the girls may be too tired that it affects their concentration in classroom activities. Moreover, hawking makes the girls feel inferior to her mates, this was observed in the selected schools by some of the declined to respond to the questionnaires. Despite the negative effects of hawking in the life of the girls, there are some benefits depending on set goals by parent/guardian of such girl e.g. it assists those that may eventually choose business administration as a profession. Notwithstanding, in order to eliminate the impacts of hawking on schooling and education of girl child, the administrators recommended that the government should make arrangement for its total eradication through the law and law enforcement agencies. 55

4.3.4. Support available in school for girl hawkers to assist them in their schooling A number of the administrators informed that they preach to the girls to give their studies a top place on their priority list, and also appeal to their parents through the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) to always allow them to rest and go for extra lessons after school hours, either organized by the school or other individuals elsewhere. There is literary and debating activities to enlighten and sensitize all the students about effects of hawking in their life. One of the sampled schools informed that they invite the girls and their parents for counselling; this counselling is done by teachers and some voluntary organizations. Moral talk organized by many of the sampled schools during the morning devotion is also helpful. Another mechanism put in place by some school authorities to checkmate truancy resulting from hawking by girl child was by sending fellow pupils to follow up such a girl; this is to encourage them to come to school.

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CHAPTER FIVE 5.0. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. CONCLUSION The study confirmed involvement of girls in hawking in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. The girls are sent out to hawk by their parents or guardians to earn money for the family so as to make ends meet. The girls hawk on the daily basis after closing from schools and on weekends; this predisposed them to dangers and risks as well as affected their schooling. Many of these children are not in schools and even when they attend schools, they have little or no time to read at home or do their assignments as a result of long hours spent on hawking. Suffice to say that the danger which hawking poses to girls cannot be understated. Girls are open to sexual abuse in form of rape, harassment and molestation and also exposed to danger by fraudsters and ritual murderers due to their exposure, vulnerability and their odd hawking hours. The girls’ self esteem and dignity which is supposed to give them the ability to relate to their environment has been damaged as they now consider themselves less fortunate than their peers who do not hawk. Consequently, these children become street wise; they learn many societal vices on the streets and are exposed to deviant behaviours while hawking which turns them into juvenile criminals at their very early age. These girl hawkers are made to forfeit education for hawking. They lose the opportunity to attend schools and the benefits of education, thereby, growing up into ill-mannered, uncivilized and barbaric young people in principles and attitudes. 5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS Base on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: 1. There is need for appropriate implementation of the Government policy of “free and compulsory” education in Ibadan and other parts of the country. The Oyo State and its Local Governments must implement the UBE programme of free, compulsory and universal basic education for every child of primary and junior secondary school age as endorsed under the World Declaration on Education for All (EFA), and the Framework for Action. Policies should be put in place so that every parent must ensure his/her child or ward attends and completes (a) primary school education; and (b) junior secondary school education as 57

stipulated under UBE. Every parent or person who has the care and custody of a child performs the duty imposed on him/her under the Universal Basic Education Act, 2004. NGOs have a role to play in this by monitoring the enforcement of this law and to conduct community outreaches to educate people on dangers of hawking and excessive household chores. 2. The practice of sending girls (boys by extension) away from homes to relations without assurance of continuing their education should be checked. Also, sending girls to work as domestic workers should be stopped. Parents should look for alternative ways to sustain their livelihoods rather than subjecting their daughters to hardship. Parents should be made to understand that child labour is dangerous, harmful or hazardous to them physically, psychologically, socially and morally, as well as interferes with their education and consequently their future life. 3. There is need for advocacy campaigns to educate parents and guardians on the dangers of street hawking to children. Due to their vital roles in the society, the religious and traditional leaders should be sensitised and involved in the campaign against street and market hawking. 4. Schools should put more effort in the fight against street and market hawking. When pupils (especially girls) are out of school or absent from school, there should be proper arrangement for follow-up. When children are also not concentrating or always sleep in class, such a child should be interrogated on the activities she engages in the previous day(s). If the reason was hawking, parents of such a child should be sensitised on the consequences of the activities on the education of the child and her future life. 5. Since hawking may not be totally halt due to economic situation in the country, there should be a planned literacy/vocational programme in which the girl hawkers would be afforded the opportunity to attain some literacy level and at the same time acquire some vocational skills alongside their schooling. The vocational education and training should be aimed at earning a living and empowerment for self-reliance. It should also be focused on female literacy and skills acquisition therefore would go a long way in compensating the family of the girl hawkers. This would have to be done through intensive sensitization and mobilization of the public towards active participation, by the use of communication networks, traditional rulers and women organisations. 58

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